ALTERNATIVE ROUTE OF IRON MAKING

Subject code: PEMT5409

8th Semester B.Tech

Compiled by:
Dr.B.P.Sarangi
Miss.Srishti Mishra
Mr.Himansu Sahoo
Mr. Adiraj Behera

Department of Metallurgical & Materials Engg.

I.G.I.T. Sarang

INDIRA GANDHI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,

SARANG, DHENKANAL, ORISSA

 Disclaimer
No part of this Lecture Material may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without the prior permission of the compilers
 ALTERNATIVE ROUTES OF IRON MAKING

Module I
Characteristics of raw materials and their preparation. Thermodynamics
and Kinetics aspects.
Direct Reduction Processes:
Reduction of Iron bearing materials in shaft furnace, rotary kiln, retort
and fluidized bed with special reference to reductant, energy
consumption and operational problems.
Module II
Commercially available processes like SL/RN, ACCAR, Krup-CODIR,
Kinglon Meter, MIDREX, HyL, Purofer, Iron Carbide, etc.
Uses of DRI in steel making, iron making and foundries; effect on DRI on
EAF performance and product characteristics.
Module III
Smelting Reduction Processes:
COREX, ROMELT, Fluidized bed reactors, Hismelt etc. Present status of
alternative methods of iron making in India.
References:
1. Alternative Routes of Iron Making by Amit Chatterjee, PHI.
2. Beyond the Blast Furnace by Amit Chatterjee.
3. Sponge Iron Production in Rotary Kiln by A.Sarangi and B.Sarangi,
PHI.
4. Direct Reduction of Iron, Editiors: Jerome Feinman & Donald
R.Mac Rae, Allied Publishers Ltd.
 LESSON PLAN

Sub:-Introduction of Physical
Metallurgy Sem:-3rd B.Tech

Sl.No. Classees Topic covered

1 Lecturer-1 Introduction
2 Lecturer-2 Introduction
Characteristics of raw materials and their
3 Lecturer-3 preparation.
Characteristics of raw materials and their
4 Lecturer-4 preparation.
5 Lecturer-5 Thermodynamics and Kinetics aspects.
6 Lecturer-6 Thermodynamics and Kinetics aspects.
7 Lecturer-7 Thermodynamics and Kinetics aspects.
Reduction of Iron bearing materials in shaft
8 Lecturer-8 furnace
rotary kiln, retort and fluidized bed with special
reference to reductant, energy consumption
9 Lecturer-9 and operational problems.
10 Lecturer-10 SL/RN
11 Lecturer-11 ACCAR
12 Lecturer-12 Krup-CODIR
13 Lecturer-13 Kinglon Meter
14 Lecturer-14 MIDREX
15 Lecturer-15 HyL
16 Lecturer-16 Purofer
17 Lecturer-17 Iron Carbide
Uses of DRI in steel making, iron making and
18 Lecturer-18 foundries
Effect on DRI on EAF performance and product
19 Lecturer-19 characteristics.

20 Lecturer-20 COREX

21 COREX
21 Lecturer-21 ROMELT
22 Lecturer-22 Hismelt
Present status of alternative methods of iron
23 Lecturer-23 making in India.
Present status of alternative methods of iron
24 Lecturer-24 making in India.
Present status of alternative methods of iron
25 Lecturer-25 making in India.
Introduction
 During the past century, many efforts were made to develop

processes for producing iron for steelmaking that could serve as

alternatives and/or supplements to the conventional blast furnace.

 Many of these projects were stimulated by a desire or necessity to

use lower grade ores and available fuels that are unsuitable for the

blast furnace.

 Processes that produce iron by reduction of iron ore below the

melting point of the iron produced are generally classified as direct

reduction processes and the products referred to as direct reduced

iron (DRI). The processes that produce a molten product, similar to

blast furnace hot metal, directly from ore are classified as direct

smelting processes.

 In some of the more ambitious projects, the objective is to

produce liquid steel directly from ore and these processes are

classified as direct steelmaking processes.

 These broad categories are clearly distinguished by the

characteristics of their respective products, although all of these

products may be further treated to produce special grades of steel

in the same refining or steelmaking process.

 While the blast furnace is expected to remain the world's chief

source of iron units for steelmaking as long as adequate supplies

of suitable coking coals remain available at competitive cost, DRI

contributes 3–4% of the world’s total ironmaking capacity with

approximately 42 million annual tonnes (Mt/y) of DRI capacity

having been installed in the free world as of 1997.

 As of the end of 1996 there were 15.5 Mt/y of direct reduction

capacity under construction, which is expected to increase world

DRI production to 55 Mt/y by the year 2000 and 70 Mt/y by the

year 2005. The major part of DRI production is used as a

substitute for scrap in the electric arc steelmaking furnace (EAF).

DRI derived from virgin iron units is a relatively pure material which

dilutes contaminants in the scrap and improves the steel quality.

 The availability of low cost scrap and the high cost of energy

restrict the use of DRI in most highly industrialized countries.

Direct reduction processes are favored in those locations with

abundant reserves of inexpensive natural gas, non-coking coals

and/or hydroelectric power, and that have access to suitable iron

ores or agglomerates.

 This chapter presents a review of the alternative processes that

have achieved some measure of pilot or commercial success, with

emphasis on those now in commercial operation.

Historical Development of Sponge Iron Making

 Sponge iron provided the main source of iron for many

centuries before the blast furnace was developed. In historic

times, sponge iron was produced in shallow hearths, which

used charcoal as reductant fuel.

 The product of these early smelting process was a sponge

mass of coalesced granules of nearly pure iron intermixed

with considerable slag.

 Usable articles of wrought iron were produced by

hammering the sponge mass, while still hot, to expel most of

the slag and compact the mass.

 By repeated heating and hammering, the iron was further

freed of slag and forged into the desired shape.

 All of the methods through which low carbon wrought iron

can be produced directly from the ore are referred to as

direct reduction processes.

 After the development of the blast furnace, which produced

high carbon pig iron, direct processes were nearly

abandoned.

 However, direct reduction process is still used because of

the ease with which iron ores are reduced making the

processes appear enticingly simple, and primarily because

the reduction takes place at relatively low temperature

compared to Blast Furnace.

 Process that produce iron by reduction of iron ore, below the

melting point of the iron produced, are called direct reduction

processes, and the products referred to as Direct Reduced

Iron (DRI), commonly called sponge iron.

 In modern times, sponge iron has found increasing use in the

manufacture of wrought iron and as substitute of scrap

during steel making.

 Sponge iron is chemically more active than steel or iron

millings, turnings or wire strips.

 Sponge iron is produced as granular material or as sintered

mass, depending upon the methods of treatment applied to

hot material. In the granular form, it is commonly known as

powdered iron and used in the manufacture of many useful

articles by the techniques of powder metallurgy.

 Today the major portion of DRI is melted along with Hot

Metal / Pig Iron/scrap in the Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) and

Induction Furnace(IF) for steel making and producing steel

castings (rounds/ slabs/ billets/ blooms).

 The attempts to develop large-scale DRI plants have

embraced practically every known type of apparatus suitable

for the purpose, including pot furnaces, shaft furnaces,

reverberatory furnaces, regenerative furnace, rotary hearth

furnace / rotary kilns, electric furnaces, fluidized bed

furnaces and plasma reactors.

 Many different kinds of reducing agents, such as natural gas,

coal, coke, graphite, charcoal, distillation residues, fuel oil,

tar, producer gas, coal gas, and hydrogen have been tried.

 However, no effort has been made to evaluate or compare

the different processes on either on economical or technical

basis because in many cases, factors associated with

location, capital cost and availability of ore and fluxes,

availability of trained manpower, and proximity of markets,

may be overriding.

 Over the past several decades, experiments were made to

develop a low cost and simple to operate substitute of blast

furnace.

 Many of these developments were targeted to use non-

coking coal or natural gas as reductant.

 The processes that produce molten product (similar to blast-

furnace hot metal) directly from ore are generally classified

as direct smelting processes.

 In some of the more ambitious projects, the objective is to

produce liquid steel directly from ore and these processes

are generally classified as direct steel making process.

 These broad categories are clearly distinguished by the

characteristics of their respective products, although all of

 these products may be further treated to produce special

grades of steel in the same refining or steel making process.

 The direct smelting process and direct steel making process

is outside the scope of this project.

 Sponge iron provided the main source of iron and steel for

many centuries before the blast furnace was developed

around 1300 A.D.

 Sponge iron was produced in relatively shallow hearths or

shaft furnaces, using charcoal as both fuel and reductant.

 The product of these early smelting processes was a spongy

mass of coalesced granules of nearly pure iron intermixed

with considerable slag.

 Usable articles of wrought iron were produced by hammering

the spongy mass, while still hot, to expel most of the slag

and compact the mass.

 By repeated heating and hammering, the iron was further

freed of slag and forged into the desired shape.

 All of the methods whereby low carbon wrought iron can be

produced directly from the ore are referred to as direct

processes.
 After the development of the blast furnace, which made

large quantities of iron having a high carbon content

available, low carbon wrought iron was produced by refining

this high carbon material.

 Because two or more steps were involved, the processes

came to be known as indirect processes.

 Direct methods are still in use and have never been wholly

abandoned even by the most advanced nations.

 The ease with which iron ores are reduced makes the direct

processes appear simple and logical, primarily because the

reduction takes place at relatively low temperatures.

 In modern times, sponge iron has found increasing use in

various industrial processes other than in the manufacture of

wrought iron.

 The iron produced in sponge form has a very high surface

area is used in the chemical industry as a strong reducing

agent.

 It is chemically much more active than steel or iron in the

form of millings, borings, turnings or wire.

 Sponge iron may be produced as a granular material or as a

sintered mass, depending upon the methods of manufacture.

 In the purified granular form, commonly known as powdered

iron, it is used in the manufacture of many useful articles by

the techniques of powder metallurgy.

 The iron powders are compacted by pressure into the

approximate shape of the finished article, then sintered at

950–1095°C (1740–2000°F) in furnaces provided with a

protective atmosphere to prevent oxidation and finally

pressed or machined to their final shape.

 Iron powders are produced not only by direct reduction of

iron ores or oxides using solid carbonaceous reducing

agents and gaseous reducing agents such as carbon

monoxide and hydrogen, but also by electrolytic processes

and by thermal decomposition of iron carbonyl, Fe(CO)2.

Definition and Terms:

The reduction of iron ore by direct processes is accomplished by

the same chemical reactions that occur in the blast furnace:

Where the reduction is carried out below approximately 1000°C (1832°F)

the reducing agents are CO and H2 and the DRI produced will be porous

and have roughly the same size and shape as the original iron ore

particle or agglomerate. The metallic iron also absorbs carbon according

to reactions . DRI from the gas-based processes typically contains 1–

2.5% C as cementite. Above approximately 1000°C (1832°F) gaseous

reduction of solid iron oxides continues, however, carbon now reacts

with CO2 and H2O according to reactions to form CO and H2

and renew the reducing potential of the gas. The resultant net reaction is

an important mechanism for processes that produce DRI directly from

coal without prior gasification of its fixed carbon. At approximately

1200°C (2192°F), considered to represent close to the upper limit for the

direct reduction process, a pasty, porous mass forms. Above this

temperature the metallic iron formed will absorb any carbon present with

resultant fusing or melting of the solid even though the melting. The

terms associated with measuring the effectiveness of the reduction

reactions for DRI are defined as follows:

This definition gives the state of the iron contained in the DRI.

Confusion can arise as some investigators define percent reduction in

reference to the initial oxide state of the ore which may include Fe3O4

and FeO. In that case, percent reduction definesthe amount of reduction

performed in the DRI process.

DRI Quality
The metallization of DRI normally ranges between 90–95%

depending on the process and on the reducibility of the original iron

oxide. Based on the level of metallization, the carbon content of the DRI

is controlled in some direct reduction processes to be between 1–2.5%

to facilitate reduction of FeO by carbon during melting. This increases

iron recovery and the CO generated promotes foamy slag practice in the

EAF. The carbon as Fe3C is more desirable than loose carbon fines or

soot which may not be useful to the process. Any iron oxide from DRI

that is not reduced in the EAF enters the slag.

The gangue in DRI that substitutes for normal slag building agents

does not penalize the EAF operation and is usually between 2–4%.

However, the actual amount depends on the proportion of silica (SiO2)

in the gangue which must be fluxed and on the percentage of iron units

in the charge that is derived from DRI.

Another impact on the operation of the EAF pertains to fines in the

DRI which affect iron recovery, increase the dust loading and

contaminate electrical parts. The allowable fines is usually approximately

5% at –5 mm. A major advantage of DRI in EAF operations is the

absence of contaminating residuals such as copper and tin. Phosphorus,

manganese and vanadium contained in the ore remain in the gangue in

the gas-based processes and are usually not a factor in DRI–EAF

steelmaking operations. The sulphur content of DRI is also relatively low,

depending on the amount of sulfur in the fuels and reductants used.

Sulfur contents of DRI vary from less than 0.005% in the direct reduction

processes employing sulfur-free gas to approximately 0.02% in direct

reduction processes employing sulfur-bearing coal and limestone

together with iron oxide in the charge mix. In the latter case, coals

containing more than approximately 1.5% sulfur probably necessitate

desulfurization during steelmaking.

Special Precautions

DRI, whether in the form of particles, pellets, or molded briquettes,

tends to revert to the oxide state when exposed to natural environments.

The large pore surface area of DRI makes it susceptible to spontaneous

reoxidation. Spontaneous reoxidation is undesirable because of the

possible temperature rise during storing or shipment. Even if ignition can

be prevented, DRI will gradually lose metallization because of

reoxidation due to weathering. When the oxygen in the gas in contact

with the DRI becomes depleted, the DRI also reacts with moisture to

produce hydrogen gas. This could produce a flammability or explosion

hazard in confined spaces. Because of the potential hazards, the loss in

value, and the possible harmful effects during subsequent melting,

producers and users usually protect DRI from contact with water.

The stability and behavior characteristics of DRI depend on a number of

variables affecting the pore surface area. These include the mineralogy

of the oxide ore or agglomerate, reduction temperature, time at the

reduction temperature, gas composition, age and previous history of

exposure and handling. As one example, the DRI stability increases with

reduction temperature because the pore surface area decreases as the

temperature is raised. Other methods of improving the stability involve

making the iron in the pore surfaces unavailable for reoxidation or

decreasing the pore surface area mechanically.

To prevent the deterioration of DRI, the industry has studied the

techniques used for the protection of structural metals from corrosion.

Impervious coatings have been developed utilizing oxide passivation,

chemical solutions, oily organic rust inhibitors, paints, etc. Midrex has

patented the Chemaire® process, a sodium silicate air passivation

treatment. While some coatings potentially contaminate steel,

passivation produces an iron oxide coating consistent with the

steelmaking process. Passivation involves treatment with a mildly

oxidizing gas attemperatures below 540°C (1000°F) for the formation of

a tightly bonded magnetite layer that is essential for the protective

process to work. Passivation to increase stability from spontaneous

combustion in a dry atmosphere can be achieved by oxidation without

measurable loss of metallization. Given sufficient time, the internal

surface area of porous DRI pellets or lumps also acquires the oxide

coating which tends to increase the stability of fines generated in

subsequent handling. Some autogenous passivation occurs during aging

of DRI in a protected ambient atmosphere. Passivation is usually

performed between 90–200°C (200–400°F) with various gases,including

combustion gases and reducing gas containing less than approximately

2% oxygen. At the current state of the art, passivation or economical

coatings acceptable in the subsequent melting process are not

completely reliable. Incidents of heating of DRI in the holds of ships have

been reported. The problem may be intensified by contamination with

seawater or by lack of uniformity in the DRI as produced or treated. To

avert possible catastrophes, an emergency supply of inert gas should be

available for ship holds or enclosed storage bins. Such storage areas

could be flooded with the inert gas should the temperature rise above a

safe minimum or should an explosion hazard arise. The inert medium

should probably be nitrogen rather than flue or exhaust gas, which

contains carbon dioxide. It is possible that carbon dioxide can be a

source of oxygen for the oxidation of DRI, however, the generation of

poisonous carbon monoxide is the more important concern. While

coating procedures attempt to protect the iron in the pores from

reoxidation, hot briquetting decreases the pore surface area of DRI. In

the FIOR process, the –2 mm product is briquetted while the material is

hot and malleable. The individual briquettes attain densities greater than

5.0 g/cm3. This DRI product, now referred to as hot briquetted iron

(HBI), can be stored in the open prior to loading, can tolerate a fine

spray of fresh water to control dust accumulation and can be unloaded

under less restricted weather conditions. Still, HBI requires adequate

surface ventilation and should not be loaded if the briquette temperature

exceeds safety standards. Ship holds or bilges that are used to store the

briquettes should be dry and weatherproof. Also, because the briquettes

may deplete oxygen in the storage compartments, caution should be

exercised when entering.The hot molded DRI concept has also been

extended to processes producing DRI in the form of largercoarse

particles or pellets.
Characteristics of raw material:

Introduction:

In early 20th century , sponge iron processes were developed as

an alternative to the blast furnace to the route . These processes

differed from each other in the type of furnace used. They also differed

from each otherin the type of fuel used.

Iron Ore:

The parameters that are considered for slection of iron orefor production

of DRI to produce melting stock for steel making are:

 Chemical composition

 Physical characteristics,strength properties

 Reducibility

Chemical composition:

The only chemical change in the DRI process is the removal

of oxygen from the iron ore in the solid stateby reducing gases

containing CO and H2 . since sponge iron is in solid state , all

impurities in the oxide feed remain as such in the

product.Therefore , iron content of the ore sould be as high as

possible preferably 65-68%.

 The ore containing more than 68% iron may not be of advantage

as generation of more fines would occur due to low abrasion

resistance.High gangue content in the DRI would require additional

energy.Fluxes and refractories during melting , adversely affect the

operation of arc furnace. This also affects productivity of the

furnace and the quality of steel produced. Therefore , gangue

content of the ore feed should not exceed more than 5%.

 The SiO2 content of the gangue should not be too low as it results

in swelling and decrepitation.

 Alumina being acidic will require extra fluxincreasing the slag

volume in stell making

 The total(SiO2+Al2O3) should not be more than 4%.

 Alkali content of the ore gives rise to swelling which causes

degradation and creates operational difficulties.

 Phosphorus has no effect on the DRI .But it is a must for good

quality steel

 The sulphur content of the ore should be below 0.02% asit plays

an important role in DRI process.

 Addition of limestone and dolomite increases the strength of the

fired pellets.
 Presence of 0.55 Ca can cause high degree of swelling ,when

SiO2 is low.

 Typical composition is given in table below:

Physical characteristics of the Ore size Distribution:

 Size of the iron ore pellet is very important for the production of

DRI.

 The optimum size is determined by its reducibility characteristics.

 The feed materials for DRI production should have narrow size

range as far as possible to get a uniform metallised product.

 In shaft furnace narrow size of feed material is essential for good

permeability of the bed.

 Ore fines of the size range of 3-5mm can be proceesed in the

rotary kiln through ore slinging mechanism.

Strength Properties:

 The mechanical properties like abrasion index of the ore/ pellet

and cold compression strength of the pellet are normally specified

as for blast furnace feed.

 The ore pellets must have strength greater than 200kg, and

abrasion index 600 micron.

 Some ore/ pellets tends to crumble on heating at lower

temperature thus, generating fines. This is called decrepitation.

 Reducibilty:

 Reducibility of the ore has great influence on the productivity.

 Higher the reducibility lower is the retention time.

 Therefore the ore must have high reducibility.

 Generally hard dense lump ore and overfired pellets do not show

good reducibility.

 Magnetite exhibits poor reducibility as compared to hematite.

 In shaft furnace process, the redicibilty should be 90-95% within a

residence time of 6 hours in the temperature range of 800-1000oC.

Coal for direct reduction:

The consumption ofcaol for production of dri depends on the reaction

stiochiometry, fixed carbon content and loss of fixed carbon.

Therefore , evaluation and selection of coal for the process is very

critical and should be donevery carefully.

In selection of coal following characteristics shall be considered:

 Proximate analysis

 Ash fusion temperature

 Sulphur content

 Caking and swelling index

 Calorific value
  Coal char reactivity

 Char strength

 Sinter fracture load

 Coal size

 Ash chemistry

Proximate analysis:

Fixed carbon:

The fixed carbon aspect of coal is most important aspect of

proximate analysis.

Volatile matter:

 The volatile matter contributes to heat as well as helps in reduction

of the iron oxide in the kiln.

 Low volatile matter coal shall not provide adequate heat

 Very high volatile coal is not preferred as it affects the composition

of the DRI.

 Therefore Indian coals containing 25-35% volatile matter at amean

ash value 22% are preferred.

 Ash content:

 The ash content affects the thermal requirement and productivity

of the kiln adversely.

 The ash is an inert material occupying the space in the kiln.

 A value of 15% ash is considered to be good.

 However under Indian conditions the ash content in the caol

should not exceed 24%.

Moisture:

 The moisture in the coal is in two forms

 Free moisture

 Combined moisture

 The moisture content increases the thermal load in the kiln.

 The total moisture content should be less than 5%.

Ash fusion Tempearture:

 The ash fusion temperature of the coal is very important property

of the non-coking caol

 This is the temperature wher pure coal starts to fuse.

 Ash fusion temperature should be atleast 200oC higher than

operating temperature of the kiln.

 The coal ash inside the rotary kiln comes in contact with mant

other chemical compounds forming low eutectics promoting

accretion formation on the kiln wall.

 This reduces the productivity of the kiln

Sulphur content:

 Sulphur maybe present in caol as organic sulphur in combination

with carbon and hydrogen .

 Sulphur maybe also present as FeS and sulphate.

 The amount of sulphur as sulphate is very less.

 The organic sulphur is released gradually.

 The sponge iron in the bed absorbs sulphur as the temperature

increases.

 Sulphur content in the bed increases exponentially.

Caking and swelling index:

 High caking index causes sintering and reduces char reactivity of

coal with CO2.

 It also causes accretion build up in the kiln

 Therefore a caol of caking index more than 3 is not prefferd foe

DRI.

 Coal has the property of swelling when it is heated.

 The coal forms big masse with less density.

 These agglomerates of low density may disintegrate to generate

more fines which may be lost in the kiln.

 Swelling index of coal should be less than 3.

Calorific value:

 The thermal requirement of the process is met by burning coal.

 The calorific value of the coal increases with increase in carbon

content.

 Low calorific value means high consumption of coal.

Char reactivity

 Reactivity of coal char is a measure of the rate of conversion of

CO2 to COaccoring to bourdard reaction.

 The gasification of coal char is complex.

 It depends on various factors like rank of coal, volatile

matter,porosity, specific surface, charring temperature, rate of

heating etc.,

 Coals with high reactivity are preferred inthe rotary kilns because it

is easier to operate at lower temperature.

 Char strength:

 After removal of moisture and volatile matter,the degradation of

char in the kiln depends on char strength.

 The char strength increases with coal rank.

Coal size:

 The size of coal should be such that it should mix well with the

charge.

 The size of the coal should not be very fine otherwise it causes

carbon loss.

 The proportion of -1mm size should not be more than 5-10%.

SL/RN PROCESS:

Introduction:

The forerunner to the SL/RN process, the R-N process (for

Republic Steel Company and National Lead Corpora) was developed in

Norway, primarily to recover TiO2 from titaniferous ores for producing

pig-ments. Further development showed that other iron bearing ores

could also be treated to produce iron and a pilot plant was built in the

United States. In 1964 Lurgi Chemie acquired the R-N patents and world

rights and developed the technology further in cooperation with the Steel

Company of Canada, Ltd. (Stelco) to form the SL/RN process. The

reduction kiln is very similar to the system used in CODIR and the other

coal based plants described later. The major differences between SL/RN

and CODIR are that in SL/RN the product is cooled by indirect water

sprays on the outside of the cooler, and the kiln off gas is cooled in a

waste heat recovery boiler. Indirect product cooling requires a longer

cooler than does direct cooling, however, there is no loss of metallization

during indirect cooling. In the direct spray cooler, the loss of 0.5–1.0%

metallization by reoxidation off-sets the economic advantage of a

smaller cooler.
 By 1998, 15 SL/RN kilns were in operation in Brazil, India and

South Africa for the production of DRI for steelmaking. Their combined

annual capacity is about 1.68 million tonnes.

Process description:

The SL/RN process is fed with indurate pellets and/or lump iron

ore. Iron sands are used at New Zealand Steel, with design

modifications to provide efficient operation. A wide range of fuels and

reluctant including lignite, char, low temperature coke, coke breeze and

anthracite coal have been used satisfactorily. Depending on the fuel

used, the proportion of the reluctant fed through the inlet of the kiln with
the oxide feed and the proportion fired through the burner at the kiln exit

will be adjusted. With very low-volatile coal, a supplementary fuel such

as natural gas or fuel oil is fed through the central burner or through the

air tubes to maintain the proper temperature profile in the kiln. Smooth

kiln operation is achieved when operating with a relatively high volatile

coal charged together with the iron burden through the kiln feed end.

Coals with a high reactivity, low free-swelling index and high ash fusion

temperature are preferred. The coal should also be non-coking. A low

ash fusion temperature will promote formation of accretions in the kiln.

The coal ash composition is also important because a siliceous ash

might react with ferrous oxide to form the low melting compound, ferrous

silicate, and interfere with the reduction to metallic iron.

The kiln exit gases pass through a settling chamber for coarse

dust removal and a two-stage after-burner. Combustible gases are

burned in the first stage, followed by fine carbon particles in the second

stage. The afterburner chamber temperature is controlled by means of

water sprays. In some plants, the gas emerging from the afterburner is

passed through waste heat boilers, scrubbed and then discharged

through the stack.

The DRI is discharged at about 1000°C. An enclosed chute at the

discharge removes lumps and transfers the hot DRI to a rotary cooler.

The cooler, a horizontal metal cylinder 3.6 m (12 ft) diameter and 40–60
m (131–197 ft) long is immersed in a water trough and has water

sprayed on the upper surface. The cooler discharges the DRI into a

hopper, which serves as an air lock to prevent air ingress. Trommel

screens located at the hopper outlet separate the discharge into

fractions which then pass through magnetic separators. Screens

downstream separate the nonmagnetic portions.

Recent experiments show that air admitted through ports below

the bed in the preheat zone will burn some of the gases that would

otherwise leave the kiln unburned. Such a practice would also permit the

use of lignite with up to 60% moisture without pre drying. This technique

would greatly improve the efficiency of the process and arrangements

are now being made to install it on several existing SL/RN kilns.

The table is given below:

PROCESS ADVANTAGES:

 Use of any iron bearing material.

 Wide variety of reductants.

 Proven DRI technology.

 Economic production of DRI.

 ACCAR/OSIL PROCESS

Introduction:

The Allis-Chalmers Controlled Atmosphere Reactor (ACCAR)

produces highly metalized DRI in a ported rotary kiln. Liquid, solid and

gaseous fuels, singly or in combination, are used directly in the kiln

without an external reformer or gasifying plant. The ACCAR kiln is

equipped with an intricate port system and with valving arranged radially

around the circumference of the kiln and spaced uniformly along its

length for liquid and/or gaseous fuel injection under the bed and for air

injection above it. The flow rates through the ports are controlled to

maintain optimum temperature profile and gas composition along the

length of the kiln. Versatility in the use of fuel permits use of the most

economical fuels available.

The ACCAR process was developed by the Allis-Chalmers

Corporation, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Allis-Chalmers conducted direct

reduction experiments in 1960 with an unlined metal kiln mounted

concentrically inside a larger ceramic lined kiln. Iron oxide pellets were

charged into the unlined kiln co-current to a mixture of fuel, steam and

air. Pellet reduction and fuel reforming took place in the inner kiln. The

gas leaving the inner kiln was mixed with air and burned in the annular

space between the two kilns to provide the heat for reduction and

reforming. The exhaust gases from the annular space were used to
preheat the pellets.

Process description:

In 1965, Allis-Chalmers developed a laboratory kiln called the

controlled atmosphere furnace. Reducing gas from an external source

could be introduced through ports in the lower arc of the kiln below the

surface of the bed of solids. As the kiln rotated, the reducing gas shut off

and air was introduced when the bed reached the upper arc of the kiln.

The air burned the excess reducing gas in the freeboard and generated

the heat for the process. Experiments showed that hydrocarbons

injected below the bed of iron oxide pellets would be reformed into

reducing gas within the bed. In 1969, a pilot plant based on the ported

kiln concept was constructed in Milwaukee. This kiln, which was 0.6 m (2

ft) in diameter and 7 m (23 ft) in length, was used to obtain operating
and design information for scale-up. In 1973, a demonstration plant with

an annual capacity of about 35,000 tons of DRI was constructed by

modifying an existing kiln at Niagara Metals Limited. In 1976, the SL/RN

direct reduction plant at the Falconbridge Nickel Iron Refinery at

Sudbury, Ontario was revamped to convert it to the ACCAR System.

This plant had an annual capacity of about 200,000 tonnes of DRI.

These plants were subsequently dismantled.

The only commercial plant based on the ACCAR system currently

in operation is at Orissa Sponge Iron Limited (OSIL) in India. Originally

rated for 120,000 tonnes per year, this plant was designed to use both

coal and fuel oil. The plant now operates with 100% coal as the

reductant and fuel. The process is now called the OSIL process and is

marketed by Orissa Sponge Iron Limited. A 150,000 tonnes per year unit

based on the OSIL process has been installed by Lloyd's Steel in India

and is operational. A second unit of identical capacity is under

construction at Lloyd’s Steel.

The OSIL process is similar to the other coal-based rotary kiln

processes, except that it has a ported rotary kiln, The kiln is refractory

lined and has a 2% slope from the charge to the dis-charge end. The

injection ports are located beyond the preheat section of the kiln in rings

around the shell. Fuel and air are alternately introduced through the

ports by means of valving. A dam at the discharge end maintains the

desired depth of material in the kiln. A central burner through the

discharge hood which fires axially along the kiln is used for start-up, but

can also be used to pro-vide supplementary fuel to the port manifolds.

The air for the manifolds is supplied by electrically driven fans mounted

on the kiln shell.

Hot DRI is transferred to the cooler through a refractory lined

chute. The cooler is an unlined rotating steel cylinder with external water

sprays. Following the cooler, there are screens and a magnetic

separator. The waste gases from the kiln are cooled and scrubbed

before being discharged to the atmosphere through the stack. The

carbon content of the DRI can be controlled at any desired level up to

about 2.5% by adjust-ing the ratio of air-to-fuel along the length of the

kiln. The DRI product is cooled to 100°C in the rotary cooler.

 KRUPP-CODIR PROCESS

Introduction:

The CODIR process of Krupp Industries, West Germany, stems

from the original Krupp Renn process developed in the 1930s to treat

high silica ore without the addition of limestone to produce an

agglomerated product for subsequent conversion to steel. CODIR

operates at a lower temperature than Krupp-Renn and produces a

standard DRI product. Limestone or dolomite DRI product. Limestone or

dolomite in the furnace charge absorbs a sub stantial part of the sulphur

introduced with fuel.

A CODIR plant designed to produce 150,000 tonnes per year

started operation in 1973 at the Dunswart Iron and Steel Works, Ltd. at

Benoni, Republic of South Africa. The reduction kiln in this plant is 4.0 m

(14.2 ft) inside diameter and 74 m (243 ft) long. The energy consumption

is approximately15.9 GJ/tonne (13.7 MBtu/ton) of DRI when low-volatile

anthracite is used for the reduction coal. The gross energy requirement

increases when higher volatile matter coals are used.

Process description:

A schematic flow sheet of the plant is shown below.

The reduction kiln is fed continuously at a controlled rate with sized

iron ore or pellets, dolomite for sulphur absorption and coal for reduction

and energy. As the raw material charge moves to the discharge end it is

progressively heated to approximately 1000°C (1830°F) by the hot kiln

gas generated by partial combustion of coal with air in a burner at the

discharge end of the kiln. The kiln is fitted with six shell mounted fans

that supply air to burner tubes that enter through the shell and discharge

air along the kiln centreline. This added air burns CO formed during
reduction as well as volatiles from the coal and helps maintain the kiln

temperature between 905–1050°C over approximately 60% of its length,

enabling attainment of a high degree of metallization.

The solids leaving the kiln are cooled to 150°C by water sprays in

a rotary cooler. The DRI is then separated from the ash, recycle char

and spent dolomite by screening and magnetic separation. The kiln off

gas passes through a dust settling chamber and an after burning

chamber where the remaining combustibles are burned prior to

scrubbing in a conditioning tower, final cleaning in an electrostatic

precipitator and exhausting to the atmosphere through an induced-draft

fan and clean gas stack. The recovery of energy from the kiln off gas by

including a waste heat boiler in the circuit has been adopted in some

CODIR plants.

CODIR plants currently in operation use iron ore 5325 mm in size

with an iron content of 66–68%. The reductant coal normally is –10 mm.

Coal containing 79% fixed carbon, 10% volatile matter and 10% ash and

a calorific value of 29, 330 kJ/kg is typical. Pulverized coal is used as the

burner fuel, with a typical analysis of 57% fixed carbon, 26.5% volatile

matter, and 16.5% ash and a calorific value of 25,140 kJ/kg. Fuel oil and

natural gas have also been used as the burner fuel. The desulfurizing

agent used is raw limestone or raw dolomite.

 The discharge from the cooler is screened into the following four

fractions: (1) the +5 mm portion is DRI, which goes directly to product

storage; (2) the magnetic portion of the –5 mm, +3 mm fraction is DRI

and goes to product storage while the nonmagnetic portion consisting of

char is returned to the char bins to be recycled; (3) the magnetic portion

of the –3 mm, +1 mm fraction is DRI and goes to product storage while

the nonmagnetic portion, a mixture of char and coal ash, is treated by air

jigging to separate the char from the ash; and (4) the magnetic portion of

the –1 mm fraction is also DRI and is generally briquetted while the

nonmagnetic portion is mainly ash and is discarded.

 KINGLON METER PROCESS

Introduction:

The Kinglor-Metor process produces iron continuously by heating

a mixture of ore and coal in an externally-fired rectangular shaft or retort.

Kinglor-Metor shafts are constructed with retort walls of highly

conductive silicon carbide. Additional energy is provided by burning

some of the carbon monoxide generated during reduction with air in a

preheating zone in the upper part of the retort.

A schematic flow sheet of the process given below:

Process description:

A pilot plant comprising two reactors was installed at Buttrio, Italy

by Danieli & Cie SpA and started operations in 1973. The reactors were

vertical shafts of conical shape approximately 11 m (36 ft) high with a

top diameter of 0.4 m (1.3 ft) and a bottom diameter of 0.7 m (2.3 ft).

The pilot plant operations demonstrated the process to be simple to

construct, easy to operate and flexible with respect to feed and reductant

requirements.

A commercial plant capable of producing 40,000 tonnes/yr was

installed by Ferriere Arvedi & Cie., SpA in Cremona, Italy in 1978. The

plant consisted of two identical 20,000 tonnes/yr modules. Each module

contained six vertical retorts 13 m (42.7 ft) high, 12.5 m (41 ft) long and

3 m (9.8 ft) wide. Solid fuel requirements of approximately 8.5 kJ/ tonne

of DRI and gaseous fuel requirements of approximately 7.9 kJ/tonne

were claimed. A plant was also installed in Burma in 1981 and is the

only plant still in operation.

 MIDREX PROCESS

Introduction:

The Midrex process was developed by the Surface Combustion

Division of Midland-Ross Corporation in the mid-1960s. The Midrex

Division became a subsidiary of Korf Industries in 1974. Midrex was

subsequently acquired by Kobe Steel, Ltd. in 1983.

The first commercial Midrex plant was installed near Portland,

Oregon and started production in 1969. The plant included two shaft

reduction furnaces of 3.4 m (11.2 ft) inside diameter and had a total

capacity of 300,000 tonnes per year. The average energy consumption

of this early plant was approximately 15 GJ/tonne (12.9 MBtu/ton) of

DRI. Many difficult engineering and operating problems were solved

during the first several years of operation of this plant that contributed

significantly to the design, construction and operation of larger Midrex

plants throughout the world.

The Midrex ™ Direct Reduction process is based upon a low

pressure, moving bed shaft furnace where the reducing gas moves

counter-current to the lump iron oxide ore or iron oxide pellet solids in

the bed. The reducing gas (from 10-20% CO and 80-90% H2) is

produced from natural gas using Midrex’s CO2 reforming process and

their proprietary catalyst (instead of steam reforming).

Process description:

The iron oxide feed to a Midrex shaft furnace can be in the form of

pellets, lump ore or a mixture of the two (in 0 to 100% proportions). The

solid feed is discharged into a feed hopper on top of a proportioning

hopper that evenly distributes the solids into the shaft furnace.

A dynamic seal leg keeps the reducing gas inside the furnace. The

shaft furnace operates at low pressure, under 1 bar gauge, which allows

dynamic seals to be used on the furnace inlet and discharge. The iron

ore burden in the shaft furnace is first heated, then reduced by the

upward flowing, counter-current reducing gas that is injected through

tuyer located in a bustle distributor at the bottom of the cylindrical

section of the shaft. The ore is reduced to a metallization typically in the

range of 93% to 94% by the time it reaches the bustle area.

Below the bustle area, it goes through a transition zone (with

design to reduce agglomeration or lumping) and then reaches the lower

conical section of the furnace. Lower carbon reduced iron (<1.5% C) is

cooled using a circulating stream of cooled exhaust gas that is

introduced in the conical section for cold DRI discharge. Higher carbon

DRI (up to 4.0% C) can be produced by introduction of natural gas into

this cooling gas. It readily reacts (and cracks) with the highly reactive

metallic DRI.

For hot discharge of DRI to be used for hot charging of EAF’s (i.e.

Midrex’s Hotlink™ Process) or for feed to hot briquetting presses (to

produce HBI), the lower part of the furnace is modified to allow handling

of hot burden. The Midrex gas generation system consists of a CO2

reformer using their own catalyst. The feed to the reformer is a mixture

of process gas recycled from the furnace and makeup natural gas. The

top gas leaving the shaft furnace at a temperature of 400 to 450C is

cooled and dust is removed in a top gas scrubber. About two-thirds of

the gas is recycled back to the process (process gas) and the rest is

used as a fuel. The process gas is compressed, mixed with natural gas

and is preheated in the reformer recuperates before entering the tubes

of the reformer.
 The reformed gas comprising of mostly CO and H2 exits the

reformer at abo

reformed gas line. The ratio of H2 to CO is controlled at about 1.5 to 1.8,

and reducing quality at 11 to 12 for best operation.

PROCESS ADVANTAGES:

 World-wide commercial use proven. Performance “Relatively-

forgiving” operation. Raw material flexibility.

 CO2 reformer eliminates need for steam system, reformed gas

quench, reducing gas heating and CO2 removal system.

 HyL PROCESS

Introduction:

In the HYL process developed by Hojalata y Lamina S.A. (Hylsa)

of Monterrey, Mexico, lump ore and fired pellets are reduced in fixed-bed

retorts by reformed natural gas. The first commercial HYL plant was

installed at Monterrey and started production late in 1957. This plant has

a capacity of 200 tonnes per day of DRI and the reactors are

approximately 2.5 m (8.2 ft) in diameter and hold approximately 15

tonnes of ore in a 1.5 m (4.9 ft) deep bed. The reactors in the more

recent plants are 5.4 m (17.7 ft) in diameter and 15 m (49.2 ft) high.

Design capacity is approximately 1900 tonnes per day of DRI having an

average reduction of approximately 90%. The energy consumption in the

most recent plants is 14.9 GJ/tonne (12.8 MBtu/ton) of 90% reduced

DRI. In the more recent plants of the HYL II design, high temperature

alloy tubes in the reducing gas reheating furnaces are used, which

permits heating the gas to high temperatures, and the number of heating

furnaces was reduced to two units from the original four units.
 In the HYL II process, reducing gas is generated by reforming

natural gas with excess steam, to prevent carbon formation and to

promote long catalyst life. The reducing section consists of a set of four

reactors, three of which are in operation, while the fourth is engaged in

discharging and charging operations. The HYL process is a cyclical

batch operation, and the three on-line reactors operate in series.

Reduction is performed in two stages, an initial reduction stage and a

main reduction stage. Cooling, carburization (Fe3C) and the final

adjustment of metallization are performed in the third stage. Each stage

takes roughly three hours. An intricate system of valves permits the

reactors to be connected in any desired order so that any one reactor

can be connected in its correct process stage.

 In 1979, a 9,000 tonnes/yr pilot plant investigated moving-bed

technology as an alternative to fixed-bed technology. The first moving

bed plant was a conversion of the second plant at Monterrey. The four

fixed-bed reactors were replaced by the new shaft furnace and the

process, then called HYL-III, was started up in Monterrey. The

compatibility of the HYL and HYL-III processes made it possible to

convert and modernize HYL plants to the new technology. Hylsa 3M in

Monterrey and 2P in Puebla, Usiba in Brazil and P.T. Krakatau Steel in

Indonesia were converted to HYL-III. Commercial DRI and HBI

installations based on HYL technology currently in operation or under

construction in Latin America, the Middle East. The flexibility of the

process has allowed for numerous changes and upgrades, such that the

generational label is no longer accurate. HYL has, since 1997, referred

to its technology as simply the HYL process.

A general diagram of the HYL process, which has the flexibility to

produce three different product forms, depending on the specific

requirements of the user. Cold DRI is normally used in adjacent

meltshops close to the direct reduction facilities. This product is also

shipped and exported safely on a routine basis, following approved

guidelines to avoid reoxidation. Hot briquetted iron can be produced

from hot discharged DRI. HBI is generally exported. HBI production can

also be used to process low quality, friable iron ores that cannot be used
to produce cold DRI. Hot discharged DRI can be pneumatically

transported directly to an EAF as HYTEMP® iron.

Reducing gases are generated by self-reforming in the reduction

reactor, feeding natural gas as make-up to the reducing gas circuit and

injecting oxygen at the inlet of the reactor. The partial oxidation of

natural gas with oxygen in a combustion chamber generates reducing

gases and energy.

Required for the reduction. Further cracking and reforming

reactions are carried out in the shaft due to the catalytic effect of metallic

iron. In addition to the self-reforming of reducing gases within the

reduction reactor, the HYL process can use externally supplied sources

of reducing gas. Some of the alternative gas sources include gases from

natural gas steam reformers and from coal gasification units. Other

reducing gas sources may be hydrogen, coke oven gas, gases from

smelters gasifiers, and tail gases from other direct reduction processes.
Process description:

The components in the reducing gas circuit are the reactor

reduction zone, the top gas quenching/scrubbing system, the reducing

gas recycle compressor, the CO2 removal system and the process gas

heater. The natural gas stream or reducing gas make-up is mixed with

the reducing gas recycle stream from the CO2 removal system. The

reducing gas stream is heated to 933°C in the gas heater. Hot reducing

gas is fed to the reduction zone at 5.5 kg/cm3 and flows counter to the

solids.Off gas from the reactor at about 400°C passes through a

quenching/scrubbing system where water produced during reduction is

condensed and removed along with most of the dust in the gas.

Scrubbed gas is fed to the CO2 removal system by means of the

reducing gas recycle compressor. Decarbonated reducing gas is mixed

with the natural gas stream or reducing gas make-up to close the

reducing gas circuit.

A belt conveyor transports iron ore pellets and/or lump ores to the

top of the reduction tower where an automated system of bins and

pressure locks receives the ore at atmospheric pressure in an open bin,

pressurizes it in intermediate bins and charges it continuously to the

reactor. Oxygen is removed from the iron ore in the upper section of the

reactor by the reducing gases and the product is then carburized. A

rotary valve at the outlet of the reactor regulates the continuous flow of

the charge through the reactor. DRI is removed by automated

pressurized bins and pressure locks.

In the production of cold DRI, the cooling gas circuit comprises the

reactor cooling zone, the cooling gas quenching/scrubbing system and

the cooling gas recycle compressor. The cooling gas is fed at the lower

conical part of the reactor, at roughly 40°C, flowing counter to the

descending DRI. The gas distribution is uniform throughout, with good

contact between the gas and the solid material. The cooling gas leaves

the reactor at the upper conical part at about 460°C and is then

quenched/scrubbed by means of cooling water. Scrubbed cooling gas

passes through the cooling gas recycle compressor for recycle to the

reactor after being made up with natural gas injected to the cooling gas
circuit for optimum efficiency and control of the cooling and carburization

processes.

In the HYTEMP® iron process, hot DRI, at 700°C, is discharged

continuously from the reactor to the pneumatic transport system. The

product is transported by means of a reducing carrier gas to surge bins

located above the meltshops for controlled feeding to the electric arc

furnace.

For the production of HBI, hot DRI, at 700°C, is discharged

continuously from the reactor to the hot briquetting machines arranged

below. The HBI is cooled to about 80° in vibrating cooling conveyors

using cooling water, and then discharged to the HBI transport conveyor.

The expected specific consumption figures in the HYL process for two

typical production options are presented.

The self-reforming configuration has been in operation since April

1998 at Hylsa Flat Products Division in Monterrey, Mexico. The plant

has a nominal capacity of 700,000 tonnes/yr of DRI. Production during

the first six months of operation has been at capacity, with metallization

levels of 95% and carbon of 4% as iron carbide (cementite). Carbon

levels up to 5.3% have been reached with no loss in metallization or

productivity. Use of the product in a 150 tonne DC EAF has reduced

overall cost/tonne of liquid steel by eliminating carbon additions,

reducing electrical energy due to the faster melting reactions and

improved slag foaming.

PROCESS ADVANTAGES:

 Proven equipment performance (uses HYL II and HYL III reactor

technology)

 Raw material flexibility

 Not sensitive to S in natural gas or ore

 No reformer – lower Capital costs

 High-energy efficiency (87% in comparison to 70% for most

efficient other DRI plants).

 Hylsa claims lower overall operating costs (to be confirmed)

 PURFER PROCESS

Introduction:

In the late 1950s, Huttenwerk Oberhausen AG of Thyssen,

Germany, experimented with the reduction of iron ore on a small pilot

travelling grate using reducing gas made from regenerative reforming of

natural gas. In 1961, the travelling grate was replaced with a small pilot

shaft furnace, and in 1970, a semi-commercial shaft furnace plant with a

capacity of 500 tonnes per day was set up at Oberhausen. This plant

was originally equipped to generate reducing gas by reforming natural

gas with air, but was later changed to reform natural gas with process off

gas.

In 1976 and 1977, two Purofer plants were put into operation in

Iran and Brazil, each with a capacity of about 350,000 tonnes per year.

In Iran, reducing gas is generated by catalytically reforming natural gas

with process off gas. In Brazil, the Texaco partial oxidation process

generates reducing gas from heavy fuel oil. This plant has been shut

down since 1979.

In the Purofer process, the reduction furnace is a refractory-lined

shaft with a rectangular cross-section and rounded corners. A double-

bell charging system at the top of the shaft feeds pellets and/or lump ore

to the system. The shaft tapers outward from top to bottom. Two scraper

bars at the shaft base remove the hot reduced product from both sides
of the shaft to a collection hopper, which has a gas-tight connection with

the furnace bottom. A double lock hopper at the bottom of the collection

hopper is used to extract the product into sealed steel containers without

exposing the product to air. In Iran, Purofer DRI is transported by

containers to a briquetting press. The plant in Brazil was provided for

transport of the hot DRI directly to the steelmaking furnace.

The Iran plant has two regenerative catalytic reformers, arranged

so that when one is used for reforming, the other is being reheated on a

cyclic basis. The reformer feed is a mixture of natural gas and recycled,

cleaned furnace off gas. Excess off gas (about one-third of the total)

together with natural gas is used for heating the reformers. Heat-up

burners are located between the two chambers of each reformer. Part of

the combustion air is conducted through a heat exchanger and the

products of combustion are finally discharged from the stack.

Process description:

In the Iran plant, the off gas is cleaned and cooled to remove water

vapor, and then mixed with natural gas in stoichiometric proportions.

This mixture is fed into one of the catalytic reformers at 1400°C, where it

is reformed to 95% H2 and CO with a mole ratio of H2/CO of 1.4. The

reformer temperature drops as the reforming reaction is endothermic. At

1200°C the mixture of natural gas and process offgas is switched to the

other reformer, which has been reheated from 1200°C to 1400°C by

combustion of a portion of the offgas during the concurrent heating

cycle.

During reforming, sulphur from the natural gas is deposited on the

catalyst, but during the reheating the sulphur is oxidized and is removed

with the offgas. Each cycle lasts about 40 minutes. The reducing gas

leaving the reformer is cooled to 950 ± 10°C.

 IRON CARBIDE PROCESS

Introduction:

Iron carbide is a high melting point, non pyrophoric, strongly

magnetic synthetic compound obtained in granular form. It contains

about 90% total iron and about 7% total carbon. The primary use of the

product is as a metallic charge for substitution of hot metal, DRI or steel

scrap. The iron carbide process involves reduction of preheated fine iron

ore particles (0.1–1.0 mm) in a closed-circuit fluidized-bed reactor by

preheated process gas comprising natural gas and cleaned reactor top

gas. The reduction takes place at 550–600°C and about 1.8

atmospheres.

Process description:

The iron carbide process was originally developed at Hazen

Research Institute in Golden, Colorado during the 1970s. Iron ore

samples from several countries were tested at Hazen. A 50 mm

diameter batch reactor was used for the laboratory tests, followed by

continuous tests on a 600 mm (24 in.) diameter reactor. The product

was successfully converted to steel by MEFOS in Sweden in a basic

oxygen furnace in 1979. Additional development work was subsequently

carried out in a pilot plant constructed from an idle vanadium plant

located in Wundowie, Western Australia, in 1989. The Wun-dowie

reactor was 1.83 m (6 ft) in diameter, operated with a bed depth of about
3.7 m (12.1 ft), and produced about 25 tonnes per day for steelmaking

trials worldwide. Nucor Corporation converted iron carbide from the pilot

plant at their mill in Darlington, South Carolina using a 32-ton electric arc

furnace. An existing gunite tank was used to inject the iron carbide at

rates up to 90 kg/min.

A schematic flow sheet of the iron carbide process is given in the

ore fines are fed from a day bin to a natural gas-fired suspension-type

cyclone preheated where they are preheated to about 700°C. The hot

ore is fed into the fluidized-bed reactor by screw conveyor. The

reduction reactor has an inside diameter of 14.2 m (46.6 ft) and a height

of 25 m (82 ft), and is fitted with six baffles that prevent bypassing feed

to the discharge. The reactor is designed to con-tact 550,000 Nm3 per

hour of process gas and 53 tons per hour of ore for production of 900

tons per day of iron carbide.

The offgas is cleaned in a reactor cyclone. A recycle gas heat

exchanger recovers sensible heat from the offgas and preheats the

process gas. The offgas is further cooled and cleaned in a venture

scrubber and packed towers to 29°C prior to compression and recycle to

the reactor. The water slurry leaving the venture is fed to a clarifier for

solids/water separation. A cylindrical, bottom-fired hydrogen plant

(reformer) equipped with an MEA desulfurization unit produces

desulfurized natural gas and synthetic gas. Process gas from the

hydrogen plant mixed with reactor offgas, compressed and preheated to

550°C is fed to the reactor. The inlet gas contains 60% CH2, 34% H2, 2%

CO and 1% H2O. The process involves reduction of Fe2O3 to Fe3O4 to

Fe with CO and H2, followed by carburization of Fe to Fe3C with carbon

from CH4 and CO.

3Fe2O3 + 5H2 + 2 CH4 = 2Fe3C +

9H2O (11.3.4)

Product typically containing 90% Fe as Fe3C, 8% Fe as FeO and

6.2% C, is discharged from the reactor bottom by a screw feeder at

400°C and fed through lock hoppers to a cylindrical cooler where it is

cooled by water to 70°C.

Nucor Corporation constructed a plant in Point Lisas, Trinidad, and

West Indies in 1994. Based on the recent performance of the Nucor

plant. Sustained operations at the design capacity and product quality

were never attained by Nucor Corp. In early 1999 the plant was

permanently closed.