DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND ASTRONOMY

2nd Year
Course Descriptions

2014/15
INTRODUCTION

This handbook contains details about all the constituent courses for 2nd year full-time
undergraduate programmes which are planned to be offered by the Department of Physics
and Astronomy in 2014/15. For example, for each course you will find aims and objectives,
the syllabus and its teaching and assessment methodology. The handbook should be
consulted in conjunction with another Departmental publication BSc/MSci Programme
Structures 2014/15. If you do not have a copy of this, one may be obtained from the
Undergraduate Teaching part of the Departmental website. The latter handbook gives
information on how these courses fit into particular degree structures. Please note that it
cannot be guaranteed that all courses offered will run and that only the most usual pre-
requisites for courses are given.

If you need guidance on your choice of course(s), please contact Departmental

Programme Tutor, Dr S Zochowski.

While every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the information in this document, the
Department cannot accept responsibility for any errors or omissions contained herein.

A copy of this Handbook may be found at the Departmental Web site: www.phys.ucl.ac.uk.

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CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 2

CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................................ 3

PHAS2112 – ASTROPHYSICAL PROCESSES: NEBULAE TO STARS (TERM 2) .................. 4

PHAS2117 – PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM (TERM 1) ...................................................... 6

PHAS2130 – PRACTICAL ASTROPHYSICS 2A (TERM 2) ........................................................... 8

PHAS2201 – ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM (TERM 1) ......................................................... 10

PHAS2222 – QUANTUM PHYSICS (TERM 1) ............................................................................... 12

PHAS2224 – ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR PHYSICS (TERM 2) ................................................ 15

PHAS2228 – STATISTICAL PHYSICS OF MATTER (TERM 2) ................................................. 18

PHAS2246 – MATHEMATICAL METHODS 3 (TERM 1).............................................................. 21

PHAS2427 – ENVIRONMENTAL PHYSICS (TERM 2) ................................................................. 24

PHAS2440 – PRACTICAL PHYSICS 2A (TERM 1)....................................................................... 27

PHAS2423 – MATHEMATICAL METHODS FOR THEORETICAL PHYSICS (TERM 1) ........ 29

PHAS2441 – PRACTICAL PHYSICS 2B WITH COMPUTING (TERM 2) .................................. 31

PHAS2443 – PRACTICAL MATHEMATICS II (TERM 2) ............................................................. 33

PHAS2444 – PRACTICAL PHYSICS FOR NATURAL SCIENCES (TERM 2) .......................... 35

MATH6202 – MATHEMATICS FOR PHYSICS AND ASTRONOMY (TERM 2)........................ 37

PHAS2901 – DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION 2 (TERM 1) .............................. 39

08GL064U – ASTROBIOLOGY (TERM 2) EVENING COURSE AT BIRKBECK..................... 40

3
PHAS2112 – Astrophysical Processes: Nebulae to Stars (Term 2)

Prerequisites

In order to take PHAS2112 Astrophysical Processes: Nebulae to Stars, the student should
normally attend PHAS2222 Quantum Physics and PHAS2228 (Statistical Thermodynamics)

Aims of the Course

This course aims to:

 Provide an introduction to a range of important physical processses that operate in
astrophysical environments, including the photoionization and recombination of atoms;
heating and cooling mechanisms in nebulae and the interstellar medium; the formation
of absorption lines; radiative transfer and energy transport, the equations of stellar
structure and the Virial theorem; and fusion and other nuclear processes that operate in
stars

Objectives

After completion of this course students should be:

 Equipped with knowledge of the basic physical processes and astrophysical concepts
that underline subsequent courses on the interstellar medium, stellar atmospheres and
stellar structure and evolution.

Methodology and Assessment

This course is based on lectures, supplemented by problem solving tutorials/discussion.

Final assessment is by 2 In-Course-Assessment (ICA) tests during the term based on seen
homework problems (10%) and a final written examination (90%).

Textbooks

 The Physics of the Interstellar Medium (2nd Edition, J.E. Dyson & D.A. Williams,
Institute of Physics Publishing, 1997)
 Astrophysics I. Stars; II. Interstellar Matter & Galaxies (R. Bowers & T. Deeming, Jones
& Bartlett, 1984)
 The Stars: their structure and Evolution (R.J. Tayler, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1994)

Syllabus

[The approximate allocation of lectures to topics is shown in brackets below]

Radiation and Matter [6 lectures]

Basic description of fluxes and intensities: relationship to magnitudes; Moments of the
radiation field; Atomic transitions: opacity and optical depth; Absorption & emission
coefficients; source function; equation of transfer along a ray; Summary of distributions
(black-body, Boltzmann, etc)

Interstellar Medium [6 lectures]

4
Basic composition (gas and dust); Line broadening in the interstellar context (natural,
thermal, turbulent); Curve of growth; abundances

Ionized Nebulae [4 lectures]

Physical conditions; Diagnostics of temperature and density (excitation of optically thin
emission lines); Ionization equilibrium; basic derivation of ‘Stromgren Sphere’; Free-free
radio continuum

Stellar Physics [5 lectures]

Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium; Equations of state; Hydrostatic equilibrium; Radiation
pressure, Eddington limit; Virial theorem, stellar timescales

Nuclear Processes [6 lectures]

PP chains; CNO cycles; 3-α processes, and late stages of burning; Neutron capture (r and s
processes); Supernovae

5
PHAS2117 – Physics of the Solar System (Term 1)

Course information

Prerequisites

PHAS1245 – Maths I; PHAS1246 – Maths II; PHAS1247 – Classical Mechanics and

PHAS1102 – Physics of the Universe

Aims

The course will use basic physics and Mathematics to compare and contrast the different
bodies of the solar system and try to understand their composition and physical
environment.

Objectives

On completion of the course the student should be able to:

 Demonstrate a basic knowledge of the theories of origin of the solar system
 Describe the distribution of matter in the solar system
 Describe the factors which control the thermal environment throughout the solar system
 Classify the bodies of the solar system in terms of broad types and describe their
characteristics
 Demonstrate an understanding of the different interactions between the bodies of the
solar system
 Read research literature with a critical eye, and appreciate the ingenuity as well as the
limitation of current research.

Textbook

 Planetary Sciences (de Pater & Lissaur, Cambridge University Press)

Useful subsidiary texts:

 The New Solar System (Beatty, Petersen, Chaikin, Cambridge University Press)
 Physics and Chemistry of the Solar System (Lewis, Academic Press)
 Introduction to Space Physics (Kivelson & Russell, Cambridge University Press)
 Review journals e.g. Space Science Review, Annual Review of Astronomy and
Astrophysics, Reviews of Geophysics and Space Physics, Annual Review of Earth
and Planetary Science (see DMS Watson Library)

The websites that exist for all the satellites and instruments

Methodology and Assessment

This course is based on lectures, supplemented by problem solving tutorials/discussion.

Final assessment is by 2 In-Course-Assessment (ICA) tests during the term based on seen
homework problems (10%) and a final written examination (90%).

6
Syllabus
[The approximate number of lectures allocated to a topic is given in brackets]

 Origin of the Solar System, dynamics and composition [1]

 Basic structure of the Sun in terms of the physics of energy transport from the core;
Source of Solar magnetic field, solar activity and sunspots [4]
 The solar wind and the interplanetary magnetic field; The interaction of the solar
wind with solar system bodies [3]
 Planetary magnetospheres, radiation belts, charged particle motions in a planetary
magnetic field [5]
 Internal structure of the Terrestrial Planets; Interior and surface evolution;
Observational methods, in particular seismic studies on Earth [5]
 Gravitational potential and tidal forces; Roche limit; Instability limit; Relevance to why
rings surround the Gas Giants [3]
 Thermal structure and atmospheres of planets [3]
 The Gas Giants; Physics of hydrogen under great pressure [3]
 Asteroids and meteorites, Comets, the Oort Cloud and the Kuiper belt [3]

7
PHAS2130 – Practical Astrophysics 2A (Term 2)

Course will be run at UCL and ULO

Prerequisites

Normally PHAS1240 – Practical Skills 1C

Aim of the Course

All Laboratory courses within the Department contribute to a continuing development of

students’ practical skills extending throughout the four/three years of the MSci/BSc degrees.
Collectively the courses have the overall aim of equipping the student with those practical
skills which employers expect to find in graduates in physics whether they are employed in
scientific research or development, or in a wider context. Intended mainly for students
following the Astrophysics degree programme, course PHAS2130 aims to build on and
extend the skills acquired in the First Year Lab course with the following objectives.

Objectives

By the end of the course the students should have:

 Improved skill and confidence in the acquisition and analysis of experimental data
through the performance of experiments beyond the introductory level encountered
in the first year lab course and become familiar with more complex instrumentation
 Improved ability to record their work concisely and precisely in the laboratory
notebook, as it is done, through repeated practice guided by frequent feedback from
teachers
 Improved appreciation of the validity of the data obtained and recorded and should
be able to identify the main sources of uncertainty in it and be able to propagate
random uncertainties through to estimate the uncertainty on the final result
 Improved ability to condense the information contained in the record made in the
laboratory notebook into a concise, but precise and complete formal report of the
experiment in word-processed form
 Gained greater insight into some of the phenomena treated in lecture courses in
years 1 and 2 by performing related experiments
 Grasped basic principles of computer programming and be able to apply IDL
(Interactive Data Language) to a range of physical problems and data analysis tasks

Course Contents

Treatment of Experimental Data: A course of about 6 lectures on the evaluation of

experimental data. This course reinforces and extends the course given in the First Year
and examines some more practical aspects of good data-taking techniques to make
students aware that bad practice in taking data can affect the precision of results. One
problem sheet is set.

Set Experiments: Develops some basic techniques of laboratory physics as well as

illustrating some aspects of lecture courses given in the Second Year via a few “set”
experiments which, although building on some techniques acquired in the First Year course,

8
are generally longer and of a more challenging nature. Normally three experiments are
completed.

Formal Reports: One of the set experiments must be made the subject of formal reports.

IDL: Students work under supervision through a series of exercises which introduce them to
the capabilities of IDL This is software which can run under the Linux operating system
(used here) and Windows. is a very prevalent language used in Astrophysics and
Atmospheric Physics now-a-days. It is a particularly good language for manipulation of
arrays and hence images. Examples are drawn from a range of physical problems. (Open
software GDL (GNU Data Language) is similar and available free from the GNU website.)

Methodology and Assessment

Assessment is continuous. In the IDL component students work singly at a computer

terminal and are assessed on the basis of problem sheets. In the laboratory sessions
students work in pairs following prescriptive scripts. Great emphasis is placed on the
formation of good habits in the keeping of a laboratory notebook for which students are
given detailed advice. Lab sessions are supervised at the rate of about one demonstrator
per 10 to 12 students. Demonstrators not only help students understand experiments and
overcome difficulties as they arise, but also inspect student notebooks to provide instant
correctives to any bad practice arising.

Laboratory notebook records of experiments are checked, in the laboratory with the student
present, as soon as a student thinks he/she has finished an experiment satisfactorily, to
make sure all the expected elements are present. If this is so, the student is assigned a new
experiment and the laboratory notebook retained for detailed assessment. This is generally
carried out within one week and the book returned to the student, with comments, to provide
rapid feedback on any elements requiring improvement. One formal report is required to be
produced according to the same criteria as in First Year, but makes more demands on the
student’s ability on account of the longer and more complicated nature of the experiment
reported. The detailed advice given in the first year about how to approach the preparation
of a report is reiterated. Students receive back their reports, assessed and with a detailed
critique of features, which require improvement in future reports. All assessed work is both
first and second marked. The different course components contribute the total assessment
with the following weights.

 3 experiments (28%)
 1 Formal report (18%)
 1 problem paper (9%)
 IDL component (45%)

Textbooks

There are no textbooks which the students are expected to buy. The following are provided
for reference in the laboratory and the students are expected to consult them to find
relevant information required in experiments.

 Table of Physical Constants by Kaye and Laby

 Handbook of Chemistry and Physics CRC Press
 Experimental Methods by L. Kirkup

9
PHAS2201 – Electricity and Magnetism (Term 1)

Prerequisites

PHAS1245 – Maths I; PHAS1246 – Maths II or equivalent

Aims

The course aims to provide an account of basic electric, magnetic and electromagnetic
phenomena, and show how these are described by vector calculus, culminating in a
description of Maxwell’s equations.

Objectives

A student should be able to understand the basic laws of electrostatics, magnetostatics and
time-varying electric and magnetic fields. They should be able to express them in
mathematical form and solve simple problems, including an analysis of DC and AC circuits.

Methodology and Assessment

This course is based on lectures, supplemented by problem solving tutorials/discussion.

Final assessment is by 2 In-Course-Assessment (ICA) tests during the term based on seen
homework problems (10%) and a final written examination (90%).

Textbooks
nd
Electromagnetism, 2 edition by I.S. Grant and W.R. Phillips (Wiley)
Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 6th edition by Serway and Jewett

Syllabus

Milestones in electromagnetism [1]

Coulomb's torsion balance and the inverse square law of electric charges; Biot-Savart law
governing the force between a straight conductor and a magnetic pole; Introduction of the
concept of field by Faraday; Maxwell's equations; Hertz's oscillating dipole experiment;
Marconi's and Morse' invention of wireless communication

Electrostatics [6]
Coulomb's law; electric field; Gauss' law; superposition principle; electric field for a continuous
charge distributions and electrostatics in simple geometries (spherical, cylindrical and planar
distribution of charges); Gauss' law in differential form; Electric potential; electric field as
gradient of the potential; electric potential for a point charge; electric potential for a discrete
charge distribution; electric dipole; potential of acontinuous charge distribution; Electrostatic
energy; energy for a collection of discrete charges, and for a continuous charge distribution

Conductors [3]
Electric field and electric potential in the cavity of a conductor; fields outside charged
conductors; method of images; Vacuum capacitors: definition of capacitance; parallel plates,

10
spherical and cylindrical capacitors; capacitors in series and parallel; energy stored in a
capacitor

Dielectrics [1]
Dielectrics: definition and examples; Energy of a dipole in an electric field; Dielectrics in
capacitors: induced charge, forces on dielectrics in non-uniform fields

DC circuits [3]
Current and resistance; Ohm's law; electrical energy and power; DC circuits: emf, Kirchoff's
rules; Examples

Magnetostatics [5]
Magnetic field, motion of a charged particle in a magnetic field and Lorentz force; Velocity
selector, mass spectrometer, Hall effect; Ampere's law and Biot-Savart law; Magnetic field due
to a straight wire, a solenoid, a toroid and a current sheet; Magnetic force between current
carrying wires; Energy of a magnetic dipole in a uniform field

Electromagnetic induction [4]

Magnetic flux; Gauss' law for magnetism; Ampère-Maxwell law; Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction; Examples of emf generated by translating and rotating bars; Lenz's
law of electromagnetic induction; electric generators; self inductance and mutual inductance;
self inductance of a solenoid; back emf; eddy currents; Faraday's law in differential form;
Transients in RLC circuits; Energy in the magnetic field

AC circuits [3]
AC generators and transformers; circuit elements (R,C,L); impedance, complex exponential
method for LCR circuits: the RC circuit, the RL circuit and the RLC circuit; Resonances,
energy and power in the RLC circuit

Maxwell's equations [1]

Maxwell's equations in vacuo and plane wave solution

11
PHAS2222 – Quantum Physics (Term 1)

Prerequisites

PHAS1245 – Maths I; PHAS1246 – Maths II; or equivalent courses in other departments.

Aims

To provide an introduction to the basic ideas of non-relativistic quantum mechanics and to

introduce the methods used in the solutions of simple quantum mechanical problems. This
course prepares students for further study of atomic physics, quantum physics, and
spectroscopy. It is a prerequisite for PHAS2224, Atomic and Molecular Physics,
PHAS3226, Quantum Mechanics, PHAS2112, Astrophysical Processes and PHAS3338,
Astronomical Spectroscopy.

Objectives
The numbers in brackets refer to sections in the Course Summary and in the lecture notes.

On successful completion of the course, a student should be able to:

 Describe the photoelectric effect and relate observed behaviour to the predictions of the
wave and photon theories of light (1.1)
 Describe Compton’s X-ray scattering experiment and give the expression for the
wavelength shift (1.2)
 Relate the energy and momentum of a photon to its frequency (1.3)
 State the de Broglie relation and apply it to the electron diffraction experiment of
Davisson and Germer (1.3)
 Describe the two-slit interference experiment and discuss the interpretation in both the
wave and particle pictures (1.3)
 Describe the Bohr microscope and relate it to the uncertainty relation for position and
momentum and know the uncertainty relation for energy and time (1.4)
 State the time-dependent one-dimensional Schrödinger equation for a free particle and
for a particle in a potential V (x) (2.2)
 Explain the relationship between the wave-function of a particle and measurement of its
position (2.3)
 State and understand the normalisation condition for the wave-function (2.3)
 State and explain the boundary conditions that must be satisfied by the wave-function
(2.3)
 Show how the one-dimensional Schrödinger equation can be separated in time and
space coordinates (2.4)
 Solve the time-independent Schrödinger equation (TISE) for an infinite square well
potential to obtain the wave functions and allowed energies (3.2)
 Understand the solutions of the 1D TISE in the presence of a constant potential,
including the use of complex exponentials (3.3)
 Explain the relationship between the solutions of the TISE for free particles and the flux
of particles (3.4)
 Solve the TISE for a potential barrier or step (3.5)
 Discuss barrier penetration and give examples from physics and astronomy (3.6)
 Give a wave mechanical analysis of a simple harmonic oscillator including being able to
recognise and manipulate the Schrödinger equation for the energy eigenvalues and the
eigenfunctions (3.7)

12
 Describe and explain the classical and QM probability distributions for the simple
harmonic oscillator (3.7)
 Understand the use of operators in QM, the meaning of eigenfunctions and eigenvalues
and be able to write an eigenvalue equation and, in particular, to relate those of the
operator pˆ x to the direction of motion of particles (4.2)
 Understand and define what is meant by orthonormality of eigenfunctions (4.3)
 Know the operators representing position, momentum and kinetic energy in one
dimension and what is meant by the Hamiltonian operator (4.3)
 Understand and define the expectation value of an operator and be able to calculate
expectation values of operators with simple wave functions (4.4)
 Define a commutator bracket and to understand the consequences of commutation in
terms of measurement (4.4, 4.5)
 Understand what is meant by a stationary state and a conserved quantity (4.5)
 Define mathematically an Hermitian operator and explain the expansion postulate (4)
 Define the angular momentum Lˆ in terms of Cartesian coordinates and be able to derive
a commutation relation between two components of this operator (5.1)
 Derive commutation relations between the Cartesian components of Lˆ and Lˆ (5.2)
2

 Write down an eigenvalue equation for Lˆz and solve it to obtain eigenvalues and
eigenfunctions (5.3)
 State the eigenvalues of Lˆ and how they relate to those for Lˆz (5.4)
2

 Describe the eigenvalues of Lˆ and Lˆz in terms of the vector model (5.5)
2

 Understand the method of separation of variables for solving the 3D TISE (6.1, 6.3)
 Sketch and explain the features of the effective potential for the motion of an electron in
a hydrogen atom (6.4)
 Define and use atomic units (6.4)
 Solve the radial Schrödinger equation for an electron in a hydrogen atom at small and
large distances (6.4, 6.5)
 Sketch and explain the hydrogen energy levels in terms of the appropriate quantum
numbers and be able to use the spectroscopic notation for angular momentum quantum
numbers (6.5)
 Recognise the treatment of a hydrogenic ion with nuclear charge Z (6.5)
 Describe and explain the Stern-Gerlach experiment (7.2)
 Give, and explain the significance of the quantum numbers that describe the states of
the hydrogen atom (7.3)
 Know the rule for adding the orbital angular momentum and spin quantum numbers for
the hydrogen atom to obtain the total angular momentum (7.4)
 Understand the idea of adding orbital and spin quantum numbers for more than one
electron to obtain total orbital, spin and overall angular momentum quantum number
(7.4)

Textbooks

Introduction to the Structure of Matter, J J Brehm and WJ Mullin, Wiley

Quantum Mechanics, AIM Rae, Adam Hilger (closest text to the lecture notes)
Quantum Mechanics, F Mandl, Wiley

Methodology and Assessment

This course is based on lectures, supplemented by problem solving tutorials/discussion.

Final assessment is by 2 In-Course-Assessment (ICA) tests during the term based on seen
homework problems (10%) and a final written examination (90%).
13
Syllabus
(The approximate allocation of lectures to topics is shown in the brackets below)

The failure of classical mechanics [3]

Revision of key concepts and seminal experiments: photoelectric effect, Einstein’s equation,
Compton scattering, electron diffraction and de Broglie relation

Steps towards wave mechanics [3]

Wave-particle duality, Uncertainty principle (Bohr microscope); Time-dependent and time-
independent Schrödinger equations; The wave function and its interpretation

One-dimensional time-independent problems [6]

Infinite square well potential; Finite square well; Probability flux and the potential barrier and
step; Reflection and transmission; Tunnelling and examples in physics and astronomy;
Wavepackets; The simple harmonic oscillator

The formal basis of quantum mechanics [5]

The postulates of quantum mechanics – operators, observables, eigenvalues and
eigenfunctions; Hermitian operators and the Expansion Postulate

Angular momentum in quantum mechanics [2]

2
Operators, eigenvalues and eigenfunctions of L̂z and L̂

Three dimensional problems and the hydrogen atom [4]

Separation of variables for a three-dimensional rectangular well; Separation of space and
time parts of the 3D Schrödinger equation for a central field; The radial Schrödinger
equation, and casting it in a form suitable for solution by series method; Degeneracy and
spectroscopic notation

Periodic potentials and crystals [3]

Kronig Penney model; Free electron model; Band structure

Electron spin and total angular momentum [3]

Magnetic moment of electron due to orbital motion; The Stern-Gerlach experiment; Electron
spin and complete set of quantum numbers for the hydrogen atom; Rules for addition of
angular momentum quantum numbers; Total spin and orbital angular momentum quantum
numbers S, L, J; Construct J from S and L

14
PHAS2224 – Atomic and Molecular Physics (Term 2)

Prerequisites

PHAS2201 – Electricity and Magnetism, PHAS2222 – Quantum Physics (or equivalent

courses, including the quantum mechanical treatment of the hydrogen atom), or equivalent
courses in other departments

Aims of the Course

 To provide an introduction to the structure and spectra of simple atoms and

molecules
 To revise and go beyond the one-electron hydrogen atom introduced in the course
PHAS2222, Quantum Physics
 To prepare students for more advanced courses in atomic and molecular
spectroscopy such as PHAS4431 - Molecular Physics and PHAS4421 Atom and
Photon Physics

Objectives

On successful completion of the course PHAS2224, the student should be able:

 To understand total and differential collisional cross sections in terms of a beam of
incoming classical particles scattered by the target
 To relate the differential to the total cross section and to solve simple problems
 To understand the basics of quantum elastic scattering theory, in terms of an incoming
plane wave giving rise to a scattered outgoing spherical wave
 To relate the quantum scattering amplitude to the differential cross section and hence
the total cross section
 To understand the quantum mechanics of the hydrogen atom
 To derive and understand the idea of reduced mass and to adapt the H atom
expressions for quantum energy and Bohr radius obtained for infinite nuclear mass to a
more realistic calculations with finite nuclear mass
 To know and apply atomic and spectroscopic units to a range of problems in atomic
physics
 To give the Hamiltonian for an atom with an arbitrary number of electrons
 To explain and apply the independent particle model and the central field approximation
 To know about one-electron orbitals characterised by quantum numbers n and l
 To explain the physical basis for Quantum Defect Theory and calculate alkali atom
spectra using Quantum defects
 To understand the concept of indistinguishable particles and to state the Pauli Principle
 To explain implications for the Periodic Table of elements
 To understand and to be able to write down configurations of electron orbitals for a few
key atomic elements
 To give a simple ansatz for the Helium symmetric and anti-symmetric two-electron
wavefunctions
 To employ these to calculate the expectation value of the electron-electron and hence to
derive the character of the exchange force for lowest lying singlet and triplet states of
Helium
 To understand how the inclusion of the full, non-central electron-electron interaction
leads to a breakdown of the one-electron orbital picture
 To understand and obtain terms from atomic configurations
15
 To state and apply Hund's coupling rules for ordering terms
 To derive a simple classical model for the spin-orbit interaction A L.S
 To calculate and apply the Lande interval rule E(j)-E(j-1) = A j
 To solve simple problems involving atomic terms and atomic levels
 To provide a summary and overview of the hierarchy of forces responsible for the
spectra of the isolated many-electron atoms: Coulomb force, Hartree potential,
exchange, correlation and spin-orbit coupling
 To explain, using a simple model for a dipole interacting with an electromagnetic field,
the difference between dipole allowed and dipole forbidden transitions
 To state atomic selection rules
 To define metastable levels in terms of the behaviour of the Einstein coefficients for
spontaneous emission
 To outline the technique of laser cooling of atoms
 To outline the main principles of laser light, including the role of metastable levels and
population inversion
 To describe the main properties of X-ray spectra including continuous and characteristic
emission
 To analyse the spectra of atoms in weak static fields; the magnetic moment associated
with the electronic orbital and spin angular momenta; the competion between the spin
orbit term and the interaction with the external field: the normal and anomalous Zeeman
effects
 To describe the Stern-Gerlach experiment and its use in fundamental tests of quantum
behaviour
 To understand the response of atoms to static electric fields: the linear, and the
quadratic Stark effect
 To understand and derive the Born-Oppenheimer approximation
 To understand the character of low-lying electronic states of the simplest one-electron
molecule (H2+) and the simplest two-electron molecule (H2)
 To give the form of the electronic wavefunctions of these two species taking into
account symmetry with respect to exchange of nuclei and for the two-electron case, with
respect to exchange of the electrons
 To apply trial wavefunctions to calculate expectation values of the electronic energies
and hence to deduce the stability of the lowest lying electronic states
 To understand the difference between a bonding and an anti-bonding state
 To analyse molecular spectra associated with rotation and vibration of the nuclei
 To derive a formula valid for ideal diatomic molecules assuming rigid rotation and
harmonic vibrations
 To calculate the reduced mass of a diatom and to estimate the dependence of rotation
and vibrational spectral frequencies on the reduced mass
 To understand the origin of deviations from the ideal case: anharmonic corrections,
centrifugal distortion and the dependence of the rotational constant on vibrational
quantum number
 To know molecular selection rules for rotational and vibrational transitions of diatomics
and Polyatomics
 To explain the Franck-Condon rule for transitions between electronic states

Textbooks

 Introduction to the Structure of Matter (Wiley) by J.J.Brehm and W.J. Mullin mainly
chapters 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
 Quantum Physics of Atoms, Molecules Solids, Nuclei and Particles (Wiley) by R Eisberg
and R Resnick
 Physics of Atoms and Molecules (Longman) by BH Bransden and CJ Joachain
16
Methodology and Assessment

This course is based on lectures, supplemented by problem solving tutorials/discussion.

Final assessment is by 2 In-Course-Assessment (ICA) tests during the term based on seen
homework problems (10%) and a final written examination (90%).

Syllabus
(The approximate allocation of lectures to topics is shown in brackets below).

Review of one electron atoms. [2]

One electron atoms; Correspondence Principle; Reduced mass; Atomic units and
wavenumbers; Review of quantum angular momentum and spherical harmonics; Review of
hydrogen atoms and spectra; Lyman, Balmer and Paschen series; Electron spin and
antiparticles

Many electron atoms [10]

Independent particle and central field approximations; Alkali atoms and quantum defect
theory; Indistinguishable particles, Pauli Principle; Helium atom and exchange.
Configurations and terms; Spin-Orbit interaction; Levels and Spectroscopic notation;
Overview of forces on isolated atom; Atoms in radiation: dipole allowed and forbidden
transitions; Einstein coefficients; Metastable levels; Laser operation; Laser cooling; X rays
and inner shell transitions

Molecular Structure and spectra [9]

The Born-Oppenheimer approximation; Electronic spectra: H2+ and H2; Effects of symmetry
and exchange; Bonding and anti-bonding orbitals; Nuclear motion: rotation and vibrational
spectra for ideal molecules (rigid rotation, harmonic vibrations); Covalent and ionic bonds;
Selection rules

Atoms and Electromagnetic Fields [4]

Atoms in static external fields: atoms in magnetic fields; Normal and anomalous Zeeman
effect; Hyperfine splitting; The Stern-Gerlach experiment; NMR and ESR; Atoms in electric
fields: Linear and Quadratic Stark effect

Brief introduction to scattering [2]

Total cross section; Differential cross section; Examples of electron-, positron- and
positronium- total cross-sections: dominant interactions; Quantum scattering

17
PHAS2228 – Statistical Physics of Matter (Term 2)

Prerequisites

PHAS1245- Maths I; PHAS1246 – Maths II; PHAS1228 – Thermal Physics

Aims

 To review concepts in classical thermodynamics, and to present the basic ideas

and methods appropriate for the description of systems containing very many
identical particles
 To compare and contrast the statistical mechanics of ideal gases comprised of
bosons, fermions, and classical particles
 To develop the statistical mechanics of systems of harmonic oscillators
 To develop an understanding of the basic properties of classical and
quantum gases and solids

Objectives

On successful completion of PHAS2228 a student will be able to:

 state and understand the four laws of thermodynamics
 understand that the state of a system in thermodynamic equilibrium can be
described by functions of state, and distinguish between isothermal/adiabatic
and reversible/irreversible processes
 understand and manipulate the equation of state
 explain the difference between a thermodynamic macrostate of the system and
an atomistic microstate of a system
 enumerate the microstates for simple systems of indistinguishable
quantum particles
 express the mean value of a thermodynamic function in terms of the probability
distribution of microstates
 postulate that the a priori probabilities of a system being in anyone of its
accessible microstates are equal for an isolated system
 argue that the entropy is the logarithm of the statistical weight of a system, and
give Boltzmann's definition of entropy
 state the condition for equilibrium in an isolated system
 obtain definitions of temperature, pressure and chemical potential in terms of
entropy
 derive the Boltzmann distribution for a system in equilibrium with a heat bath
 relate the average energy and the Helmholtz free energy of the system to the
partition function
 state the definition for equilibrium in a system in contact with a heat bath
 understand the significance of the Gibbs free energy in multi-component systems
 derive the Clausius-Clapeyron equation and understand its application to phase
transitions
 derive the partition function for a quantum oscillator
 derive the density of momentum and energy states of a single free
particle
 state the definition of a boson and a fermion in terms of the spin of the particles,
18
 and the occupation of single particle states
 derive the Bose-Einstein (BE), Fermi-Dirac (FD), and Maxwell Boltzmann (MB)
distribution functions
 explain the role played by the chemical potential in these derivations, and be
familiar with the partition function
 apply BE statistics to the case of a photon gas, and obtain Planck's Law of the
energy density of black-body radiation, and sketch the temperature dependence
of this energy spectrum
 understand the physics and behaviours of BE condensation and superfluids
 apply FD statistics to a free electron gas, and white dwarf and neutron stars
 express the criterion for validity of the classical regime in terms of occupation
numbers of single particle energy levels
 determine the average kinetic energy of an ideal gas molecule, and obtain the
equation of state of an ideal gas by differentiating the Helmholtz free energy with
respect to volume
 derive the variation of density with height in an isothermal atmosphere, and an
adiabatic atmoshpere
 state the condition for, and assess the likelihood of escape of a molecule from a
potential

Textbooks

Several are recommended, covering both thermodynamics and statistical

mechanics.

 Statistical Physics An entropic Approach, I. Ford, Wiley

 Concepts in Thermal Physics, S.J. Blundell and K.M. Blundell. OUP
 Fundamentals of Statistical and Thermal Physics, F.Reif, McGraw-Hill
 Introduction to Modern Thermodynamics, D. Kondepudi; Wiley
 Statistical Physics, F. Mandl, Wiley
 Statistical Mechanics: a survival guide, M. Glazer and J. Wark, OUP
 Introductory Statistical Mechanics, R. Bowley and M. Sanchez, OUP
 Introduction to the Structure of Matter, J. Brehm and W. Mullin, Wiley

Methodology and Assessment

This course is based on lectures, supplemented by problem solving

tutorials/discussion. Final assessment is by 2 In-Course-Assessment (ICA) tests
during the term based on seen homework problems (10%) and a final written
examination (90%).

Syllabus

Part I. Statistical Thermodynamics

1. Review of Classical Thermodynamics

 Temperature, equilibrium and the Zeroth Law of thermodynamics;
 Equation of state and functions of state

19
 Work, heat, energy and the First Law of thermodynamics
 Entropy and the Second Law of thermodynamics; Equivalence of the Clausius &
Kelvin statements
 Temperature, pressure and chemical potential as derivatives of entropy
 The Second Law for infinitesimal changes; Clausius's principle and inequality
 Thermodynamic potentials; Gibbs free energy
 Phase transitions and phase diagrams; Clausius-Clapeyron equation
 The Third Law of thermodynamics; heat capacity and thermal expansion as T→0

2. Statistical Thermodynamics
 Microstates and macrostates; Principle of equal a priori probabilities; statistical
definition of entropy
 (Boltzmann's principle) and the second law
 Statistical ensembles; microcanonical and canonical partition functions
 Statistical thermodynamics of a system of harmonic oscillators; the
thermodynamic limit
 Applications of the canonical partition function; Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution;
equipartition theorem; two-level paramagnet; heat capacities of solids and
diatomic gases
 Grand canonical ensemble; harmonic oscillators; vacancies in crystals
 Boltzmann entropy for a system of harmonic oscillators; Third Law of
thermodynamics; Gibbs entropy
 Statistical thermodynamics of the ideal gas; particle in a box; distinguishable and
indistinguishable particles; partition function of an N-particle gas

Part II. Quantum Gases and Solids

3. Bose-Einstein statistics
 Grand canonical partition function for bosons in a single particle state; thermal
properties of a gas of bosons
 Bose-Einstein condensation
 Cooper Pairs and superconductivity

4. Fermi-Dirac statistics
 Pauli exclusion principle
 Grand canonical partition function for fermions in a single particle state; thermal
properties of a fermion gas; degenerate fermion gases
 White dwarfs and the Chandrasekhar limit; neutron stars
 Electron gas in metals; properties of metals based on the free electron model;
electronic heat capacity, thermal and electrical conduction, Wiedemann-Franz
Law
 Statistical thermodynamics of electrons and holes; phenomenology of
semiconductors

5. Photons and phonons

 Electromagnetic waves in a box
 Partition function of the electromagnetic field; thermal properties of a photon gas;
black-body spectrum; photon energy density, flux, pressure and entropy
 Phonons in solids; Debye model; lattice heat capacity and thermal conduction

20
PHAS2246 – Mathematical Methods 3 (Term 1)

Prerequisites

In order to take this course, students should have studied the material in the precursor
PHAS1245 mathematics course and preferably also some of that in PHAS1246, though this
is not a necessary prerequisite.

Aims

This course aims to

 Provide the remaining mathematical foundations for all the second and third year
compulsory Physics and Astronomy courses
 Prepare students for the second semester Mathematics option MATH6202
 Give students practice in mathematical manipulation and problem solving at second-
year level

Objectives

The PHAS1245, PHAS1246, and PHAS2246 syllabuses together cover all the mathematical
requirements of the compulsory Physics and Astronomy courses. The major areas treated
in PHAS2246 are of special relevance to Quantum Mechanics and the applications of this to
many other topics, including condensed matter, atomic, molecular, and particle physics. At
the end of each section of the course, students should be able to appreciate when to use a
particular technique to solve a given problem and be able to carry out the relevant
calculations.

For Vectors, students should be able to:

 Understand the concepts of scalar and vector fields. Understand the significance of the
div, grad, curl, and Laplacian operators
 Carry out algebraic manipulations with the vector operators in Cartesian coordinates
 Derive and apply the divergence and Stokes' theorems in physical situations, and
deduce coordinate-independent expressions for the vector operators
 Use the gradient of a function of three variables to work out the change in the function
when these variables change by small but finite amounts
 Be able to test for conservative forces and handle the corresponding potential energy
 Use expressions for the vector operators in cylindrical and spherical polar coordinates
 Manipulate triple vector products including differential operators

For Matrices, students should be able to:

 Find the eigenvalu
properties of Hermitian matrices
 ue to physical and mathematical
problems

For Legendre Functions, students should be able to:

 Solve the Legendre differential equation by series method and find the conditions
necessary for a polynomial solution
 Derive and apply the generating function and recurrence relations for Legendre
polynomials
 Employ the orthogonality relation of Legendre polynomials to develop functions as

21
 series of such polynomials
 Manipulate spherical harmonics up to l=2

In Fourier Analysis, students should be able to:

 Derive the formulae for the expansion coefficients for real and complex Fourier series
 Make analyses using sinusoidal and complex functions for both periodic and non-
periodic functions and be aware of possible convergence problems
 Understand the possible complications when differentiating or integrating Fourier series
 Use Parseval’s identity to deduce the values of some infinite series
 Derive the formulae for the expansion coefficients for real and complex Fourier
transforms
 Perform Fourier transforms of a variety of functions and derive and use Dirac delta
functions
 Apply the convolution theorem to physical problems

Methodology and Assessment

This course is based on lectures, supplemented by problem solving tutorials/discussion.

Final assessment is by 2 In-Course-Assessment (ICA) tests during the term based on seen
homework problems (10%) and a final written examination (90%).

Textbooks

A book which covers most of this and the first-year PHAS1245 and PHAS1246
mathematics courses is Mathematical Method for Physics & Engineering, Riley, Hobson &
Bence – C.U.P. This book will also be of use in the MATH6202 option given in the second
semester. From a more advanced standpoint Mathematical Methods in the Physical
Sciences, by Mary Boas (Wiley) is recommended.

Syllabus
(The approximate allocation of lectures to topics is shown in brackets below)

Vector Operators [10]

Directional derivatives, gradient for functions of two or three variables; Gradient,
divergence, curl and Laplacian operators in Cartesian coordinates; Flux of a vector field;
Divergence theorem; Stokes' theorem; Coordinate-independent definitions of vector
operators; Derivation of vector operators in spherical and cylindrical polar coordinates;
Triple vector products including differential operators

Linear Vector Spaces, Determinants and Matrices [5]

Multiple transformations and matrix multiplication ; Properties of matrices; Special matrices;
Matrix inversion; Solution of linear simultaneous equations; Eigenvalues and eigenvectors;
Eigenvalues of unitary and Hermitian matrices; Real quadratic forms; Normal modes of
oscillation

Partial Differential Equations [5]

Superposition principle for linear homogeneous partial differential equations; Separation of
variables in Cartesian coordinates; Boundary conditions; One-dimensional wave equation;
Derivation of Laplace's equation in spherical polar coordinates; Separation of variables in
spherical polar coordinates; the Legendre differential equation; Solutions of degree zero

Series solution of Second-order Ordinary Differential Equations [4]

22
Series solutions: harmonic oscillator as an example; Ordinary and singular points; Radius of
convergence; Frobenius method; Applications to second-order differential equations

Legendre Functions [4]

Application of the Frobenius method to the Legendre equation; Range of convergence,
Quantisation of the l index; Generating function for Legendre polynomials; Recurrence
relations; Orthogonality of Legendre functions; Expansion in series of Legendre
polynomials; Solution of Laplace's equation for a conducting sphere; Associated Legendre
functions; Spherical harmonics

Fourier Analysis [5]

Fourier series; Periodic functions; Derivation of basic formulae; Simple applications; Gibbs
phenomenon (empirical); Differentiation and integration of Fourier series; Parseval's
identity; Complex Fourier series; Fourier transforms; Derivation of basic formulae and
simple applications; Dirac delta function; Convolution theorem

23
PHAS2427 – Environmental Physics (Term 2)

Prerequisites

In order to take this course, students should be familiar with the basic principles of physics to
a standard comparable with a grade B in GCSE Advanced Level, and to have a level of
competence in mathematics consistent with having passed courses PHAS1245 and
PHAS1246.

Aims of the Course

This course aims to provide:

 An introduction to the application of fundamental principles of physics to the environmental
sciences
 A treatment of the basic physics establishing thermal and chemical balances in the Earth’s
atmosphere
 An explanation of the physics underpinning the topical problems of ozone depletion and
global warming
 A description of the physics underpinning terrestrial weather patterns including cloud
formation and wind patterns
 A discussion of current climate models and their predicative power for short and long term
weather patterns
 To provide a description of the physical principles involved in the development of the
technologies for adoption of renewable energy schemes
 Provide an explanation of heat transfer in current buildings and how they may be improved
 A description of the causes and consequences of pollutants in the atmosphere,
ecosystems and human health

Objectives

After completing this half-unit course students should be able to:

 Describe the composition and structure of the terrestrial atmosphere
 Discuss the interaction of solar radiation with the terrestrial atmosphere
 Describe the transport of solar radiation through the atmosphere to the Earth’s surface
and subsequent emission of infra-red radiation and its transport back through the
atmosphere into space
 Derive a model for thermal balance within the Earth’s atmosphere and at the
ground/atmosphere boundary
 Provide a critical discussion of the causes and consequences of ozone depletion and
global warming and discuss possible remedial actions
 Discuss the basic mechanisms for the formation of global weather systems and their
transport
 Demonstrate a physical understanding of the dynamics of cloud formation, including
different precipitation patterns and the special properties of thunderstorms
 Discuss the global hydrological cycle
 Provide a simple physical model for water transport through soils
 Discuss the global energy budget and the reasons for current reliance upon fossil fuels

24
 Describe the potential for future energy sources including nuclear fusion
 Discuss the plausibility of renewable energies providing a significant input into future world
energy needs
 Describe the basic physics underpinning wind, hydroelectric and solar energies
 Discuss heat transport through buildings and how current housing stocks may be made
more energy efficient
 Describe new building designs that will allow renewable energies to be adopted
 Discuss the causes of local (urban) pollution and the possible consequences for human
health

Methodology and Assessment

This is a half-unit course, with 27 lectures and 3 discussion classes: additional timetable
slots are used to discuss additional topics of current interest, such material will not be
examined. Continuous assessment is 20% of the total marks for this course. 10% is
allocated to a single essay of 3000 words to be written on a topic related to the course. Final
assessment is by 2 In-Course-Assessment (ICA) tests during the term based on seen
homework problems (10%) and a final written examination (80%).

Textbooks

Most of the course material is covered in the basic text, Environmental Physics N J Mason
and P Hughes (Taylor and Francis 1999). Other books which may be useful include the
following, but note that they each cover only part of the material than is in the syllabus, and in
some cases are more mathematical in approach.

 Principles of Environmental Physics. Second edition. Monteith, J.L. and Unsworth, M.L.
(Arnold, London, 1990)
 Environmental Physics. Boeker, E. and Van Gronelle, R. (Chichester, Wiley, 1995)
 Physics of the Environment and Climate. Guyot, G. (Chichester, Wiley, 1998)
 Environmental Science Botkin , D.B and Keller E.A. ( Chichester, Wiley, 1998)

Syllabus
(The approximate allocation of lectures to topics is shown in brackets below.)

(A) Structure and Composition of the atmosphere [4]

Principal layers – troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere; Ideal gas
model revisited; Exponential variation of pressure with height; Escape velocity; Temperature
structure and lapse rate

(B) Radiation [5]

The sun as the prime source of energy for the earth; Solar energy input, cycles daily and
annual; Spectrum of solar radiation reaching the earth; Total radiation and Stefan-
Boltzmann, Wien’s and Kirchoff’s laws; Radiation balance at the earth’s surface and
determination of the surface temperature; Ozone layers and depletion; CO2 methane, H20
and Greenhouse effect

(C) Fluid dynamics [9]

How unequal heating leads to atmospheric circulation surface and high winds Hadley, Ferrel
and Polar cells; Diurnal variation of pressure; Evaporation and condensation,
25
thunderstorms; Coriolis force due to the rotation of the earth; Applied to atmospheric and
ocean currents; Hydrological cycle and budget; Physical properties of water; Vapour
pressure, dynamic equilibrium, evaporation and condensation; Saturated vapour pressure;
Cloud formation; Ocean currents as transporters of energy; Sea level changes and the
greenhouse effect

(D) Energy Resources [9]

Fuels – fossil, nuclear power; Renewable energy sources; Power consumption; Annual
energy budgeting, long term trends; Efficiency of systems; Energy audit for a building;
Insulation of a building; Thermal conduction through materials; Noise pollution

26
PHAS2440 – Practical Physics 2A (Term 1)

Prerequisites

Normally PHAS1240, Practical Skills 1C

Aim of the Course

All Physics Laboratory courses within the Department contribute to a continuing

development of students’ practical skills extending throughout the four/three years of the
MSci/BSc degrees. Collectively the courses have the overall aim of equipping the student
with those practical skills which employers expect to find in graduates in physics whether
they are employed in scientific research or development, or in a wider context. Intended
mainly for students following the Physics degree programme, course PHAS2440 aims to
build on and extend the skills acquired in the First Year Lab course with the following
objectives.

Objectives

By the end of the course the students should have:

 Improved skill and confidence in the acquisition and analysis of experimental data
through the performance of experiments beyond the introductory level encountered
in the first year lab course and become familiar with more complex instrumentation
 Improved ability to record their work concisely and precisely in the laboratory
notebook, as it is done, through repeated practice guided by frequent feedback from
teachers
 Improved appreciation of the validity of the data obtained and recorded and should
be able to identify the main sources of uncertainty in it and be able to propagate
random uncertainties through to estimate the uncertainty on the final result
 Improved ability to condense the information contained in the record made in the
laboratory notebook into a concise, but precise and complete formal report of the
experiment in word-processed form
 Gained greater insight into some of the phenomena treated in lecture courses in
years 1 and 2 by performing related experiments

Course Contents

Treatment of Experimental Data: A course of about 6 lectures on the evaluation of

experimental data. This course reinforces and extends the course given in the First Year
and examines some more practical aspects of good data-taking techniques to make
students aware that bad practice in taking data can affect the precision of results. One
problem sheet is set.

Set Experiments: Develops some basic techniques of laboratory physics as well as

illustrating some aspects of lecture courses given in the Second Year via a number of “set”
experiments which, although building on some techniques acquired in the First Year course,
are generally longer and of a more challenging nature. Normally six or more experiments
are completed.

27
Formal Reports: Two of the set experiments must be made the subject of two formal
reports.

Methodology and Assessment

Assessment is continuous. In the laboratory sessions students work in pairs following

prescriptive scripts. Great emphasis is placed on the formation of good habits in the keeping
of a laboratory notebook for which students are given detailed advice. Lab sessions are
supervised at the rate of about one demonstrator per 10 to 12 students. Demonstrators not
only help students understand experiments and overcome difficulties as they arise, but also
inspect student notebooks to provide instant correctives to any bad practice arising.

Laboratory notebook records of experiments are checked, in the laboratory with the student
present, as soon as a student thinks he/she has finished an experiment satisfactorily, to
make sure all the expected elements are present. If this is so, the student is assigned a new
experiment and the laboratory notebook retained for detailed assessment. This is generally
carried out within one week and the book returned to the student, with comments, to provide
rapid feedback on any elements requiring improvement. Two formal reports are required to
be produced according to the same criteria as in First Year, but make more demands on the
student’s ability on account of the longer and more complicated nature of the experiments
reported. The detailed advice given in the first year on how to approach the preparation of a
report is reiterated. Students receive back their reports, assessed and with a detailed
critique of features, which require improvement in future reports. All assessed work is both
first and second marked. The different course components contribute the total assessment
with the following weights.

 6 experiments (55%)
 2 Formal reports (36%)
 1 problem paper (9%)

Textbooks

There are no textbooks which the students are expected to buy. The following are provided
for reference in the laboratory and the students are expected to consult them to find
relevant information required in experiments.

 Table of Physical Constants, Kaye and Laby

 Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, CRC Press
 Experimental Methods, L. Kirkup
 Measurements and their Uncertainties: A practical guide to modern error analysis,
Hughes and Hase, OUP

28
PHAS2423 – Mathematical Methods for Theoretical Physics (Term 1)

Compulsory module for Theoretical Physics students in year 2; optional module for all
students in year 3

Prerequisites

PHAS1245, PHAS1246, PHAS2246 (may be taken concurrently) or equivalent

Aims

 To introduce theoretically-minded students to advanced areas in mathematics, with

applications to various problems in physics, particularly in dynamics, and in quantum
mechanics, solid mechanics and fluid mechanics
 To provide a deeper treatment of mathematical methods covered in PHAS2246
Mathematical Methods 3
 To provide mathematical underpinning for Theoretical Physics students taking
PHAS2443 Practical Mathematics in term 2 of year 2

Methodology and Assessment

This course is based on lectures, supplemented by problem solving tutorials/discussion.

Final assessment is by 2 In-Course-Assessment (ICA) tests during the term based on seen
homework problems (10%) and a final written examination (90%).

Syllabus

Cartesian tensors [5]

Transformation properties of scalars, vectors and rank-N tensors; Kronecker delta and Levi-
Civita symbol; Quotient theorem; Applications in the elastic deformation of solids; Stress
and strain tensors, elastic moduli

Numerical methods for initial value problems [3]

Explicit and implicit Euler method, errors and stability; Advanced methods, e.g. Runge-Kutta

Linear ordinary differential equations [4]

Solution of inhomogeneous equations by variation of parameters; Solution using Green’s
functions; Properties of the delta function

Sturm-Liouville theory [4]

Self-adjoint linear differential operators; Properties of eigenfunctions of Sturm-Liouville
equations; Completeness of a basis set; Construction of Green’s functions and
representation of the delta function; Examples of orthogonal polynomials

Linear partial differential equations [4]

Categorisation of equations and classes of boundary condition; Diffusion equation,
Laplace/Poisson equation, wave equation; Eigenfunction representation of solutions;
Method of characteristics for first order PDEs

Fluid Mechanics [4]

29
Equations of motion of non-viscous and viscous fluids; Euler’s equation, irrotational flow,
potential flow; Bernouilli’s theorem; Navier-Stokes equation; Poiseuille flow, Stokes flow
past a sphere

Integral transforms [3]

Fourier and Laplace transforms and inversion (not to include the Bromwich integral);
Applications in ordinary and partial differential equations

Recommended books

 Mathematical Methods for Physics and Engineering, Third Edition, Riley, Hobson
and Bence (CUP)
 Mathematical Methods in the Physical Sciences, 3rd Edition, Boas (Wiley)
 Physical Fluid Dynamics, Second Edition, Tritton (Oxford)

30
PHAS2441 – Practical Physics 2B with Computing (Term 2)

Prerequisites

Pass in both laboratory physics and computing elements of PHAS1240 is essential.

Normally PHAS2440, Practical Physics 2A

Aim of the Course

All Physics laboratory and computing courses within the Department contribute to a
continuing development of students’ skills. Collectively the courses have the overall aim of
equipping the student with skills which employers expect to find in graduates in physics
whether they are employed in scientific research or development, or in a wider context.
Intended for students following degrees in Physics, course PHAS2441 aims to continue the
development of students’ skills, begun in PHAS1240, beyond the level reached in First Year
courses with the following objectives.

Objectives

By the end of the course the students should have:

 Improved ability to record their work concisely and precisely in the laboratory
notebook, as it is done
 Improved ability to take reliable data, to identify the main sources of uncertainty in it,
and to propagate random uncertainties into an estimate of the uncertainty on the
final result
 Increased ability and confidence to plan and undertake scientific investigation by
completing a structured experiment extending over several weeks
 Increased their knowledge and understanding of digital electronics
 Increased their skills in computer programming using Python, and be able to apply
these skills to a wide variety of physical problems and models

Course Contents

Computing: The computing element of the module takes place in the first half of term, with
each student attending two three-hour sessions per week. Programming skills acquired
during PHAS1240 will be developed and extended, using structured coursework
assignments based on a range of physical examples related to lecture and laboratory
course material. The course will cover a range of topics in advanced data analysis,
numerical analysis techniques and computational physics.

Electronics: Performed in the second half of the term, this gives the student the opportunity
to plan and undertake an extended piece of structured experimental work. Students
calibrate a temperature sensor and then build and test an operational digital thermometer,
with display, and interface it to a computer for automatic collection of data.

Methodology and Assessment

Assessment is continuous. In the computing component, students work individually at a

computer, supervised by academic staff and demonstrators. Most assignments will be

31
completed and assessed in class, with a longer final assignment being completed and
assessed outside class hours.

For the electronics project students normally work in pairs supervised by members of the
academic staff and postgraduate demonstrators. Assessment is based on the contents of
the notebook each student is required to keep. The different course components contribute
to the total assessment with the following weights:
 Computing (50%)
 Electronics (50%)

Textbooks

There is no textbook which the students are expected to buy. Reference books are available
in the laboratory and links are provided to online information for the computing course.

32
PHAS2443 – Practical Mathematics II (Term 2)

Prerequisites for the Course

The first year course PHAS1449 Practical Mathematics I is a prerequisite for this course.
The programming and simulation techniques taught in this course will support, but are not a
prerequisite for, the final year theoretical project course.

Aims of the Course

This course uses a modern system for solving mathematical problems by computer as a
framework for modelling and simulation in physics. Through lecture-demonstrations and
practical experience, students will use the integrated Mathematica environment and its
graphics, numerics, algebra and calculus capabilities to learn basic numerical analysis and
simulation techniques, and will apply them to problems in mathematical physics. The
course unit establishes a links between the mathematics, physics and computer
programming which are taught in other course units and illustrates the benefit of computer
problems for problem analysis, for problem solving, and for displaying results. As well as
short exercises to test their understanding as the course progresses, students will
undertake an extended mini-project using Mathematica. The mini-project will increase a
student’s ability and confidence to undertake scientific investigation without the need for
prescriptive instruction and to present the results in a written report.

Objectives of the Course

After completing this course, the student should:

 Be able to use the Mathematica language to solve problems in mathematical physics
using analytical and numerical methods
 Understand the basic principles of the design of simple numerical algorithms
 Be able to design and implement a variety of simulations in mathematical physics
 Be capable of planning, writing, testing and documenting Mathematica code to solve a
multi-step problem
 Be ready to tackle new problems in theoretical physics, to find appropriate mathematical
techniques and to draw conclusions from the results
 Be able to write, in word-processed form, a precise and complete report of a scientific
project

Brief Outline of Course

The topics which will be covered are:

 Coding techniques: procedural, rule-based and functional methods; Dynamic
programming; Recursive methods; Add-on packages for Mathematica
 Convolutions: image processing and cellular automata
 Numerical methods: difference between exact and floating point arithmetic and relevance
to algorithm design; Illustration of rounding errors
 Finite difference methods; Explicit and implicit methods; Stability analysis
 Classification of differential equations; Relaxation methods for elliptic equations
 Numerical models of the wave equations
 Systems of particles: from molecules to galaxies
 Monte Carlo methods: random numbers, integration and the Metropolis algorithm

33
 Mathematica and non-commuting operators: applications to quantum mechanics
 Fourier series and Fourier transforms; Applications to differential equations and data
analysis

Methodology and Assessment

This course occupies eleven 3½-hour practical sessions. The central activity is hands-on
experience with the Mathematica program, with each student having the use of a PC.
There are three elements to the assessment of the course: problem sheets during the
course; a mini-project, to be carried out in the students' own time, which will use a large
number of the concepts learnt; and a two-and-one-half hour computer-based examination,
taken at the end of the term.

 Exam (30%)
 Mini project (45%)
 Continuous Assessment (25%)

Recommended Reading

It should not be necessary for students to consult any material apart from the course
material which will be supplied and the on-line help files for the Mathematica program.
Students who wish to extend their knowledge might consult any of the large number of
guides to Mathematica (a good range is held in the DMS Watson Library). Particularly
useful are:

 The Mathematica Book, Stephen Wolfram, Cambridge (various editions) (The

comprehensive guide to the features of the program)
 Applied Mathematica, Getting Started, Getting it Done, W.T. Shaw and J. Trigg, Addison
Wesley (1994)
 Mastering Mathematica, Programming Methods and Applications, J.W. Gray, Academic
(1998)
 Mathematica for Scientists and Engineers, T.B. Bahder, Addison Wesley (1995)
 Mathematica for Physicists, R.L. Zimmerman and F.I. Olness, Addison-Wesley (1994)

34
PHAS2444 – Practical Physics for Natural Sciences (Term 2)
Please note: Data Analysis lectures take place in Term 1

Prerequisites

Normally PHAS1240, Practical Skills 1C, MAPS2001 required for Term 2 Matlab content

Aim of the Course

All Physics Laboratory courses within the Department contribute to a continuing

development of students’ practical skills extending throughout the four/three years of the
MSci/BSc degrees. Collectively the courses have the overall aim of equipping the student
with those practical skills which employers expect to find in graduates in physics whether
they are employed in scientific research or development, or in a wider context. Intended for
students following the Natural Sciences degree programme, course PHAS2444 aims to
build on and extend the skills acquired in the First Year Lab course, with the following
objectives.

Objectives

By the end of the course the students should have:

 Improved skill and confidence in the acquisition and analysis of experimental data
through the performance of experiments beyond the introductory level encountered
in the first year lab course and become familiar with more complex instrumentation
 Improved ability to record their work concisely and precisely in the laboratory
notebook, as it is done, through repeated practice guided by frequent feedback from
teachers
 Improved appreciation of the validity of the data obtained and recorded and should
be able to identify the main sources of uncertainty in it and be able to propagate
random uncertainties through to estimate the uncertainty on the final result
 Improved ability to condense the information contained in the record made in the
laboratory notebook into a concise, but precise and complete formal report of the
experiment in word-processed form
 Gained greater insight into some of the phenomena treated in lecture courses in
years 1 and 2 by performing related experiments
 Grasped basic principles of computer programming and be able to apply the Matlab
programming language to a range of physical problems and data analysis tasks

Course Contents

Treatment of Experimental Data

A course of about 6 lectures on the evaluation of experimental data. This course reinforces
and extends the course given in the First Year and examines some more practical aspects
of good data-taking techniques to make students aware that bad practice in taking data can
affect the precision of results. One problem sheet is set. Note that although the rest of the
course takes place in Term 2, the lectures (and therefore issuing and submission of the
problem sheet) will take place in Term 1.

Set Experiments
Develop some basic techniques of laboratory physics as well as illustrating some aspects of
lecture courses given in the Second Year via a number of “set” experiments which, although
35
building on some techniques acquired in the First Year course, are generally longer and of a
more challenging nature. Normally three or more experiments are completed.

Formal Reports
One of the set experiments must be made the subject of formal reports.

Matlab
Students work under supervision through a series of exercises to enhance their skills in
numerical and mathematical analysis, and acquire a more in-depth knowledge of the Matlab
computing architecture. Topics covered are designed to support the treatment of
experimental data, and content of related courses within the physics and astronomy
streams.

Methodology and Assessment

Assessment is continuous. In the Matlab component students work at a computer terminal

and are assessed on the basis of problem sheets. In the laboratory sessions students work
in pairs following prescriptive scripts. Great emphasis is placed on the formation of good
habits in the keeping of a laboratory notebook for which students are given detailed advice.
Lab sessions are supervised at the rate of about one demonstrator per 10 to 12 students.
Demonstrators not only help students understand experiments and overcome difficulties as
they arise, but also inspect student notebooks to provide instant correctives to any bad
practice arising. Laboratory notebook records of experiments are checked, in the laboratory
with the student present, as soon as a student thinks he/she has finished an experiment
satisfactorily, to make sure all the expected elements are present. If this is so, the student is
assigned a new experiment and the laboratory notebook retained for detailed assessment.
This is generally carried out within one week and the book returned to the student, with
comments, to provide rapid feedback on any elements requiring improvement. One formal
report is required to be produced according to the same criteria as in First Year, but makes
more demands on the student’s ability on account of the longer and more complicated
nature of the experiment reported. The detailed advice given in First Year on how to
approach the preparation of a report is re-iterated. Students receive back their reports,
assessed and with a detailed critique of features, which require improvement in future
reports.

All assessed work is both first and second marked. The different course components
contribute the total assessment with the following weights.

 3 experiments (28%)
 1 Formal report (18%)
 1 problem paper (9%)
 Matlab component (45%)

Textbooks

There are no textbooks which the students are expected to buy. The following are provided
for references in the laboratory and the students are expected to consult them to find the
relevant information as required in experiments.

 Table of Physical Constants, Kaye and Laby

 Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, CRC Press
 Experimental Methods, L. Kirkup

36
MATH6202 – Mathematics for Physics and Astronomy (Term 2)
(Please note: This course is given by the Mathematics Department)

Prerequisites

In order to take this course, students should normally have obtained a good pass in the first
year courses PHAS1245 – Maths I and PHAS1246 – Maths II Mathematics examination
and achieved a good result also in the second year PHAS2246 – Maths III Mathematics
mid-sessional examination.

Aims

This optional course aims to provide a treatment of advanced mathematical methods

suitable for well-qualified students who intend to proceed further with theoretical studies.

Objectives

The course, which is taught by members of the Mathematics Department, is a mixture of

subjects that may be useful in later (optional) modules, together with material which is of
interest in its own right, especially when looked at from a mathematician's perspective.
Complex variable theory is needed for many branches of mathematical physics,
represented by such fourth year modules as scattering theory or quantum electrodynamics.

In the three major sections:

For Functions of a Complex Variable, students should be able to:

 Derive relationships between elementary functions of complex arguments;
 Represent functions in the cut complex plane and understand the significance of square
root and logarithmic branch points;
 Find the radius of convergence of power series and regions of convergence in the
complex plane for more complicated series;
 Apply the conditions of differentiablity to a given function;
 Understand complex mappings and derive and apply the Cauchy-Riemann equations to
deduce the imaginary/real part of an analytic function from its real/imaginary part;
 Evaluate integrals over contours in the complex plane by using the Cauchy residue
theorem;
 Apply Cauchy’s integral formula;
 Obtain a Taylor-Laurent series for a function of a complex variable;
 Evaluate definite integrals over a real variable by continuing into the complex plane.

For Calculus of Variations, students should be able to:

 Show that the problem of finding the extremal of a functional may be recast in terms of
solving Euler’s equations;
 Use Euler’s equations to find the stationary points of a line integral in two dimensions;
 Find also the stationary points when the path is subject to an integral constraint.

Group Theory:
The group axioms; Example of symmetries for finite groups; Subgroups and Equivalence
classes; Representations of finite groups; Similary transformations; Reducible and
irreducible representations; Characters; Orthogonality relation

37
Methodology and Assessment

There are 3 lectures per week in this second-term optional half-unit course in Mathematics,
which is offered by the Mathematics Department almost exclusively to students from the
Physics and Astronomy Department; the assessment is controlled by the Board of
Examiners in Mathematics. The last 1.5 hours of the course are devoted to revision and the
study of previous examination questions. The written examination counts for 90% of the
assessment, with 10% being based on the best 6 results from the 8 homework sheets. Of
the problems on the homework sheets, typically only two or three are set and marked for
assessment, but there are many more “practice” questions, which are given in order to
enhance the student’s learning experience. There is a weekly one-hour problem class
where a teacher and demonstrator help students who are having difficulty with the “practice”
questions. The lecturer also arranges an office hour once per week at a mutually convenient
time.

Textbooks
The book recommended for the first term PHAS2246 course, viz. Mathematical Methods in
the Physical Sciences, Mary Boas (Wiley), is suitable for this course as well.

Syllabus
(The approximate allocation of lectures to topics is shown in brackets below)

PART 1: Functions of a complex variable (4 exam questions)

WEEK 1: review of complex numbers, power series, convergence tests, radius of
convergence

WEEK 2: Introduce functions F(z)=u+iv, single and multi-valued, branch cuts, roots, basic
functions (exponential, trigonometric + using De Moivre, hyperbolic and log)

WEEK 3: continuity and differentiability, Cauchy-Riemann equations, harmonic functions,

finding conjugate functions (i.e. given u(x,y) find v(x.y) such that f(z)=u+iv analytic), complex
integration (line integration)

WEEK 4: integrating around singularities, Cauchy’s Theorem + proof, Cauchy’s Integral

Formula + proof +examples, Cauchy’s Integral Theorem for derivatives + proof, basic
Laurent series expansions

WEEK 5: Types of singularities, finding residues, the Residue Theorem, Examples of real
integrals done using contour integration (mapping to unit circle or semi-circle or strip),
Jordan’s Lemma

WEEK 6: READING WEEK

PART 2: Calculus of variations (2 exam questions)

WEEK 7: what is a functional (examples)? the Euler-Lagrange Equation derivation, solving
simple second-order o.d.e.s, shortest-distance between two-points and min. surface of
revolution, special forms of E-L equations, The Brachistochrone problem

WEEK 8: what is a Lagrange multiplier? problems with constraints (isoperimetric problems),

examples (including a heavy-chain suspended between two points), E-L systems of
equations

WEEK 9 – 11: Group theory

38
PHAS2901 – Developing Effective Communication 2 (Term 1)

Prerequisites

None

Aim of the Course

This is the second of two modules that aim to develop your skills in getting your messages
across, and in understanding the messages of others. These skills are crucial not only for
being an effective physicist, but also in functioning effectively in many career – or non-
career – situations.

Objectives

After completing this module successfully, students should be able to:

 write medium-length pieces for non-specialist and specialist audiences
 produce short briefs on scientific issues to for a lay audience
 orally present scientific ideas to a medium-sized group of peers using full visual aids
 summarise scientific ideas succinctly and accurately
 appreciate some of the ethical implications of being a scientist
 present and defend ideas using a poster presentation
 maintain a personal web page
 use appropriate IT effectively

Methodology and Assessment

This module runs for the whole three terms, with one hour every week in the first two terms
set aside for lectures, discussions, seminars, or surgeries. Some of the work is done as part
of tutorials. Students will practice the writing of essays, summaries, briefs and reports,
prepare, deliver and discuss oral presentations to small and medium sized audiences,
construct, present and defend a scientific poster, and maintain a personal web page. The
module continues in the third term, with some exercises taking place in the period after
examinations and before the end of the third term.

Assessment will be of written coursework of different types, poster, oral presentations and
computational work (web pages). There will be an element of peer assessment. This
module is weighted 50% of the communications skills provision, which includes PHAS1901
in year 1. The two modules together will contribute to your assessment for honours at a
level equivalent to approximately 5%.

Textbooks

A range of textual material will be used. Students should find, Getting the Message Across:
Key Skills for Scientists, edited by Kristy MacDonald, and published by the Royal Society of
Chemistry at £1.20 a helpful booklet.

39
08GL064U – Astrobiology (Term 2) Evening course at Birkbeck

A definition of astrobiology:
The study of the astronomical and planetary context within which life on Earth has evolved,
and the implications for the prevalence of life elsewhere in the Universe

Prerequisites

PHAS2117

Aims and Objectives

This course is designed to provide a broad introduction to the exciting new field of
astrobiology -- the study of the astronomical and planetary context within which life on Earth
has evolved, and the implications for the prevalence of life elsewhere in the Universe. The
course will be suitable for a diverse audience of undergraduate students in their second
year or above, and who pursuing degrees in Planetary Science, Earth Sciences, Physical
Sciences, and Astronomy/Astrophysics. In 2009-10 the course will be delivered in the
evening.

The main aims of the course are to:

 Introduce students to the astronomical background of the origin of life, including the
origin of the necessary chemical elements and the origin and evolution of the Solar
System
 Introduce the concept of pre-biological chemical evolution, and familiarize students
with the key theories and experimental results in this area
 Provide students with an overview of the history of life on Earth, and its relevance for
life elsewhere, with special reference to extremophilic life
 Outline the prospects for life elsewhere in the Universe, both in our own Solar
System and on the newly discovered planets around other stars
 Introduce students to the scientific and philosophical issues concerning the
possibility of extraterrestrial intelligence

In common with other half-course units, the course will involve a total of thirty-three 50-
minute lecture periods. Of these, 27 lectures cover the 'core' material (with the approximate
allocation of lectures as set out in the Syllabus), with 6 set aside for discussion of problem
sheets, general discussion periods, and possible talks by visiting guest lecturers.

Methodology and Assessment

Final assessment for the course is derived from a written examination (70%), and
coursework (essays/problem sheets) (30%).

Textbooks

There are no required books for this course, and the lectures are self-contained and based
on a wide range of source material. However, it would be well worth everyone taking this
course making the effort to read one or other of these two books.

40
That said, an up-to-date, introductory astrobiology textbook that covers essentially all the
material in the course has recently appeared: Life in the Universe by Jeffrey Bennett, Seth
Shostak, and Bruce Jakosky (Addison Wesley, 2003).

This book builds upon an excellent earlier book by Jakosky, The Search for Life on other
Planets (Cambridge University Press, 1998). Although slightly more dated than Life in the
Universe, I actually prefer the latter book as it is written at a more appropriate (i.e. slightly
higher!) level. However, while still in print, it may be harder to obtain.

Other good references books include:

The Universe and Life by G.S. Kutter (Jones and Bartlett, 1987) – the UCL library has a
copy.

For background reading on the Solar System and planetary science, The New Solar System
edited by J. Kelly Beatty, C. Collins Petersen, and A. Chaikin (4th ed., CUP, 1999) is
outstanding in all respects.

An excellent discussion of the origin of life, its evolution, and its cosmic context has been
given by the Nobel-Prize-winning biochemist Christian de Duve in his book Vital Dust: Life
as a Cosmic Imperative, (Basic Books, 1995).

A more up-to-date summary of the palaeontological aspects, with detailed discussion of the
recent controversies concerning the earliest evidence for life on Earth, may be found in Life
on a Young Planet by Andrew H. Knoll, (Princeton University Press, 2003).

For background on extremophiles, have a look at Life at the Limits by David Wharton (CUP,
2002). For an excellent guide specifically to the biology of hydrothermal vents, I can
throughly recommend The Ecology of Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vents by Cindy Lee Van
Dover, Princeton University Press (2000).

For background reading on planets around other stars, Planet Quest by Ken Croswell
(Oxford University Press, 1999) is by far the best of half a dozen or so recent books on the
subject.

Syllabus

(1) Introduction (1 lecture)

(2) Origin and distribution of biologically important chemical elements (4 lectures):

Stellar evolution and the origin of the chemical elements; ejection into the interstellar
medium; timescales for creation and dispersal of carbon and other key elements; interstellar
clouds and astrobiologically relevant interstellar chemistry

(3) Origin and early evolution of the Solar System and implications for other planetary
systems (3 lectures):
Collapse of proto-solar nebula; accretion of planets; epoch of heavy bombardment and the
‘impact frustration’ of the origin of life; possible importance of comets as reservoirs of
volatiles and organic molecules; possible role of giant planets in shielding terrestrial planets
from cometary impacts; concept of habitable zones

(4) Pre-biological chemical evolution and the origin of life (4 lectures):

Summary of pre-biological chemical evolution; Urey-Miller-type experiments; importance of
oxidation state of early Earth for organic molecule yields; Genetic material; probable

41
importance of RNA; the RNA world and alternatives; basic introduction to the structure and
biochemistry of prokaryotic cells.

(5) Summary of evolutionary biology (3 lectures):

Earliest evidence for life on Earth (13C/12C ratios; microfossils; stromatalites); appearance
of eukaryotic cells - evidence for endosymbiosis; essential time frame for major evolutionary
innovations

(6) Rare Earth? (1 lecture):

Is the Earth uniquely habitable? Plate tectonics and the carbon cycle; role of a large Moon

(7) Requirements for life (3 lectures):

What is life? Energy and metabolism; xtremophiles; the 'envelope' of physical conditions
occupied by life on Earth today; hydrothermal vents; Antarctica -- Lake Vostok

(8) Prospects for life eleswhere in the Solar System (4 lectures):

Mars: Evidence for surface water in the past; climate change; Viking results; future
exploration; Europa: Evidence for sub-ice ocean; possible hydrothermal vents; future
exploration; Other possibilities (briefly -- Jupiter? Titan?); panspermia

(9) Extrasolar planets (3 lectures):

Discovery of planets around other stars; summary of discoveries to-date; limitations of the
current methods; future direct imaging of extrasolar terrestrial planets (Darwin, TPF);
spectroscopic search for bio-signatures in the atmospheres of extrasolar planets

(10) Extraterrestrial intelligence (3 lectures):

Prospects for intelligent life in the Universe; Drake Equation; SETI; Fermi Paradox

42