PETROGRAPHY

 involved with the description and systematic classification of rocks especially by means of microscopic
examination
 more restricted in scope than Petrology

Textures and Classification of Rocks

Textures
 refers to the
a) degree of crystallinity
holocrystalline
– composed wholly of crystals (e.g. granite)
holohyaline
– consists entirely of glass
hypocrystalline or microcrystalline
– contains both crystals and glass (e.g. lavas and shallow intrusive rocks)
microlites
– extremely minute, incipient crystals (provided they are birefringent)
crystallites
– smaller than microlites, spherical, rod-like and hair-like isotropic forms
b) grain size or granularity, and
aphanitic
– individual crystals are so fine-grained not visible to unaided eye
– if the crystals are so minute not to be distuinguishable even with the help of
microscope, the texture is called cryptocrystalline
phaneritic
– rocks coarser grain
fine →diameters of most crystals less than 1mm
medium →between 1 and 5 mm
coarse →between 5 mm and 3 cm
very coarse →more than 3 cm
c) the fabric or geometrical relationship between the constituents of a rock
 degree of crystallinity and granularity of an igneous rock reflects its history
holocrystalline rocks of medium and coarser grain are mostly plutonic
→crystallize from bodies of magma that were intruded at temp below about 800°C, and
that cooled and lost gas slowly because of their shape or depth of emplacement
→during final stages consolidation of such magmas the residual liquids may be greatly
enriched in volatiles, and their fluidity may thus be increased to such extent that
enormous crystals develop →pegmatites
 presence of glass results from extreme undercooling of the magma and a high viscosity, which impedes
the migration of ions
→abundant glass more often present in such lavas as rhyolite, dacite, and trachyte than in basaltic rocks
 fabric rocks is with the shape and mutual relationships between grains, or, in other words, with the forms
of grains and their manner of articulation
euhedral – completely bounded by crystal faces
 also called idiomorphic, or automorphic
anhedral – devoid of crystal boundaries
 also called allotriomorphic, or xenomorphic
subhedral – partly bounded by crystal faces
 also referred to as hypidiomorphic
  degree to which a grain exhibits crystal outline depends largely upon its place in the order of
crystallization
3 rules in determining order
1) when one mineral is surrounded by another, the enclosing mineral is the younger
2) early crystals are generally euhedral or at least more nearly so than later crystals
3) if both large and small crystals occur together, the large ones are those that began to
develop first
order of crystallization tends to conform with the Bowen’s reaction series
Textural terms applied to igneous rocks:
Granular Porphyritic or phyric
 most mineral are approx equidimensional or  inequigranular rocks containing large crystals
equant in fine-grained or glassy matrix which is
Panidiomorphic-granular or automorphic-granular sometimes called mesostasis
 chief minerals are euhedral Phenocrysts or insets
Allotriomorphic-granular or xenomorphic-granular  large crystals
 almost all constituents are anhedral  if phenocrysts recognizable to the unaided eye,
Hypidiomorphic-granular or hypautomorphic- they are termed megaphenocrysts
granular  if a microscope is needed to detect them, they
 the commonest granular texture are called microphenocrysts and the
 some constituents are euhedral, some corresponding texture is microporphyritic
subhedral and the rest anhedral Textures according to the character of the matrix:
Granitic – exemplified by most granites vitrophyric – if phenocrysts lie in glass matrix
Microgranitic felsophyric – if the groundmass is a dense
 developed only on a microscopic scale intergrowth of quartz and feldspar
Graphic orthophyric – groundmass feldspar not slender
 quartz intergrown wth alkali feldspar laths but have stumpy, rectangular forms
commonly cuneiform, resembling runic cumulophyric or glomeroporphyritic –
inscription at the background phenocrysts are gathered in distinct clusters
Myrmekitic Intergranular
 characterized by minute worm-like or finger-  angular interstices between feldspar are
like bodies of quartz enclosed in sodic occupied by ferromagnesian granules
plagioclase (usually oligoclase) Intersertal
Ophitic  interstices filled up with glass, cryptocrystalline
 feldspar laths, whose average length does not material, or non-granular deuteric and
exceed that of the pyroxene grains, appear to secondary minerals
be largely or entirely enclosed in pyroxene Hyalopilitic
Corona or reaction rims  typical of many lavas, in which glass occupies
 closely allied to the poikilitic texture in origin minute interspaces between microlites of
that envelop some minerals in igneous rocks feldspar in haphard orientation
Vesicles Felty or felted
 cavities formed by expanding gases in lavas  holocrystalline matrix of some dense rocks
and shallow intrusions consists of tightly appressed microlites,
Amygdules generally of feldspar, interwoven in irregular
 cavities filled with deuteric or secondary fashion
minerals such as opal, chalcendony, chlorite, Spherulites
calcite, and zeolites  radial aggregates of acicular and fibrous
 never found in plutonic rocks minerals
Sieve texture Axiolites
 marked by the presence of abundant  elongated or coalesce along a central axis
inclusions within large spongy crystals Variolitic
 more common in metamorphic rocks  radial or sheaf-like bodies in basic rocks
Clastic Protoclastic
 fractured appearance of constituents  crystal became granulated and rounded by
Pyroclastic rubbing together during differential flow
 fragmental products of volcanoes
Nomenclature and Classification
1. Chemical and Quasi-Chemical Classification
a) Silica content
Silica content as a basis
Igneous rocks divided into 3
– Acid (more than 66 % silica)
e.g. Rhyolite and Granite (72 %)
– Intermediate (52-66 %)
e.g. syenite (59 %), diorite (57 %) and monzonite (55 %)
– Basic (45-52 %)
e.g. Gabbro and Basalt (48 %)
– Ultrabasic (less than 45 %)
e.g. Peridotite (41 %)
Acid rocks are usually richer in alkalis and poorer in lime, iron, and magnesia than
basic ones
Acid rocks generally paler in color owing to a smaller content of ferromagnesian
minerals
b) Alumina-saturation principle
alumina the second most abundant constituent of an igneous rock
4 groups:
a. Peraluminous
 molecular proportion of alumina exceeds the proportion of soda,
potash and lime combined
 excess alumina find its way into muscovite, biotite, corundum,
tourmaline, topaz, or iron-manganese garnet
 develop from acid hydrous magmas of fairly low temp
b. Metaluminous
 proportion of alumina exceeds that of soda plus potash but is usually
less than that of alkalis plus lime
 some of the alumina goes to hornblende, epidote, or melilite, or else
aluminous and non-aluminous minerals found side by side (e.g. biotite
and olivine)

c. Subaluminus
  little or no excess of alumina over that requisite to crystallization of
feldspars and feldspathoids
 dark mineral are olivine, orthorhombic pyroxene, and diopside
 derived from hot and comparatively anhydrous magmas
d. Peralkaline
 alumina less than that of soda plus potash
 dark minerals are sodic amphiboles and sodic pyroxenes (such as
riebeckite and aegerite)
c) Normative classification
referred to as normative or CIPW
norm of constituents as distinct from mode (the actual mineral composition)
2. Classification Based on Mode of Occurrence
a. Effusive rocks
b. Dike rocks (hypabyssal to others)
c. Deep-seated rocks
3. Textural Classification
a. Fine-grained (less than 1 mm)
b. Coarse-grained
4. Quantitative
a. Color as basis
proportion of light and dark minerals in a rock
basic rocks, because of greater content of ferromagnesian minerals are darker than
intermediate and acid rocks
(it should be remembered, however, that even ultrabasic rocks, such as dunite, which is
composed almost wholly of olivine, may be quite pale in hand specimen and virtually
colorless in thin section)
Quite unsatisfactory as a guide to their composition
broadly speaking, minerals light in color are also light in weight and most of them
contain no iron or magnesia
light-colored as felsic and dark ones mafic
4 rock types:
– Leucocratic (less than 30 % mafic minerals)
– Mesocratic (30-60 %)
– Melanocratic (60-90 %)
– Hypermelanic (more than 90 %)
b. Feldspars as basis
c. Quartz as basis
typically set as 10 %

The Gabbro Clan

 divided into 2:
1) Calcalkali Gabbro Clans
– much more abundant
– composed chiefly of plagioclase more calcin than Ab1An1
– containing augite, hypersthenes, and olivine as typical mafic constituents
– include “normal” gabbros, diabases and basalts
2) Alkali Gabbro Clans
– silica-poor, alkali-rich rocks
– indices more than 70
– intermediate such as trachytes and phonolites
– coarse-grained equivalents include syenites and feldspathoidal syenites
Basalts and Diabases
(The term “diabase” as used in America and Germany is synonymous with “dolerite” as used in England. Refer to
altered dolerite in which the feldspar are saussuritized or albitized and the pyroxenes are more or less replaced by
amphibole and chlorite)
Calcakali basalts and Diabases
– most abundant of all volcanic rocks
– principal products of shield volcanoes
 – predominate among lavas of orogenic belts
– discharged from swarms of fissure they build enormous plateaus
– equivalents are diabases most of which forms sills and dikes, likewise predominate among all shallow
intrusive rocks
Textures of Calcalkali basalts and diabases
– basalts are fine-grained
– diabases medium-grained
– mode of occurrence basic distinction
– range from holohyaline to holocrystalline
– basic glasses termed tachylyte or sideromelane if nearly anhydrous; if containing abundant water
absorbed while cooling, are called palagonite
– porphyritic texture widespread
2 groups of Calcalkali Basalts and Diabases
1) undersaturated or olivine-bearing varieties
– predominate among the lavas of oceanic volcanoes
– widespread in the forelands and backlands of orogenic belts
– commonly accompanied by alkaline differentiates such as trachyte and phonolite
2) saturated or slightly oversaturated ones
– olivine-free and olivine-poor types
– aka tholeiites
– predominate among the plateau-building lavas
– associated closely with calcakaline differentiates such as andesite, dacite, and rhyolite
Tholeiitic Basalts and Diabases
Tholeiitic lavas
 are fine-grained
 common among the basalts of orogenic belts
 consist essentially of labradorite, clinopyroxene, and iron ore
 olivine generally absent
 textures range from glassy to holocrystalline
 chief being intersertal, intergranular, and ophitic
 phenocrysts unusual
Tholeiitic diabases
 generally subaluminous rocks
 saturated or slightly oversaturated with silica
 pyroxenes generally are of 3 kinds
1) augite
2) pigeonite
3) orthopyroxene
Gabbros and Related Rocks
in most coarse-grained gabbros and their medium-grained equivalents (microgabbros), the chief mineral
is plagioclase more calcic than Ab1 An1
typical mafic constituents (in order of abundance) are:
augite
hypersthenes
olivene
gabbros rarely contain hornblende and biotite (the characteristic mafic minerals of diorites)
so-called normal gabbros composed principally of labradorite and augite or diallage
gabbros in w/c hypersthenes predominates over clinopyroxene are called norites
eucrites→in which both kinds of pyroxene are present but the plagioclase is more calcic than labradorite
troctolites→composed almost solely of olivine and labradorite or bytownite
allivates→essentially olivine-anorthite rocks
pyroxene gabbros pass into anorthosites by reduction of their color indeces to 10
if the volume of quartz exceeds 10 %, the rocks are called quartz gabbros and quartz norites.
If the amount is less, they are simply called “quartz bearing”
Increase of color indeces to more than 70 gabbros and norites pass into melagabbros and melanorites
The Alkali Gabbro Clan
Fine-grained types
1) Trachybasalts
characterized by the presence of olivine and augite, by plagioclase more calcic than andesine and
by potash feldspar (orthoclase, sanidine, and or anorthoclase) amounting to more than 10 %
some are effusive equivalents of the dike rocks known as minittes
2) Spilites
consist essentially of divergent laths of albite or oligoclase, some of which may be bent,
accompanied by granular or platy ilmenite that is largely changed to leucoxene, and by abundant
chlorite, calcite, and epidote
3) Basanites and Tephrites
plagioclase-bearing basic lavas in which feldspathoids make up more than 10 % by volume
rocks of similar composition, but containing soda-rich glass instead of feldspathoids are called
basanitoids
4) Nephelinites and Leucites
lavas, shallow intrusive, and pyroclastic rocks in which feldspar either is absent or at most makes
up 10 % by volume
The Cardinal Rule of Thin Sections
What you see in thin section is a random cross-section through a grain whose properties vary in three dimensions.
Therefore, always view as many grains of a mineral as possible to get an idea of the total range of properties you
observe. Also, bear in mind that you may not get a grain that displays some property to optimum effect.
Color
Color in thin section tends to be more consistent than in hand
specimen. Most major rock forming minerals are colorless (A).
Some have distinctive colors (B). Some minerals like hematite (C)
which appear opaque in hand specimen are transparent on thin
edges in thin section. The most common truly opaque minerals
(D) are metallic oxides (magnetite, ilmenite) and sulfides (pyrite).

Pleochroism
Colored minerals often show different colors in thin section
depending on how the grain is oriented relative to the polarizer
directions.

Top: Most minerals change from lighter to darker as the stage is

rotated.

Middle: Some minerals change color entirely as the grain is

rotated.

Bottom: In a few cases the color change is so extreme that the

mineral is, in effect, a natural polarizer. Thin slices of tourmaline
were often used as polarizing filters before good synthetic filters
became available.

Relief
 Relief is the contrast between a mineral and its surroundings due
to difference in refractive index. The four grains shown here show
increasing relief clockwise from left.

Relief is positive when the grain has higher refractive index than
its surroundings, negative if lower. Negative relief compared to
quartz, feldspar and normal slide mounting media is relatively
rare. A few silicates show small negative relief, but strong
negative relief is limited mostly to non-silicates like fluorite.

Becke Line
If a grain is not perfectly in focus, it will often appear to be bordered by a bright line called the Becke Line. The
Becke Line is useful for determining which of two neighboring grains has the highest refractive index.

A grain that has greater refractive index than its

surroundings will refract and relect light inward like a
crude lens.
If the focal plane of the microscope is centered within
the thin section (purple line) the grain boundary is in
sharp focus (left).
If the focal plane is too high, rays that would normally
appear at the grain boundary now appear inside it and a
bright border appears inside the grain (center).
If the focal plane is too low, rays that would normally
appear at the grain boundary now appear outside it and
a bright border appears outside the grain (right).

A grain that has lower refractive index than its

surroundings will refract and relect light outward like a
crude diverging lens.
 If the focal plane of the microscope is centered
within the thin section (purple line) the grain boundary
is in sharp focus (left).
 If the focal plane is too high, rays that would
normally appear at the grain boundary now appear
outside it and a bright border appears outside the grain
(center).
 If the focal plane is too low, rays that would normally
appear at the grain boundary now appear inside it and a
bright border appears inside the grain (right).

To sum up: As you move away from the thin section (raising the objective or lowering the stage), the Becke Line
appears to move into the material with greater refractive index. Although it's not a wholly accurate analogy,
picture the grain focusing rays like a lens and picture what happens as you move along the cone of converging rays.
 Minerals may be surrounded by grains of both higher
and lower refractive index, so the Becke Line may move
both in and out around the margins of a grain.

Carbonates have a maximum refractive index much

higher than most rock forming minerals, and a minimum
index much lower. It shows high relief all around, but
some is positive and some is negative. A lone carbonate
grain in a uniform mounting medium will still show a
Becke Line that moves in along some parts of the grain
boundary and out along others.

Cleavage
Cleavage is much easier to see in thin section than in hand specimen.
Cleavage along the length of the grain is exhibited by many minerals (A).
Pyroxenes viewed end on (B) usually show the characteristic 87-degree
cleavage, while cross-sections of amphibole show the characteristic 56-
degree cleavage (C).

What you see will depend on the orientation of the grain. A true cross-
section of an amphibole will show 56-degree cleavages but an oblique
section will show other angles and a longitudinal section will show
longitudinal cleavage as in (A).

Crystal Form
Grains that show no recognizable crystal form are said to be anhedral (A).
Grains that show imperfect but recognizable crystal form are said to be
subhedral (B).
Grains that show sharp and clear crystal form are said to be euhedral (C).

Identification Table for Common Minerals in Thin Section

Definition of Descriptive Terms

Index of Refraction Birefringence
Descriptive Term Range of Values Descriptive Term Range of Values Interference Color
Very low Below 1.51 Very low Less than .006 1 Black to Gray
Low 1.51 - 1.571 Low .006 - 014 1 White-Yellow
Moderate 1.571 - 1,620 Moderate .014 - .020 1 Red - 2 Blue
Moderately high 1.621 - 1.650 Moderately high .021 - .025 2 Green - Yellow
High 1.653 - 1.73 High .025 - .045 2 Orange - 3 Green
Very high l.731 - 1.90 Very high .045 - .060 3 Green - 4 Green
Extremely high Above 1.90 Extremely high .06 or higher 4 Green and up

Summary of Colorless Minerals

 3 Gr - 4
R.I. \ Int. Color 1 Blk-Gray 1 Wh-Y 1 R - 2 Bl 2 Gr - Y 2 Or - 3 Gr 4 Gr +
Gr
Leucite,
Analcite,
Very low
Fluorite,
Sodalite
Quartz,
Cancrinite,
Low Nepheline Cordierite,
Scapolite
Feldspars
Muscovite,
Moderate Tremolite
Talc
Topaz,
Moderately high Apatite Anthophyllite
Wollasonite
Olivine
Enstatite,
(Forsterite),
Kyanite,
High Sillimanite Diopside,
Clinozoisite,
Augite,
Zoisite
Pigeonite
Very high Garnet
Calcite,
Extremely high Zircon
Aragonite

Summary of Colored Minerals

3 Gr - 4
R.I. \ Int. Color 1 Blk-Gray 1 Wh-Y 1 R - 2 Bl 2 Gr - Y 2 Or - 3 Gr 4 Gr +
Gr
Noselite,
Very low
Hauynite
Low
Moderate Chlorite
Moderately high Actinolite Tourmaline
Epidote,
Chloritoid, Hedenbergite,
High Spinel Hypersthene Hornblende, Acmite
Andalusite Humite
Glaucophane
Very high Staurolite Piedmontite Fayalite
Sphene
Extremely high (Titanite),
Rutile

Distinguishing the Feldspars

The Principal Feldspars
Potassium Feldspars: KAlSi3O8
 Microcline
 Orthoclase
 Sanidine
Plagioclase Series
 Albite: NaAlSi3O8
 Anorthite CaAl2Si2O8
 Other plagioclases form a continuous solid-solution series with any mixture of albite and
anorthite possible. The composition of plagioclase is usually described in terms of the anorthite
component. The plagioclase series consists of:
 Albite: 0-10% anorthite
  Oligoclase: 10-30% anorthite
 Andesine: 30-50% anorthite
 Labradorite: 50-70% anorthite
 Bytownite: 70-90% anorthite
 Anorthite: 90-100% anorthite.
Mixtures of Feldspars
 Anorthoclase: a solid solution of about equal proportions of K-feldspar and albite.
 Perthite: an exsolution texture with K-feldspar enclosing plagioclase. If the texture is very fine it can be
termed microperthite or cyptoperthite.
 Antiperthite: an exsolution texture with plagioclase enclosing K-feldspar.
 Peristerite: a microscopic- or smaller-scale exsolution texture in albite-rich plagioclase.
Other Feldspars
 Celsian: BaAl2Si2O8
 Hyalophane: (K,Na,Ba)(Al,Si)4O8
 The feldspar structure consists of zigzag chains of silica (and aluminum) tetrahedra enclosing rather large
spaces where the alkali cations occur. The enclosing spaces are large, thus only large cations can be
retained and there are no iron or magnesium feldspars. The closest mineral in composition to an iron-
magnesium feldspar is probably the iron-manganese aluminosilicate cordierite, which has a completely
different and unrelated structure.
Summary of Feldspar Occurrence
Potassium Feldspars: KAlSi3O8
 Microcline: The principal potassium feldspar in granitic and metamorphic rocks. The low-temperature
potassium feldspar.
 Orthoclase: A high-temperature polymorph found in volcanic rocks and high-temperature metamorphic
rocks.
 Sanidine: The highest-temperature polymorph of potassium feldspar, found in volcanic rocks and very
high-temperature metamorphic rocks.
Plagioclase Series
 Albite (0-10% anorthite) is found mostly in very Na-rich environments. It forms from more anorthite-rich
plagioclase by ion-exchange with sea water, and as an authigenic mineral in marine sedimentary rocks.
Magmas are rarely sufficiently Na-rich to form albite.
 Oligoclase (10-30% anorthite) is the principal plagioclase in granitic rocks.
 Andesine (30-50% anorthite) is the principal plagioclase in intermediate rocks.
 Labradorite (50-70% anorthite) is the principal plagioclase in gabbroic rocks and anorthosites.
 Bytownite (70-90% anorthite) is the least common plagioclase. It is too calcic to form from most magmas
and too sodic to form in most metamorphic rocks. It is the first feldspar to form in mafic magmas and may
be present in the cores of zoned feldspars. It also forms from sodic metasomatism of metamorphic rocks.
 Anorthite (90-100% anorthite) is too calcic to form magmatically and forms mostly from metamorphism of
calc-silicate rocks.
Mixtures of Feldspars
 Anorthoclase: a solid solution of about equal proportions of K-feldspar and albite. Generally a high-
temperature mineral. The sodium-rich equivalent of orthoclase and sanidine.
 Perthite is widely found in microcline in granitic rocks.

Other Feldspars
 Celsian: BaAl2Si2O8 and Hyalophane: (K,Na,Ba)(Al,Si)4O8 are rare and found, for some reason, mostly in
manganese or deposits.
Crystal Class
Microcline Triclinic
Orthoclase Monoclinic
Sanidine Monoclinic
Anorthoclase Triclinic

Albite Triclinic
Oligoclase Triclinic
Andesine Triclinic
Labradorite Triclinic
Bytownite Triclinic
Anorthite Triclinic

Quartz and Its Look-Alikes

It's an unfortunate fact of life for beginning optical mineralogy students that a number of common minerals all
have low relief and first-order gray interference colors. Here are some ways to tell them apart.

Quartz
Quartz in thin section is generally very clean looking
without many inclusions. It frequently shows undulose
extinction (A, right) or slightly yellowish interference
colors (B).

Potassium Feldspar
Potassium feldspar often shows good cleavage (A, left)
and has a "dusty" appearance from tiny alteration
inclusions (B). If "tartan" twinning is visible (A, right) the
identification is certain. The inclusions often consist of
sericite, or fine-grained muscovite, and show high
interference colors (B)

Plagioclase Feldspar
 Plagioclase feldspars also have good cleavage (A, left) and a
dusty appearance from inclusions. They often show
compositional zoning (A, right), but their most diagnostic
feature is prominent lamellar twinning (B). The inclusions
commonly turn out to be tiny crystals of epidote (C).

If your feldspar lacks twinning, it can be hard to tell them apart. Usually the dusty appearance, cleavage and
alteration separate them from quartz. Sometimes the easiest approach is to use one of several staining methods.
Nepheline
Nepheline never occurs with quartz, unlike the other minerals shown here. It is most often found in silica poor
igneous rocks that are rich in alkali feldspar. Nepheline is uniaxial, but in contrast to quartz is optically negative. It
lacks cleavage, distinguishing it from the feldspars. Nepheline commonly alters to cancrinite, a Na- and Ca- bearing
aluminosilicate. Cancrinite typically shows first order interference colors but the crystals are typically much larger
than the very fine sericite grains that form in K-feldspar, and are easily distinguishable.
Cordierite
Cordierite often shows dendritic "pinite" alteration along
cracks (A, left). Yellow pleochroic halos around
radioactive inclusions like zircon are common (B) as is
yellowish alteration along cracks (C). Opaque inclusions
are also common (D).

On the right cordierite is compared with plagioclase (A),

microcline (B), perthite (C) and quartz (not labeled).

Biotite

Plane-Polarized Light
 Moderate relief
 Orange, brown or dark green (A)
 Perfect micaceous cleavage
  May be dark pleochroic halos around inclusions of zircon or other mildly radioactive minerals (B)
Crossed Polarizers
 Second-and third-order interference colors usually not strikingly evident because of the strong natural
coloration.
 Mottling common, giving the mineral a gnarly or "birds-eye maple" texture (A)
 May be dark pleochroic halos around inclusions of zircon or other mildly radioactive minerals (B)

Biotite in plane polarized light. This biotite is very green. Note the mottled texture.

Same field in crossed polarizers. The appearance is A plane polarized light view of biotite ranging from
dominated by the deep color and changes little. light yellow-green to dark green in color. Note the
good cleavage.

Plane polarized light. This biotite is very

pleochroic and changes color from light greenish
brown to nearly opaque.
 Biotite is often brown. The specimen below, seen in
Same field in crossed polarizers. Light biotite grains plane polarized light, ranges from light tan to red-brown
can show appreciable interference color. in color. Numerous pleochroic haloes around small
zircon inclusions can be seen.

Same field in crossed polarizers. This relatively light

biotite shows obvious second-order colors, though
somewhat modified by the natural color.

The two specimens below show biotite of different shades dotted with numerous dark haloes around zircon
inclusions.
Olivine

Plane-Polarized Light
 Moderately high relief
 Clear, occasionally very light yellowish or greenish
 No cleavage
 Commonly rimmed with greenish alteration products (A)
 Internal fracturing of grains common (B)
 Never occurs with quartz
Crossed Polarizers
 Bright second-and third-order interference colors.
 Alteration products tend to have low interference colors.
Below is a typical view of olivine in plane polarized light. Note the high relief and the low-relief alteration
products between grains.
Same field in crossed polars, showing the "stained glass window" appearance.

Muscovite

Plane-Polarized Light
 Low relief
 Clear
 Perfect micaceous cleavage
Crossed Polarizers
 Bright second-and third-order interference colors
 Generally not as much mottling as biotite.

Both muscovite and biotite are present in the plane-polarized view below. The muscovite is barely visible.

Where there are no dark minerals, muscovite in plane- In crossed polarizers, muscovite generally has vivid
polarized light is nearly invisible. It shows up only by its second- and third-order colors. The interference colors
slightly higher relief than quartz and feldspar. of biotite are a bit lower order and more subdues
because of biotite's coloration. Note the relative lack of
 mottling in the muscovite compared to the biotite.

The same field in crossed polarizers. The bright outlines

are thin edges where the muscovite shows only first-
order white colors because of its thinness.

Below are two more fairly typical crossed-polarizer views of muscovite.

Diopside

The rounded grains with good cleavage in the plane- Same field in crossed polarizers. The bright interference
polarized view below are diopside. The surrounding colors are typical, as is the occurrence. Diopside is a
material is mostly calcite. The diopside has high relief common mineral in calc-silicate marbles.
because its refractive index is strongly different from
the calcite.

Epidote

Plane-Polarized Light
High relief. Can occur as colorless irregular grains (A) or be tinted yellowish or greenish (B). Common alteration or
metamorphic mineral derived from plagioclase, and small euhedral crystals in plagioclase are common (C).
Piemontite, an uncommon manganese-bearing epidote, is one of the showpieces of geology. It has a dazzling
pleochroism in yellow, orange, red and magenta (D). It cannot be mistaken for anything else.

Crossed Polarizers
Moderately high birefringence resulting in vivid second- and third- order colors. Anomalous interference colors are
common in the variety zoisite (A). Piemontite's bright colors totally dominate its interference colors.

The euhedral light-green crystals below, seen in plane- Same field in crossed polarizers. The bright interference
polarized light, are epidote. Note the rather high relief. colors are typical.
The brightly-colored mass in the center of this view in crossed polarizers is epidote. Variegated bright interference
colors like these are typical of epidote.

Chlorite

Plane-Polarized Light
Very common mineral in low-grade metamorphic rocks and as an alteration product of ferromagnesian minerals.
Low relief, colorless to green. Light green is most common shade. Micaceous cleavage, often matted or feltlike
appearance.
Crossed Polarizers
Low birefringence results in first-order whites. Anomalous interference colors very common (A). Dark blue, brown,
purple and green are possible. Fine-grained, matted-looking varieties often show undulose extinction.

The light green mass in the center of this plane- The crossed-polarizer view below shows dark purple
polarized view is chlorite. Most of the brownish anomalous extinction colors. Chlorite is one of the most
micaceous mineral around it is biotite. common minerals to show anomalous extinction.

Another common appearance of chlorite. In this The plane-polarizer view below shows a field mostly of
crossed-polarizer view we see parallel blades of light green chlorite, with two opaque magnetite crystals
chlorite, very similar in texture to mica, but at the top.
distinguished by first-order white interference colors.
Again, we also see dark purple anomalous extinction.

The same field in crossed polarizers. The chlorite is The plane-polarizer view below is pretty typical of
actually a mass of criss-crossing small plates, giving the greenschist facies metamorphic rocks. The brown is
material a felt-like texture. This is a very common biotite, the light green is mostly chlorite, and the darker
texture in chlorite. Note that these extinction colors are green includes hornblende (note one grain with 56-124
normal. Not all chlorite shows anomalous extinction. cleavage just below left center).
In the crossed-polarizer view below, the chlorite stands In the impure quartzite below, the clay filling between
out because of its anomalous extinction colors. the quartz grains has been metamorphosed to bright
green chlorite.

The same field in crossed polarizers. The chlorite

is a fine-grained felt-like mass showing first-
ordred whites and normal extinction colors.
Cordierite

Plane-Polarized Light
A ferromagnesian metamorphic mineral that can easily be confused with quartz and feldspar. Occurs in low-
pressure metamorphic rocks and contact metamorphic rocks. Also occurs in granulite facies rocks. Most references
cite one of the two occurrences and seem blissfully unaware of the other. It appears that dry conditions rather
than any specific pressure favors the formation of cordierite. Since it's a magnesium aluminum silicate, we might
expect water to favor biotite instead. Distinguishing characteristics:
Commonly shows feathery alteration veinlets ("pinite" - A).
Pleochroic yellow halos around inclusions of zircon are common (B).
Iron-staining alteration along cracks (C).
Often has numerous spinel inclusions (D).
Crossed Polarizers
In relief and interference color, looks much like quartz and feldspar. However:
Quartz lacks alteration
Plagioclase can be distinguished by its lamellar twinning (A).
Microcline can be distinguished by its tartan twinning (B).
Feldspars often have perthitic texture (C).
Pinite is mostly muscovite and shows high interference colors.

Cordierite in plane-polarized light. Note the low relief, In crossed polarizers we see the corierite is riddled with
the abundant opaque inclusions and the orange small quartz inclusions. They don't show up well in
alteration along cracks. plane polarized light because quartz and cordierite
have nearly the same refractive index. Note the first-
order grayish white, very similar to the interference
color of quartz.