Pavement Performance

Why use rheology?

Pavement Materials II
2006
27– 30 November
 What do we need to consider
in flexible pavement design?
• Optimize for functional,
environmental and economic
considerations of the materials
• Understanding of material behaviour
and performance for a given set of
conditions
• Consider production, construction
and in service conditions
 Range of considerations

Fissuration Fragilité Fatigue thermique Orniérage Fabrication

Basse température -20°C et mécanique Température élévée 60°C Mise en oeuvre
Température ambiante 20°C Haute température 130-180°C
Fraass, BBR, Traction SHRP, TBA, Viscosité 60°C, Module
Module complexe et angle de phase Pénétrabilité, Traction directe, Module et angle de phase, IP Pfeiffer Viscosité à 135°C,Vieillissements
et angle de phase, Vieillissement PAV RTFOT, module comlexe
 Mix Selection / Considerations

• Binder grade
• Modification?
• Asphalt Mix type
• Binder content
• etc
 RELATIVE PROPERTIES OF SURFACINGS
SURFACING RELATIVE PROPERTIES
Skid Dura- Deform Crack Profile Struct Noise Spray Unit
MATERIAL Resist bility Resist Resist Ability Contr Reduct Reduct Cost

Hot Rolled
Asphalt
Porous Asphalt

Stone Mastic
Asphalt
Coated
Macadam
Thin Wearing
Course <40mm
Surface
Dressing
Slurry Seal &
Micro-
surfacing
High Skid
Resistance
Surf
P oor G ood E xcellent
 Mix components affecting
performance
• Aggregate
– Type and properties of aggregate
– Aggregate grading
• Filler
– Physiochemical properties of filler
– Amount of filler
• Bituminous binders
– Physiochemical properties of binder
– Amount of binder
Rutting vs Particle Shape
Bitumen interaction with
Filler
 Effects at 60ºC
Viscosity Ratio (Visc at 60 deg.) 14.0
filler : binder = 2:1
12.0

10.0

8.0 filler : binder = 1:1

6.0

4.0
filler : binder = 1:2
2.0

0.0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Filler / Binder Ratio by mass
 Effects at 135ºC
Viscosity Ratio (Visc at 135 deg.) 250.0
filler : binder = 2:1

200.0

150.0

100.0
filler : binder = 1:1

50.0
filler : binder = 1:2
0.0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Filler / Binder Ratio by mass
Stiffness of pavement layers
High temperature Low temperature

Asphalt High E
Low E
Surf & base Asphalt Surf & base
 Influence of Base Stiffness
Tensile Strain in the Asphalt 900
800
700
40 mm HMA
(microstrain)

600
500
400 160 mm HMA
300
200
100
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Base Stiffness (MPa)
Influence of Subbase Stiffness
900
Tensile Strain in the Asphalt

800
700
(microstrain)

600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Ba se S tiffne ss (M P a )

B enc hm ark Cas e S ubbas e Reduc ed by 30%

 Pavement Considerations
• HMA Stresses and Strains are
primarily influenced by the
immediate support conditions
 Pavement Considerations
Guidelines for Support Stiffness
Traffic Minimum Average Base Stiffness
Class HMA Surfacings HMA Bases
LIGHT 200 MPa N/A
MEDIUM 300 MPa N /A
HEAVY 400 MPa 300 MPa
VERY HEAVY 500 MPa 500 MPa
 Traffic Considerations
TRAFFIC CLASS
Heavy Vehicles / Pavement Structural Traffic
Lane / Day Design Capacity (ESA) Class

< 80 < 1 million LIGHT

80 to 200 1 to 3 million MEDIUM
200 to 700 3 to 10 million HEAVY
> 700 > 10 million VERY HEAVY
Bitumen versus Mix Strength
 Bitumen
versus Mix
Stiffness
Construction Considerations

• Pumping, Spraying
• Mixing : Wetting, coating, drainage
• Paving: Workability
• Compaction: Tender, resilience
Viscosity Application Ranges
 Understanding bitumen
consistency
Low Temp Ave. Service Hot Mixing &
Cracking Temperature Summer Compaction
Consistency

Pen Tr&b Visc @ 60 Visc @

degC 135 degC

0 25 50 75 100 125 150

Temperature (degC)
Environmental Considerations

• Traffic (loads and speeds)

• Temperature
• Water
• Time (ageing)
• Pavement structure (layer
thickness)
 Basic Components
Mineral Bitumen Water Additives
Aggregate

Particle Pen. pH Foamants

Intrinsic angularity Half-life Salts Plasticizer
Properties Gradation Expans. Chemic.
etc etc etc

Environment
Mix
•Temperature
Productio
•Moisture Lab Manufacture
n
•Wind etc Spatial
Composition
Simulate site
Layer conditions
Construction
Transport Place Compact

Segregation Workability Temperature

Factors Binder run- Segregation Fluids content Mix
off Spreadability Friction angle
Characteristics
Moisture loss etc etc
etc •Stiffness
•Strength
•Permeability
•Surface texture
•Ageing etc
Pavement
Service Life Response &
•Traffic (axle loads Performance
and reps) •Permanent
•Loading time Deformation
•Fatigue
Pavement •Durability
Structure •Skid resistance
•Roughness
•Noise etc
Traffic Loads and Speeds
Traffic Loads and Speeds

We know:
• Heavier loads = deeper ruts
• Climbing lanes = deeper ruts

• How do we account for these factors?

• RHEOLOGY??
 25

Average: 620 kPa

20

% OF TYRE PRESSURE
(1974)

15
Average: 733 kPa
(1995)
10

0
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

TYRE INFLATION PRESSURE (kPa)

Tyre inflation pressure distributions in

South Africa (1974 - 1995)
We know: Deep ruts = f(slow
speeds)
 Loading Time

Thin asphalt Thick asphalt

Short loading time Long loading time
 Estimating loading time
• Rough estimate of loading time at
surface:

Loading time = Wheel dia / Veh speed

t (s) = D (m) / v (m.s-1)
Loading time ≈ 1/speed(kph)
Smix vs Loading Time
 Temperature
We know:
• Diurnal, geographical, seasonal
variations in air temperature
• Air Temperature influences asphalt
temperature & behaviour

• How do we account for these factors?

• RHEOLOGY??
High Temperature Zones
Low Temperature Zones
 Asphalt Temperature

Thickness of asphaltic
Depth of asphaltic 80 25mm
80 layer measured from
layer midpoint below surface (mm) 125mm
70 surface
70 500mm
500 200 100 50 0 1000mm
60
60
50

M M PT (degC)
50
MMPT (degC)

40 40

30 30

20 20
10 10
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80
-10 -10
90th Percentile Material Temperature (degC)
MMAT (degC)
Smix vs Loading Time
 Moisture
We know:
• Geographical, seasonal variations in
moisture distribution
• Moisture influences asphalt behaviour
(stripping and ageing)

• How do we account for these factors?

• RHEOLOGY??
 Rainfall Zones

BEIRA
CHIPINGE
FRANCISTOWN

WINDHOEK MESSINA

WALVISBAY
TZANEEN
GABORONE

PRETORIA
ZEERUST
JOHANNESBURG
MAPUTO
KLERKSDORP
KEETMANSHOOP
VOLKSRUST

BLOEMFONTEIN LADYSMITH

WEPENER
DURBAN
ROUXVILLE PORT SHEPSTONE

SOMERSET
CERES WEST
Wet
OUDTSHOORN EAST LONDON
CAPE TOWN
PORT ELIZABETH
Moderate
MOSSEL BAY
Dry
TRH-SA.PRE

Macroclimatic regions of Southern Africa

Erosion of fine material from the Foam treated
base after water ingress.

Lateral EROSION OF 40 mm Asphalt

FINES moved upwards

Top:Recycled
layer
 Ageing
We know:
• Bitumen ages and stiffens with time
• Stiffened binder influences mix
behaviour and performance

• How do we account for these factors?

• RHEOLOGY??
 Field Performance

• Rutting
• Cracking
Rutting
 Rutting (van der Loo)
Rut depth = Cm× h × σave/Smix

• Cm = empirical correction factor

• h = layer thickness
• σave = average stress under moving
wheel
• Smix = stiffness of mix
Wheel loads
Stiffness of pavement layers
High temperature/ Low temperature/
Slow traffic Fast traffic

Asphalt High E
Low E
Surf & base Asphalt Surf & base
 Asphalt stiffness versus
temperature
Cost 347 Committee Meeting – 27th June 2001: BASt,
BASt, Cologne, Germany

• At 40ºC
RUTTING
Compressive
stiffness = 1.5 x
tensile stiffness
• At 25ºC
Compressive
stiffness = 3 x
tensile stiffness
Fatigue
 Performance Tests

Field tests APT

Lab tests
4PB Fatigue
 Cracking
F

δ
Fl3 bh3
δ = 48EI I = 12

Heff is decreasing
 Formulas fatigue

• Strain controlled
– N = k1.(1/ε)k2

• Stress controlled
– N = k3.(1/ợ)k4

• Behaviour dependent on beam

dimensions
 Crack propagation

• Crack growth in elastic media:

– Parish law: dc/dN = A.Kn

• K = stress intensity factor describing

the stress condition near the crack tip
• Three modes:
– Mode I: tensile or pure bending
– Mode II: shear
– Mode III: tearing
 Fracture Toughness

• Failure is defined as uncontrolled

excessive crack growth

• At the moment of failure K has

reached a critical value

• K1c is called the fracture toughness

of the material
Crack growth of visco-elastic
materials
• Schapery showed that for visco-
elastic materials the constant A in
Parish crack growth law can be
described with a complex formula
• Schapery also gave a formula for the
exponent n is Parish law:
– n = 2.(1 + 1/m)
– m = slope of the compliance curve
(1/Smix to loading time, both on log
scale)
Constant Stress

Fatigue life
measured to
2ε0
 Shell (Bonnaure) : Fatigue
Constant Stress

εt = (36.43 PI – 1.82 PI Vb + 9.71Vb – 24.04

x 10-6 (Sm / 5x109)-0.28 (Nt x 10-6)-0.2
Constant Strain

Fatigue life
measured to
0.5 σ0
 Initial Flexural Stiffness
4450
Flexural Stiffness (MPa)

4400
y = 4402.8x -0.0054
4350

Si
4300

4250

4200
0 50 100 150 200 250
Number of Load Pulses
 Shell (Bonnaure) : Fatigue
Constant Strain

εt = (36.43 PI – 1.82 PI Vb + 9.71Vb – 24.04

x 10-6 (Sm / 5x1010)-0.36 (Nt x 10-6)-0.2
Load Controlled Test: Fatigue
Displacem. Control: Fatigue
Fatigue
 Healing
Occurs during rest periods and depends
on :

– Load period and rest period (trest/tload)

– Mix composition
– Type of bitumen
– Temperature
 Healing of Binder
12
40/60
10
80/100
8
N25/N0

0
4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5

Binder Content (%)

N25 = fatigue cycles for rest period of 25 times load cycle

N0 = fatigue cycles for no rest period
 Healing : Rest Period
100
Healing Factor (M-1)

Vb
VFB = 58% 10.7
10 VFB = 76% 13.1
VFB = 86%
17.5

1
1 10 100

Rest Period Ratio

 Lateral Wander
Average Traffic Standard Deviation of
Lane Width (m) Lateral Wander (mm)
3.00 240

3.25 260

3.50 290
 Influence of Wander
250
Avg. Tensile Strain

200
(microstrain)

150

100

50

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Wande r S tad. D e v . (mm)
 General approach to rheology
and pavement design
• Keep it simple, create common
understanding
• Rutting is tackled
thru mix design
• Fatigue is used for
pavement design
• Master curves
needed for design
 Rheology….

Deformation and flow!

There is no other way out!