LABORATORY MANUAL

POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS-II

LABORATORY
(16EE71)

SEMESTER: VII EEE

(AUTONOMOUS)

COMPILED & PREPARED BY

Dr. K. Uma Rao, Professor

Sushmita Sarkar, Assistant Professor
Sudarshan B S, Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

RV COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING ®
BANGALORE-560059

1
 Instructions to students:

1. All the programs are developed in MATLAB/Simulink and MiPOWER and ETAP
software package.

2. The students are instructed to go through the algorithm, understand the logic and the
corresponding Matlab code, before coming to the lab class and answer the oral questions
asked by the teacher in charge.

3. The students are instructed to write the programs in the data sheet along with input given
in the manual before coming to the lab class.

4. The students are instructed to write algorithm/flowcharts on the L.H.S of the record book
along with input and corresponding output. Program and the relevant theory can be
written on R.H.S.

5. If a student is absent to a class he/she has to come prepared for the regular program
instead of the missed program. A maximum of two of the missed programs can be
completed in the repetition class.

6. A student can miss only one class under genuine circumstances.

****************

2
 CONTENTS
Expt. Week Description Page
No. No.
Formation of Y-BUS (Matlab)
a) Formation of Y-BUS with off-nominal turns ratio by 5
1 1 direct method
b) Formation of Y-BUS using singular transformation
(i) with half line charging admittance 6
(ii) with mutual coupling 9
2 Load Flow Analysis
2 a) LFA by Gauss-Siedel method using MATLAB 11
3 b) Determination of Bus currents, Bus power and Line 14
flows using MATLAB
4 3 c) LFA by GS, NR and FDLF methods using MiPower 17
software package
5 4 d) LFA by GS, NR and FDLF methods using ETAP 18
software package
6 5 Short Circuit Studies (software package)
Short circuit studies using MiPower software package 19
7 6 Transient Stability Studies (MATLAB + software
package)
a) Transient Stability Studies using MiPower software 20
package
8 7 b) Swing Curve using Euler’s method in MATLAB 22
9 c) Swing Curve using Runge Kutta method in MATLAB 24
10 8 Economic Operation (MATLAB)
a) Economic operation without transmission losses and 27
with generator limits
b) Economic operation with transmission losses 28
11 9 ALFC Operation (Simulink)
a) Step Response of ALFC for variable R and D 31
b) Transient response of first order approximation of 32
ALFC
12 10 Modeling of PV Module using MATLAB/Simulink
a) Modeling with constant I0 and ISC 35
b) Modeling with constant I0 & variable ISC 36
c) Modeling of actual PV module 36

3
4
 Formation of Y bus
EXPERIMENT 1
a) Formation of Y bus with off-nominal turns ratio by direct method
Algorithm:
1. Read the no. of buses(nbus) and no. of lines (nline)
2. Read from bus no, to bus no, line impedance and half line charging admittance(hlc) and off-
nominal turns ratio(a) of each line
3. Convert line impedance to admittance(y) of each line
4. Repeat step i to iii for K=1 to nline
i. P = from bus no. q=to bus no.
ii. Set y = y/a
iii. Diagonal elements: Ypp = Ypp + y + hlc+((1-a)/a)*y
Yqq = Yqq + y + hlc+(a-1)*y
iv. Off diagonal elements: Ypq = Ypq – y
Yqp = Ypq
5. Display Y bus
6. Stop

% pq z hlc(y/2) a

z= [5 4 0.02+0.06i 0.03i 0.9

5 1 0.08+0.24i 0.025i 1.0
4 1 0.06+0.18i 0.02i 1.0
4 2 0.06+0.18i 0.02i 1.0
4 3 0.04+0.12i 0.015i 1.0
1 2 0.01+0.03i 0.01i 0.8
2 3 0.08+0.24i 0.025i 1.0 ];
fb=z(:,1);
tb=z(:,2);
Z=z(:,3);
hlc=z(:,4);
a=z(:,5);
y=1./Z;
nbus=max(max(fb),max(tb));
Y=zeros(nbus);
nline=length(fb);
for
k=1:nline,
p=fb(k);q=tb(k);
y(k)=y(k)/a(k);
Y(p,p)=Y(p,p)+y(k)+hlc(k)+(1-a(k))/a(k)*y(k);
Y(q,q)=Y(q,q)+y(k)+hlc(k)+(a(k)-1)*y(k);

5
 Y(p,q)=Y(p,q)-y(k);
Y(q,p)=Y(p,q);
end
Ybus=Y

Exercise:
1. Repeat the exercise for the same data with transformers replaced by transmission lines
2. Modify the program without half line charging admittances.
3. Determine Y-bus for the following data
Line No. Between Line Half line
buses impedance charging
admittance
1 1-4 0.08+ j0.37 0.007
2 1-6 0.123+j0.518 0.010
3 2-3 0.723 + j1.05 0.0
4 2-5 0.282 +j0.64 0.0
5 4-3 0.0 + j0.133 0.0
6 4-6 0.097+ j0.407 0.0076
7 6-5 0.0+ j0.3 0.0

4.Determine Ybus in data given in the program if a shunt capacitor of admittance j0.008 is
connected at bus no 3.
5.Modify Ybus if an identical parallel line is added between 2-3.

b) Formation of Ybus Using Singular Transformation Method with Half Line

Charging (Or Shunt) Admittance

Algorithm:
1. Read no. of buses( nbus) and no. of lines( nline).
2. Initialize shunt admittance matrix to zeros.
3. Repeat step no i. to step no iv for I=1 to nline.
i. Read line data i.e., frombusno, tobus no, Zseries, half line charging.
ii. Shunt admittance [from bus]=shunt admittance [from bus]+half line charging.
iii. Shunt admittance [to bus]=shunt admittance [to bus]+half line charging.
iv. Series admittance [I]=1/series impedance [I].
4. Form the incidence matrix A
(i) Initialize all the elements of matrix A of size [(nbus + nline) x nbus] to zeros
AI
(ii) Form A = AA Where AI is identity matrix of size (nbus x nbus)

6
 AA is a matrix of size (nline x nbus) and elements of AA = [aij] Where aij = 0 if ith branch is not
incident on jth bus.
aij = 1 if ith branch is incident
th
to and oriented away from jth bus. aij = -1 if ith branch is incident to
and oriented away from j bus.
5. Form Yprimitive matrix
Initialize all elements of matrix Ypr of size (nbus+nline x nbus+nline) to zeros

Where Y is a matrix of size (nbus x nbus) with diagonal elements

y= total shunt admittance at bus i and all other elements being zeros.
yy is a matrix of size (nbus x nline) with all elements being zeros.
y’ is matrix of size (nline x nline) with diagonal elements of y’ =Yseries of line
i=1/Zseries of line i.
yy’ is matrix of size (nline x nbus) with all elements being zeros.
6. Display A matrix & Ypr matrix.
7. Form Transpose of matrix A i.e., AT.
8. Form ATY = ATT* Ypr.
9. Form Ybus = A Y *A and display.
10. Form Zbus = [Ybus]-1 and display.
11. Stop

Program:
 formation of ybus using singular transformation method
 without mutual coupling:

% p q Z hlc(Adm)
Z= [1 2 0.02+0.06i 0.03i
1 3 0.08+0.24i 0.025i
2 3 0.06+0.18i 0.02i
2 4 0.06+0.18i 0.02i
2 5 0.04+0.12i 0.015i
3 4 0.01+0.03i 0.01i
4 5 0.08+0.24i 0.025i
fb=z(:,1);
tb=z(:,2);
Z=z(:,3);
hlcy=z(:,4);
y=1./Z;
nbus=max(max(fb),max(tb));
Y=zeros(nbus);
nline=length(fb);
nlb=nline+nbus;
A=zeros(nlb,nbus);
for k=1:nbus
A(k,k)=1;

7
 end
for k=1:nline
A(nbus+k,fb(k))=1;
A(nbus+k,tb(k))=-1;
end
sh=zeros(nbus);
for k=1:nline
sh(fb(k))=sh(fb(k))+hlcy(k);
sh(tb(k))=sh(tb(k))+hlcy(k);
end
ypr=zeros(nlb,nlb);
for k=1:nbus
ypr(k,k)=sh(k);
end
for k=1:nline
ypr(nbus+k,nbus+k)=y(k);
end
format short;
Ybus=A'*ypr*A

Exercise:
1. Can this method be used with transformers? Justify.
2. Determine Ybus for data of exercise 2 in first program and compare results with that obtained
by direct method.
3. Determine Ybus for the following data

Line R X hlc
1-2 0.05 0.15 0.0025
1-3 0.1 0.3 0.03
2-3 0.15 0.45 0.05
2-4 0.10 0.30 0.0
3-4 0.05 0.15 0.0125

8
c) Formation of Ybus Using Singular Transformation Method with Mutual
Coupling.
Algorithm:
1. Read no. of buses( nbus) and no. of lines (nline).
2. Road line data i.e., Frombus no, tobus no, Zseries, mutual line no, Zmutual at all lines.
3. Form bus incidence matrix A
(i) Initialize all the elements of A of size (nline x nline) to zeros
(ii) Form A = [aij]
Where aij = 0 if ith branch is not incident on jth bus.
aij = 1 if ith branch is incident to and oriented away from jth bus. aij = -1 if ith branch is incident
to and oriented away from jth bus.

4. Form Zprimitive matrix, Zpr

(i) Initialize all the elements of Zpr of size (nline x nline) to zeros
(ii) The diagonal elements of Zpr are assigned with respective Zseries i.e.,
Zpr (i, i) = Zseries of ith line
(iii) The off diagonal element is zero if the line i has no mutual coupling with line j
(iv) The off diagonal element Zpr (i, j) = Zmutual if the line i has mutual coupling with
line j
5. Form Y primitive matrix Ypr = [Zpr]-1
6. Display A matrix & Ypr matrix.
7. Form Transpose of matrix A i.e., AT.
8. Form ATY = AT *Ypr.
9. Form Ybus = ATY * A and display.
10. Form Zbus = [Ybus]-1 and display.
11. Stop

Program:
 formation of ybus using singular transformation method with mutual coupling &
without line charging:

9
 p=z(:,1);
q=z(:,2);
z=z(:,3);
mno=z(:,4);
zmc=z(:,5);
nbus=max(max(p),max(q));
Y=zeros(nbus);
nline=length(p);
A=zeros(nline,nbus);

for k=1:nline,
if(q(k)==0)
A(k,p(k))=1;
elseif(p(k)==0)
A(k,q(k))=-1;
end
if(p(k)~=0 & q(k)~=0)
A(k,p(k))=1;
A(k,q(k))=-1;
end
end
zpr=zeros(nline,nline);

for k=1:nline
zpr(k,k)=Z(k);
if(mno(k))
zpr(k,mno(k))=zmc(k);
zpr(mno(k),k)=zmc(k);
end
end
ypr=inv(zpr);
format short;
Ybus=A'*ypr*A
Exercise:
1. Form the Ybus for the data given.
2. Data =[ slno fb tb z m zm ]
Slno-serial no of line ; fb-from bus; tb –to bus; z – line impedance, m – the sl no of line to
which it is coupled; zm – mutual impedance

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 Load Flow Analysis
(Matlab + software package)
EXPERIMENT 2
a) Load Flow Analysis by Gauss-Siedel method for both PQ and PV buses
using Matlab
Algorithm:
1. Read Ybus, number of buses (nbus)
(Assume bus 1 as slack bus)
No. of PQ buses (Npq), No. of PV buses (Npv)
Voltage at slack bus (Vi)
Real power (P) and reactive power (Q) at all pq buses
Real power (P) and specified voltage (Vsp) and Qlimits (Qmin and Qmax) at PV buses.
Convergence criteria ().
2. Set iteration count k = 1.
3. Calculate voltages at all the pq buses (p = 2 to Npq + 1), using,
1  Pp  Q p 
p 1 nbus
V pk  
Y pp  V p*
  Y pqVqk 1  Y pqVq
k


 q p 1

4. To calculate voltages at all the pv buses (p = Npq + 2 to nbus)

nbus

p   where,
QC   Im V p* I p
Ip  Y pqVq
Find 1

If QCp is within Qmin and Qmax, treat the bus p as pv bus and calculate
1  Pp  Q p p 1 nbus 
V pk 
Y pp

 V p*
  Y pqVqk 1   Y pqVqk 

q p 1
where, Vp = |Vsp| at an angle p corresponding to
previous iteration.
Else if QCp violates Qmin, treat bus p as pq bus and if QCp < Qmin, set Qp = Qmin else set Qp = Qmax
1  Pp  Q p 
p 1 nbus
V pk  
Y pp  V p*
  Y pqVqk 1  Y pqVq
k


and find q  p 1
where, Vp = Vp corresponding to previous
iteration.
5. Display voltages at all buses and QCp at pv buses
p p V  V  V k  V k 1
6. Determine the largest absolute value of max
.
7. If |V|max <= acc go to next step otherwise set k = k + 1 and go to step no. 3.
8. Stop

Program:

ybus=[-9i 5i 4i
5i -9i 4i
4i 4i -8i];

% Bus Type V Ang GMW GMVAR LMW LMVAR QMin QMax

busdata=[1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 2 1.02 0 0.8 0 0 0 0.1 0.8
3 3 1 0 0 0 1.0 0.8 0 0];

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bus=busdata(:,1);
type=busdata(:,2);
V=busdata(:,3);
th=busdata(:,4);
GMW=busdata(:,5);
GMVAR=busdata(:,6);
LMW=busdata(:,7);
LMVAR=busdata(:,8);
Qmin=busdata(:,9);
Qmax=busdata(:,10);
nbus=max(bus);
P=GMW-LMW;
Q=GMVAR-LMVAR;
Vprev=V;
toler=1;
k=1;
while(toler>0.001)
for p=2:nbus
sumyv=0;
for q=1:nbus
if p~=q
sumyv=sumyv+ybus(p,q)*V(q);
end
end
if type(p)==2
Q(p)=-imag(conj(V(p))*(sumyv+ybus(p,p)*V(p)));
if(Q(p)>Qmax(p)||Q(p)<Qmin(p))
if Q(p)<Qmin(p)
Q(p)=Qmin(p);
else
Q(p)=Qmax(p);
end
type(p)=3;
end
end

V(p)=(1/ybus(p,p))*((P(p)-j*Q(p))/conj(V(p))-sumyv);

if type(p)==2
realv(p)=abs(Vprev(p))*cos(angle(V(p)));
imagv(p)=abs(Vprev(p))*sin(angle(V(p)));
V(p)=complex(realv(p),imagv(p));
end
% to find the votages at all buses and Q at pv busses
fprintf('\n The votages at all buses and Q at pv busses after iteration no %d' ,k);
if type(p)==3
fprintf('\n V(%d)=%.4f at %.2fdeg', p, abs(V(p)), angle(V(p))*180/pi);
else
fprintf('\n V(%d)=%.4f at %.2fdeg , Q(%d)= %+.3f\n' , p, abs(V(p)) ,
angle(V(p))*180/pi , p, Q(p));

12
 end
end
k=k+1;
toler=max(abs(abs(V)-abs(Vprev)));
Vprev=V;
end

Exercise:
1. Repeat the above problem with limits on Q removed
2. Obtain the voltages at all the buses using GS method for the power system with the following
data
Line data

R X
SB EB
(pu) (pu)
1 2 0.10 0.40
1 4 0.15 0.60
1 5 0.05 0.20
2 3 0.05 0.20
2 4 0.10 0.40
3 5 0.05 0.20

Bus data

Bus PG QG PD QD VSP (pu) Remarks

No. (pu) (pu) (pu) (pu)
1 - - - - 1.02 slack

2 - - 0.60 0.30 - PQ
3 1.0 - - - 1.04 PV

4 - - 0.40 0.10 - PQ
5 - - 0.60 0.20 - PQ
No Q-limits are specified.
3. Obtain the load flow result for standard IEEE 14-bus system

13
 EXPERIMENT 3
b) Determination of Bus currents, Bus power and Line flows using MATLAB
Algorithm:
1. Read the following line data at each line from bus no(p), to bus no(q), line impedance(Zpq) and
half line charging admittance(Ychpq) Read voltages at all buses
2. Convert line impedance to admittance of each line Ypq
3. Repeat step i to x for K=1 to no. of lines
i. p = from bus no q = to bus no
ii. Line current, Ipq = (Vp-Vq)Ypq + Vp * Ychpq
iii. Bus current IIp=IIp+Ipq
iv. Line flow, SLpq =Vp * Ipq*
v. Generation at bus p, SGp = SGp + SLpq
vi. Line current, Iqp = (Vq-Vp)Ypq + Vq x Ychqp
vii.Bus current, IIq = IIq + Iqp
viii. Line flow, SLqp = Vq * Iqp*
ix. Loss of line k, Loss k= SLpq + SLqp
x. Total loss = Total loss + Loss k
4. Display current at each bus
Display line flows and line loss at each line
Display generations at each bus
Display the total losses
5. Stop

Program:
% p q z hlc(ADM)
z= [5 4 0.02+0.06i 0.03i
5 1 0.08+0.24i 0.025i
4 1 0.06+0.18i 0.02i
4 2 0.06+0.18i 0.02i
4 3 0.04+0.12i 0.015i
1 2 0.01+0.03i 0.01i
2 3 0.08+0.24i 0.025i];

v(1)=1+0.2i; v(2)=1.01-0.5i; v(3)=1.05-0.3i; v(4)=1.01-0.5i; v(5)=1.0-0i; fb=z(:,1);

tb=z(:,2);
Z=z(:,3);
ysh=z(:,4);
y=1./Z;
nbus=max(max(fb),max(tb));
nline=length(fb);
II=zeros(nbus,1);
SG=zeros(nbus,1);
totloss=0;
for k=1:nline

14
 p=fb(k);q=tb(k);
I(p,q)=(v(p)-v(q))*y(k)+v(p)*ysh(k);
II(p)=II(p)+I(p,q);
SL(p,q)=v(p)*conj(I(p,q));
SG(p)=SG(p)+SL(p,q);
I(q,p)=(v(q)-v(p))*y(k)+v(q)*ysh(k);
II(q)=II(q)+I(q,p);
SL(q,p)=v(q)*conj(I(q,p));
SG(q)=SG(q)+SL(q,p);
loss(k)=SL(p,q)+SL(q,p);
totloss=totloss+loss(k);
end
fprintf('bus currents');
fprintf('\nBus no Current');
for k=1:nbus
fprintf('\n %d %10.4f %+10.4fi',k,real(II(k)),imag(II(k)));
end
fprintf('\nLine flows');
fprintf('\nFrom bus To bus Lineflows Line Loss');
for k=1:nline
p=fb(k);
q=tb(k);
fprintf('\n %d %d %10.4f%+10.4fi %10.4f%+10.4fi', p,q, real(SL(p,q)) ,
imag(SL(p,q)) , real(loss(k)) ,imag(loss(k)));
fprintf('\n %d %d %10.4f%+10.4fi %10.4f%+10.4fi',
q,p ,real(SL(q,p)) ,imag(SL(q,p)) ,real(loss(k)),imag(loss(k)));
end
fprintf('\nBus Generations');
fprintf('\nBus no Generation');
for k=1:nbus
fprintf('\n%d %10.4f%+10.4fi',k,real(SG(k)),imag(SG(k)));
end
fprintf('\n\nTotal Losses=%10.4f%+10.4fi',real(totloss),imag(totloss));

Excercise
1. Obtain the line flows for the following data: The system has three lines connected between 1-
2, 1-3 and 2-3. Each line has a series impedance of 0.02+j0.08 pu, total shunt admittance of j0.02
pu. The specified quantities of the buses are tabulated in the next page on 100MVA base.

15
 Bus Real Load Reactive Real Power Reactive Voltage
demand Load Gen Power Gen Specification
PD demand PG QG
QD
1 2pu 1 pu Unspecified Unspecified 1.04 ∟00
Slack
2 0 0 0.5 1 PQ bus
3 1.5pu 0.6 pu 0 QG3 1.04 (PV)

The voltages at the various buses are

V1 = 1.04∟00 pu V2 = 1.0819∟-1.380 pu V3 = 1.04 ∟-3.750 pu

16
 EXPERIMENT 4
c) Load flow analysis using Gauss-Siedel, Newton-Raphson & Fast Decoupled
methods for both PQ and PV buses, using MiPOWER software package

Line data
Line Bus Code Line parameters
No. P Q
R pu X pu B/2 pu
1 5 4 0.02 0.06 0.03
2 5 1 0.08 0.24 0.025
3 4 1 0.06 0.18 0.02
4 4 2 0.06 0.18 0.02
5 4 3 0.04 0.12 0.015
6 1 2 0.01 0.03 0.01
7 2 3 0.08 0.24 0.025

Bus data

Bus Bus Voltages Generation Load Type of

No. bus
Magnitude Phase Real Reactive Real Reactive
Angle

1 - - 0 0 0.45 0.15 PQ
2 - - 0 0 0.4 0.05 PQ
3 - - 0 0 0.6 0.1 PQ
4 1.0476 - 0.4 0.2 0.1 PV
5 1.06 00 - - - - slack

Voltages after Load Flow Studies:

V1 = 1.024532 δ1 = -0.08729 rad
V2 = 1.02394 δ 2 = -0.931 rad
V3 = 1.01825 δ 3 = -0.1074 rad
V4 = 1.0476 δ 4 = -0.049 rad
V5 = 1.06 δ 5 = -0.0 rad

17
 EXPERIMENT 5
d) Load flow analysis using Gauss-Siedel, Newton-Raphson & Fast Decoupled
methods for both PQ and PV buses, using ETAP software package.
Following data are to be used:
Line data
Line Bus Code Line parameters
No. P Q
R pu X pu B/2 pu
1 5 4 0.02 0.06 0.03
2 5 1 0.08 0.24 0.025
3 4 1 0.06 0.18 0.02
4 4 2 0.06 0.18 0.02
5 4 3 0.04 0.12 0.015
6 1 2 0.01 0.03 0.01
7 2 3 0.08 0.24 0.025

Bus data

Bus Bus Voltages Generation Load Type of

No. bus
Magnitude Phase Real Reactive Real Reactive
Angle

1 - - 0 0 0.45 0.15 PQ
2 - - 0 0 0.4 0.05 PQ
3 - - 0 0 0.6 0.1 PQ
4 1.0476 - 0.4 0.2 0.1 PV
5 1.06 00 - - - - slack

Voltages after Load Flow Studies:

V1 = 1.024532 δ1 = -0.08729 rad
V2 = 1.02394 δ 2 = -0.931 rad
V3 = 1.01825 δ 3 = -0.1074 rad
V4 = 1.0476 δ 4 = -0.049 rad
V5 = 1.06 δ 5 = -0.0 rad

18
 Short circuit studies
(software package)
EXPERIMENT 6
Short circuit studies using MiPOWER software package (To refer to
MiPOWER software package manual).

If a 3 - phase to ground fault occurs at bus 5 - find the fault MVA. The Transmission line
data is given below.

Bus – code Impedance Zpq Line charging

p-q Zpq Y'pq/2
3–4 0.00 + j0.15 0
3–5 0.00 + j0.10 0
3–6 0.00 + j0.20 0
5–6 0.00 + j0.15 0
4–6 0.00 + j0.10 0

Generator details
MVA Rating of G1 & G2 = 100 MVA, 11 kV with X'd = 10 %

Transformer details
KV Rating of T1 & T2 = 11/110 kV, 100 MVA, leakage reactance x = 5 %
** All impedances are on 100 MVA base

19
 Transient Stability Studies
(Matlab + software package)
EXPERIMENT 7
a) Transient Stability Studies using MiPower software package

Figure shows a single line diagram of a 5-bus system with three generating units, four lines and
two transformers and two loads. Per-unit transmission line series impedances and shunt
susceptances are given on 100 MVA base, generator's transient impedance and transformer
leakage reactances are given in the accompanying table.

Values given are on 100 MVA Base. Frequency = 50 Hz

If a 3 - phase fault occurs on line 4 - 5 near bus 4 and the fault is cleared by simultaneously
opening the circuit breaker at the ends of the line 4-5 at 0.225 seconds (fault clearing time), plot
the swing curve and comment on stability of machine 1 and machine 2

Transmission Line Details

Bus – Impedance Line charging
code
p-q Zpq Y'pq/2
3-4 0.007 + j0.04 j0.041
3 -5(1) 0.008 + j0.047 j0.049
3 -5 (2) 0.008 + j0.047 j0.049
4-5 0.018 + j0.110 j0.113

Transformer Details:
T1 = 20/230 kV 400 MVA with Leakage reactance = 0.022 pu
T2 = 18/230 kV 250 MVA with Leakage reactance = 0.040 pu

20
Generator Details:
G1 = 400 MVA, 20 kV, X’d = 0.067 pu, H = 11.2 MJ / MVA
G2 = 250 MVA, 18 kV, X'd = 0.10 pu, H = 8.0 MJ / MVA
G3 = 1000 MVA, 230 kV, X'd = 0.00001 pu, H = 1000 MJ / MVA (Infinite Bus Modelling)

Generation and Load Details

Bus Generation Load Specified
Code 'p' Voltage
MW Mvar MW Mvar
1 350 71.2 0 0 1.03
2 185 29.8 0 0 1.02
3 800 0 0 0 1.0
4 0 0 100 44 Unknown
5 0 0 50 16 Unknown

21
 EXPERIMENT 8
b) Swing curve using Euler’s Method

Algorithm
1.Read maximum power before fault, during fault and post fault
2.Read the power transferred and the clearing time
3.Read H and frequency
4.Calculate initial value of δ. Initial ω is zero.
5.Calculate derivatives and intermediate values using following equations
D1 =  o
P  Pmax sin  0
D2  m
M
P
   0  D1t
 P  0  D2 t
D1P   P
Pm  Pmax sin  P
D2 P 
M
6.Update δ and ω
 D  D1P 
1   0   1  t
 2 
 D  D2 P 
1  0   2  t
 2 
7.Continue for the required time of simulation

Program
clear
pmax1=input('enter the maximum power before fault\n');
pmax2=input('enter the maximum power during fault\n');
pmax3=input('enter the maximum power after fault\n');
power=input('enter the value of power transferred\n')
tcl=input('enter clearing time\n')
H=input('enter value of interial constant H\n') freq=input('enter frequency\n')
delta0=asin(power/pmax1); % Initial angle depends on pre-fault maximum power
omega0=0.0;
M=H/(pi*freq);
delta_t=0.01; % Time step. Change the value to test for different time steps
pmax=pmax2; % At t=0, fault occurs and hence we start with the maximum power during
fault y1=[];
z1=[];
for t=0.0:delta_t:0.5
if(t>tcl)
pmax=pmax3; % If time is greater than fault clearing time, use post-fault maximum power
end
D1=omega0;

22
D2=(power-pmax*sin(delta0))/M;
delp=delta0+D1*delta_t; % Intermediate values of delta and omega
omegp=omega0+D2*delta_t;
D1p=omegp;
D2p=(power-pmax*sin(delp))/M; delta0=delta0+(D1+D1p)/2*delta_t; omega0=omega0+
(D2+D2p)/2*delta_t;
delta=delta0*180/pi; % Convert to delta to degrees
omega=omega0;
y=[t D1 D2 D1p D2p ]; % to display values of time and derivatives
z=[t pmax delta omega];
y1=[y1;y];
z1=[z1;z];
plot(t,delta,'r')
hold on
end
disp(y1)
disp(z1)

Data
Pmax1=1.714 pu
Pmax2=0.63 pu
Pmax3=1.333 pu
Power transferred =0.8 pu
Fault clearing time =0.125 secs
Frequency=50 Hz
Exercise
1.Simulate for sustained fault and determine critical clearing time graphically

23
 EXPERIMENT 9
c) Solution of Swing curve using Runge-Kutta method

Runge-Kutta method for solution of swing equation for an SMIB system

This program is to solve the swing equation using Range-Kutta method. Detailed equations are
given in chapter 9. In this program, we assume that the fault occurs at t=0 secs. The data consists
of the maximum power transfers pre-fault, during fault and post-fault, along with system data.
Sustained fault is simply simulated by giving a large fault clearing time. Values of power are
in pu.
Algorithm
1.Read maximum power before fault, during fault and post fault
2.Read the power transferred and the clearing time
3.Read H and frequency
4. Calculate initial value of δ. Initial ω is zero.
5. The two first order differential equations to be solved to obtain solution for the swing
equation are:
d

dt
d  Pa Pm  Pmax sin 
 
dt M M
Starting from initial value δ0, ω0, t0 and a step size of ∆t the formulae are as follows

k1  0 t
 P  P sin  0 
l1   m max  t
 M 
 l 
k2   0  1  t
 2
  k1  
 Pm  Pmax sin   0   
 2 
l2   t
 M 
 
 
 l 
k3   0  2  t
 2
  k2 
 Pm  Pmax sin   0  
 2   t
l3  
 M 
 
 
k4  0  l3  t

24
  Pm  Pmax sin  0  k3  
l4    t
 M 
1
1   0  k1  2k2  2k3  k4 
6
1
1  0  l1  2l2  2l3  l4 
6
Program
clear
pmax1=input('enter the maximum power before fault\n');
pmax2=input('enter the maximum power during fault\n');
pmax3=input('enter the maximum power after fault\n');
power=input('enter the value of power transferred\n')
tcl=input('enter clearing time\n')
H=input('enter value of interial constant H\n') freq=input('enterfrequency\n') delta0=asin(power/
pmax1);
omega0=0.0; M=H/(pi*freq); delta_t=0.05;
pmax=pmax2;
y1=[];
z1=[];
for t=0.0:delta_t:0.5 if(t>tcl)
pmax=pmax3;
end
k1=omega0*delta_t; % Calculate the coefficients
l1=(power-pmax*sin(delta0))/M*delta_t;
k2=(omega0+l1/2)*delta_t;
l2=(power-pmax*sin(delta0+k1/2))/M*delta_t;
k3=(omega0+l2/2)*delta_t;
l3=(power-pmax*sin(delta0+k2/2))/M*delta_t;
k4=(omega0+l3)*delta_t;
l4=(power-pmax*sin(delta0+k3))/M*delta_t;
delta0=delta0+(k1+2*k2+2*k3+k4)/6;
omega0=omega0+(l1+2*l2+2*l3+l4)/6;
delta=delta0*180/pi;
omega=omega0;
y=[t k1 l1 k2 l2 k3 l3 k4 l4 ];
z=[t pmax delta omega]; y1=[y1;y];
z1=[z1;z];
plot(t,delta,'*-r')
hold on
end
disp(y1)
disp(z1)

Data
Pmax1=1.714 pu

25
 Pmax2=0.63 pu
Pmax3=1.333 pu
Power transferred =0.8 pu
Fault clearing time =0.125 secs
Frequency=50 Hz

Exercise
1. Execute the program for step size of 0.001 s.
2. Simulate a sustained fault
3. Determine critical clearing time from direct simulation

26
 Economic Load Dispatch (Matlab)
EXPERIMENT 10
a)Economic load dispatch without losses and generator limits included
This program is for economic dispatch without losses with generator limits included. The input
is given through a file eco_wol_genlit_in. The cost function is given by F i=ai+biPGi+ciPGi2 . Cost
coeffecients are read in a matrix in the order ci, bi, ai for each generator in a line.
Algorithm
1. Read cost coefficients, Power demand, Initial lambda and generator limits from file.
2. Start iteration count = 1
a Calculate generator powers using
  bi
PGi 
2ci

3. Check for violations of any generator limits. If any limit is violated peg generation at the limit.
4. Calculate ∆P = PD – (sum of PGi )
5. If ∆P is less than tolerance stop. Else
6. Calculate change in λ in any iteration using

P 
r
    n
r
g
1

i 1
2 ci
7. Update λ r+1 = λ(r) + ∆λ(r)
8. Increment iteration count and go to step 3.

Program
clear;
diary('wer.txt')
y1=[];
[cost_coeff,PD,Ini_lam,gen_lim]=eco_wol_genlit_in; %Read input from file
Delp=100;
n=length(cost_coeff(:,1)); %Get number of generators
lam=Ini_lam; %Initial value of Lambda
while(abs(Delp)>0.001)
iter=iter+1; %Update iteration count
for i=1:n
P(i)=(lam-cost_coeff(i,2))/(2*cost_coeff(i,1)); %Compute PGi
end
for i=1:n
if (P(i)<gen_lim(i,1)) % Check for generator limit violations
P(i)=gen_lim(i,1);
end
if (P(i)>gen_lim(i,2))

27
 P(i)=gen_lim(i,2);
end
end
Ptotal=sum(P); %Total generation
Delp=PD-Ptotal; %Demand - Generation
sigma_a=sum(1./(2.*cost_coeff(:,1)));
lam=lam+Delp/sigma_a; %Update Lambda
y=[iter P Ptotal Delp lam];
y1=[y1;y];
end
disp(y1)
diary('wer.txt')

Data file
function[cost_coeff,PD,Ini_lam,gen_lim]=eco_wol_genlit_in();
cost_coeff=[0.004 7.2 350
0.0025 7.3 500
0.003 6.74 600];
PD=450;
Ini_lam=6.0;
gen_lim=[125 300
125 300
125 300];
end

Excercise
1. Repeat the problem with different values of initial λ and compare results.
2. Run the program for PD=300 and PD=650
3. Modify program to display cost of generation.
4. Modify program to compare cost of optimal generation with cost of equal generation.

b) Economic Operation with Transmission Losses

This program is for economic dispatch with losses. The input is given through a file
eco_wol_input. The cost function is given by Fi=ai+biPgi+ciPgi2 . Cost coefficients are read in a
matrix with ci, bi, ai for each generator in a line . The loss (B) coefficients are also read as part of
data. The off-diagonal elements of B matrix are neglected.

Algorithm

1) Start with an initial estimate λ(r)

2) Solve for PGi(r)
  bi
PGi 
2  ci   Bii 

28
3) Solve for PL(r) (Loss) using PL = [PG][B][PG]T
r 
 dPGi 
 d 
4) Compute   for all i, using
r
 dPGi  ci  bi Bii
  
 d 
 
2
2 ci     Bii
r

5) Compute ∆P(r) using

ng
r r 
P    PD  PL   P 
i 1
r
Gi

r 
6) Compute  using

P  
r
   
r
ng r
 dPGi 
  d 
i 1  

 r 1    r     r 
7) 
8) Go to step 2 till ∆P(r) ≤ Є

Program
clear; diary('wer.txt') y1=[];
[cost_coef,PD,b_coef,lam]=eco_wl_in; %Read input from file
ci_coef=cost_coef(:,1);
bi_coef=cost_coef(:,2);
cdiag=diag(ci_coef);
iter=0; %Iteration count = 0
Delp=100;
n=length(cost_coef(:,1)); %Get number of generators
b_coef=b_coef./100 % Convert B coefficients to MW-1

while(abs(Delp)>0.001)
iter=iter+1; %Update iteration count
P1=lam-bi_coef;
for i=1:n
P2(i)=2*(ci_coef(i)+lam*b_coef(i,i));
P(i)=P1(i)/P2(i);
end
Ploss =P*b_coef*P';
for i=1:n
m1(i)=ci_coef(i)+b_coef(i,i)*bi_coef(i);
m2(i)=2*(ci_coef(i)+lam*b_coef(i,i))*(ci_coef(i)+lam*b_coef(i,i));
m(i)=m1(i)/m2(i);
end

29
Delp=PD+Ploss-sum(P);
Dellam=Delp/sum(m);
lam=lam+Dellam; %Update Lambda
Ptotal=sum(P);
y=[iter P Ptotal Delp lam];
y1=[y1;y];
end
disp(y1)
disp('Demand')

Data file
function[cost_coeff,PD,b_coef,lam]=eco_wl_in();
cost_coeff=[0.008 7.0 200
0.009 6.3 180
0.007 6.8 140];
PD=500;
b_coef=[ 0.0218 0.0 0.0;
0.0 0.0228 0.0;
0.0 0.0 0.0179;]
lam=8;

Exercise :
1. Obtain optimal schedule for the following data:
The fuel cost of two plants is given by
F1=200+10.333PG1+0.00889PG12 Rs/h
F2=240+10.833PG2+0.00741PG22 Rs/h
Determine the economic schedule to meet a demand of 150MW, corresponding cost and loss.
The transmission loss is given by , Ploss=0.001 PG12 +0.002 PG22 .

30
 ALFC Operation (Simulink)
EXPERIMENT 11

a) To obtain the step response of an isolated ALFC unit with the following
parameters: TTR = 0.3s, TG = 0.2s, M = 10s (or H = 5), D = 10, R = 0.05
For a unit-step decrease in PL, plot the step response and comment on the effect of change in D
and R, respectively, if other parameters remain unchanged.
Model:
for the given parameters,
Δ w ( s) ( 1+0.2 s )( 1+0.3 s )
= T(s) =
− Δ PL ( s ) ( 10 s+1.0 )( 1+0.2 s )( 1+0.3 s )+20
The steady state frequency deviation for step change in input is,
− Δ PL 1.0
Δ w ( s )= = =4.762 x 10−2 pu=0.23 Hz
D+ ( ) ( )
1
R
1+
1
0.05

The Simulink model for the transfer function is shown below

31
The step response for D=1 and D=0.5 is as shown below

The step response for R=5% and R=4% is as shown below

b) Transient response of first order approximation of ALFC

An isolated control area consists of a 500MW generator with an inertia constant of H = 5s, with
the following parameters:
KPS = 100, TPS = 20s, R = 5%, f = 50Hz, TG = 0.45s, TTR = 0.5s
Create the block diagram of the system on simulink and obtain the response of the approximate
first order system neglecting the turbine and governor dynamics for a load reduction of 0.1pu.
Obtain the step response with the turbine and governor dynamics cosnidered.

32
Model:
The block diagram and the first order approximations are shown in figures (a) and (b) below.

(b)
The transfer function is,

Δ f ( s) K ps ( 1+ sT G )( 1+sT TR ) ( 22.5 s2 +95 s+100 )

= =
− Δ PL ( s) K ( 4.5 s3+19.23 s2+20.95 s+21 )
(( 1+sT PS )( 1+sT G )( 1+sT TR ))+ Rps
The approximate transfer function is obtained by neglecting the turbine and governor dynamics.
It is given by
100
( 1+20 s ) 100
T ( s )= =
100 1 ( 20 s+21 )
1+ x
( 1+20 s ) 5
The steady state frequency deviation of the system using the first-order approximation for a
reduction in load of 0.1pu is given by,
( − 0.1 ) 100 −10
lim s Δ f ( s )=lim s x = =0.476 Hz
s→0 s→0 s ( 20 s+21 ) 21
The complete dynamic response including the generator and turbine dynamics is obtained using
the MATLAB commands given below

sys = tf([22.5 95 100], [4.5 19.23 20.95 21])

plot(step(sys)/-10)

33
With the first order model, the response is exponentially decaying, since we have only one time
constant. In both cases, the steady state frequency deviation is -0.476Hz.

34
 Modeling of PV module using Simulink
EXPERIMENT 12

Model a PV module to plot the I-V and P-V curves for the following three
cases:
a) with constant I0 and Isc
b) with constant I0 and variable Isc
c) with constant I0 and variable Isc (Actual PV module model)
Main Circuit

a) With Constant I0 and Isc

35
b) With Constant I0

c) Actual PV Module

36
LAB Question Bank
Question-1

1. Give the algorithm for determination of bus admittance matrix by direct method.
2. Determine Bus Admittance matrix by direct method for a power system with following data

Line No. Between Line impedance Half line Off

buses charging nominal
admittance tap ratio
1 1-4 0.08 + j0.37 0.007 1.0

2 1-6 0.123+j0.518 0.010 1.0

3 2-3 0.723 + j1.05 0.0 1.09

4 2-5 0.282 +j0.64 0.0 1.0

5 4-3 0.0 + j0.133 0.0 1.0

6 4-6 0.097 + j0.407 0.0 0.985

7 6-5 0.0 + j0.3 0.0 1.0

a. Comment on the nature of the Ybus.

b. If a shunt capacitor of susceptance 0.3 pu is added to the above system at bus no 3,
how are the elements modified?.
c. If line no 3 is removed, which elements need to be modified? How are they
modified?

Question-2
1. Give algorithm to determine bus admittance matrix using singular transformation.
2. Obtain Ybus using singular transformation for the following data.

Line R X hlc
1-2 0.05 0.15 0.0025
1-3 0.1 0.3 0.03
2-3 0.15 0.45 0.05
2-4 0.10 0.30 0.0
3-4 0.05 0.15 0.0125

3. Determine the bus impedance matrix from Ybus.

37
Question-3

1. A) Using singular transformation technique, determine Ybus for the given test system using
MATLAB

Element Self-Impedance Mutual Impedance

No.
1 1-2(1) 0.6 - -
2 1-3 0.5 1-2(1) 0.1
3 3-4 0.5 - -
4 1-2(2) 0.4 1-2(1) 0.2
5 2-4 0.2 - -
Consider bus 1 as reference bus

B) Determine line flows and line losses, using MATLAB, for system with following data.

Line Bus P Code Q Line Parameters

No. Rpu X pu B/2 pu
1 5 4 0.02 0.06 0.03
2 5 1 0.08 0.24 0.025
3 4 1 0.06 0.18 0.02
4 4 2 0.06 0.18 0.02
5 4 3 0.04 0.12 0.015
6 1 2 0.01 0.03 0.01
7 2 3 0.08 0.24 0.025
V1= 1+ 0.2j
V2= 1.01-0.5j
V3= 1.05-0.3j
V4= 1.01-0.5j
V5= 1.0-0.0j

Question-4

1. For the given system form the Ybus. Draw the one line diagram of the system

From To X Type
2 1 0.25 1
3 2 0.10 2
4 2 0.1 2
3 1 0.25 3
3 4 0.1 4

38
Question-5

1. Draw the flow chart for the GS method of power flow solution.
2. Using the available software package, determine the voltage at all the buses for the data
given below, using GS method.

Line data

Line No. Bus Code Line parameters

P Q R pu X pu B/2 pu
1 5 4 0.02 0.06 0.03
2 5 1 0.08 0.24 0.025
3 4 1 0.06 0.18 0.02
4 4 2 0.06 0.18 0.02
5 4 3 0.04 0.12 0.015
6 1 2 0.01 0.03 0.01
7 2 3 0.08 0.24 0.025

Bus data
Bus Bus Voltages Generation Load Type
No of
. bus
Magnitude Phase Real Reactive Real Reactive
Angle
1 - - 0 0 0.45 0.15 PQ
2 - - 0 0 0.4 0.05 PQ
3 - - 0 0 0.6 0.1 PQ
4 1.0476 - 0.4 - 0.2 0.1 PV
5 1.06 00 - - - - slack

a) Comment on effect of acceleration factor on the solution.

b) If Q limits on bus 4 are imposed such that Qmin = 0.0 pu and Qmax= 0.5 pu,
what is effect on solution?
c) What is the total loss in the system?
d) What are the line flows?

Question-6

1. Load flow analysis using Gauss-Siedel method for both PQ and PV buses, using Matlab.

The system has three lines connected between 1-2,1-3 and 2-3. Each line has a series impedance
of 0.02+j0.08 pu, total shunt admittance of j0.02 pu. The specified quantities of the buses are
tabulated below on 100MVA base. Obtain the Bus Voltages.

39
 Bus Real Load Reactive Real power Reactive Voltage
demand load demand Gen power Gen Specification
PD QD PG QG

1 2pu 1 pu Unspecified Unspecified 1.04 ∟00 slack

2 0 0 0.5 1 PQ bus
3 1.5pu 0.6pu 0 QG3 1.04(PV)

2. In the above system, the scheduled real power at bus 3 is changed to 1.0pu. Determine the new
bus voltages and comment on the results.

Question-7
1. Draw the flow chart for the NR method of power flow solution.
2. Using the available software package, determine the voltage at all the buses for the data
given below, using NR method.

Line data

Line No. Bus Code Line parameters

P Q R pu X pu B/2 pu
1 5 4 0.02 0.06 0.03
2 5 1 0.08 0.24 0.025
3 4 1 0.06 0.18 0.02
4 4 2 0.06 0.18 0.02
5 4 3 0.04 0.12 0.015
6 1 2 0.01 0.03 0.01
7 2 3 0.08 0.24 0.025

Bus data
Bus Bus Voltages Generation Load Type
No of
. bus
Magnitude Phase Real Reactive Real Reactive
Angle
1 - - 0 0 0.45 0.15 PQ
2 - - 0 0 0.4 0.05 PQ
3 - - 0 0 0.6 0.1 PQ
4 1.0476 - 0.4 - 0.2 0.1 PV
5 1.06 00 - - - - slack

3. Compare the results with FDLF method.

4. If Q limits on bus 4 are imposed such that Qmin = 0.0 pu and Qmax= 0.5 pu,
what is effect on solution?
5. What is the total loss in the system?
6. What are the line flows?

40
Question-8
1. For the figure below draw the sequence networks.
2. Draw the connections of the sequence networks for a single line to ground fault at bus number 4.
3. Using MiPower, simulate the SLG fault at (i) bus no 4 (ii) bus no 3.
Compare the fault currents in the two cases.
4. Analyze the results of the simulation study in terms of sequence currents, line currents and line
voltages.
5. Compare the fault currents for SLG and 3-phase symmetrical fault at bus no 3.

Question-9
1. The cost functions of three plants in Rs/h is given by
F1= 350 + 7.2 PG1+ 0.004 PG12
F2= 500 + 7.3 PG2+ 0.0025 PG22
F3= 600 + 6.74 PG3+ 0.003 PG32
The generation is in MW in the above functions. The generator limits are the same for all the
plants and given by
125≤ PG ≤ 300 MW

Write a program in MATLAB to determine the optimal economic dispatch for a demand of (i)
450 MW (ii) 600 MW using an initial λ of 6.
2. Repeat the problem with another initial value of λ. Comment on the result.
3. Compare the cost of optimal dispatch with that when the demand is shared equally between the
plants.

Question-10
1. Write a program in MATLAB to obtain optimal economic schedule for the following data:
The fuel cost of two plants is given by
F1=200+10.333PG1+0.00889PG12Rs/h
F2=240+10.833PG2+0.00741PG22Rs/h

41
 The demandis 150MW. The transmission loss is given by
Ploss=0.001PG12+0.002PG22
2. What is the schedule if loss is neglected?
3. Repeat question 1, for a demand of 200MW.

Question-11
1. Write the swing equation as two first order differential equations.
2. Give equations for solving the above using modified Euler’s method
3. Write a program in MATLAB to solve the swing equation using Modified Euler’s method with
following data.
Pmax1=1.714 pu
Pmax2=0.63 pu
Pmax3=1.333 pu
Power transferred =0.8 pu
H= 5.2
Fault clearing time =0.125 secs
Frequency=50 Hz

4. Draw the swing curve for two different step sizes.

Question-12
1. Write the swing equation as two first order differential equations.
2. Give equations for solving the above using RK 4th order method
3. Write a program in MATLAB to solve the swing equation using RK 4 th order method with
following data.
Pmax1=1.714 pu
Pmax2=0.63 pu
Pmax3=1.333 pu
Power transferred =0.8 pu
H= 5.2
Fault clearing time =0.125 secs
Frequency=50 Hz

4. Draw the swing curve for two different step sizes.

42
 VIVA VOICE
1. What is single line diagram?
 A single line diagram is a diagrammatic representation of power system in which the
components are represented by their symbols and the interconnection between them are
shown by a single straight line.

2. What are the components of a power system?

The components of a power system are Generators, Power transformers, Transmission lines,
Substation transformers, Distribution transformers and Loads.
 
3. Define per unit value.
 The per unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of actual value of the quantity to
base value of the quantity.
 Per unit = Actual value / Base value

4. What is the need for base value?

The components or various sections of power system may operate at different voltage and
power levels. It will be convenient for analysis of power system if the voltage, power, current
and impedance ratings of components of power system are expressed with a common value
called base value. Hence for analysis purpose a base value is chosen for voltage, power,
current and impedance.
 
5. Write the equation for converting the p.u. impedance expressed in one base to another.
  Zp.u,new = Zp.u,old) * (kVb,old / kVb,old) * (MVAb,new  / MVAb,old)
 
6. What are the advantages of per unit computations?
 manufacturers usually specify the impedance of a device or machine in per unit on
the basis of the name plate details.
 The p.u. values of widely different rating machines lie within a narrow range
eventhough the ohmic values has a very large range.
 The p.u. impedance of circuit element connected by a transformer expressed on a
proper base will be same if it is referred to either side of a transformer.
 The p.u. impedance of a 3-phase transformer is independent of the type winding
connection.

 7. What are the approximations made in impedance diagram?

 The neutral reactances are neglected.
 The shunt branches in equivalent circuit of induction motor are neglected.
 
8. What are the approximations made in reactance diagram?

43
  The neutral reactance are neglected.
 The shunt branches in equivalent circuit of induction motor are neglected.
 The resistances are neglected.
 All static loads and induction motor are neglected.
 The capacitances of the transmission lines are neglected.

 9.Give the equations for transforming base kV on LV side to HV side and viceversa.
Base kV on HT side = Base kV on LT side * (HT voltage rating / LT voltage rating)
Base kV on LT side = Base kV on HT side * (LT voltage rating / HT voltage rating)

10. What is a bus?

The meeting point of various components in a power system is called a bus. The bus is a
conductor made of copper or aluminum having negligible resistance .At some of the buses
power is being injected into the network, whereas at other buses it is being tapped by the
system loads.

 11. What is bus admittance matrix?

The matrix consisting of the self and mutual admittance of the network of a power system is
called bus admittance matrix.

 12. Name the diagonal and off-diagonal elements of bus admittance matrix.
The diagonal elements of bus admittance matrix are called self admittances of the matrix and
off-diagonal elements are called mutual admittances of the buses.

13.Methods available for forming bus admittance matrix

 Direct inspection method.
 Singular transformation method.(Primitive network)

14. Write the equation to find the elements of new bus admittance matrix after eliminating
nth row and column in a n*n matrix.
Yjk = Yjk-(YjnYnk / Ynn)
 
15. What is bus impedance matrix?
The matrix consisting of driving point impedances and transfer impedances of the network of
a power system is called bus impedance matrix.

16. Name the diagonal and off-diagonal elements of bus impedance matrix.
The diagonal elements of bus impedance matrix are called driving point impedances of the
buses and off-diagonal elements are called transfer impedances of the buses.
 
17. What are the methods available for forming bus impedances matrix?
(1)Form the bus admittances matrix and then take its inverse to get bus impedance matrix.
 (2)Directly form the bus impedance matrix from the reactance diagram. This method utilizes
the techniques of modification of existing bus impedance matrix due to addition of new bus.

44
 
18. Write the four ways of adding an impedance to an existing system so as to modify bus
impedance matrix.
Case 1:Adding a branch impedance Zb from a new bus P to the reference bus.
Case 2:Adding a branch impedance Zb from a new bus P to the existing bus q.
Case 3:Adding a branch impedance Zb from a existing bus q to the reference
bus.
Case 4:Adding a branch impedance Zb between two  existing bus h and q.

19. What is off-nominal transformer ratio?

 When the voltage or turns ratio of a transformer is not used to decide the ratio of base kV
then its voltage or turns ratio is called off-nominal turns ratio.

 20. Information’s that are obtained from a load flow study?

 The information obtained from a load flow study is magnitude and phase angle of voltages,
real and reactive power flowing in each line and the line losses. The load flow solution also
gives the initial conditions of the system when the transient behavior of the system is to be
studied.

21.Need for load flow study?

The load flow study of a power system is essential to decide the best operation of existing
system and for planning the future expansion of the system. It is also essential for designing a
new power system.

22.Quantities associated with each bus in a system?

Each bus in a power system is associated with four quantities and they are real power (P),
reactive power (Q), magnitude of voltage (V), and phase angle of voltage (δ).

23.Work involved (or) to be performed by a load flow study?

(i). Representation of the system by a single line diagram
 (ii). Determining the impedance diagram using the information in single line diagram
(iii). Formulation of network equation
 (iv). Solution of network equations

24.Iterative methods to solve load flow problems?

The load flow equations are non linear algebraic equations and so explicit solution as not
possible. The solution of non linear equations can be obtained only by iterative numerical
techniques.

25.Methods mainly used for solution of load flow study?

The Gauss seidal method, Newton Raphson method and Fast decouple methods.

25.What is Flat voltage start?

In iterative method of load flow solution, the initial voltages of all buses except slack bus
assumed as 1+j0 p.u. This is referred to as flat voltage start.

45
26.Different types of buses in a power system

27. What is the need for slack bus?

 The slack bus is needed to account for transmission line losses. In a power system the total
power generated will be equal to sum of power consumed by loads and losses. In a power
system only the generated power and load power are specified for buses. The slack bus is
assumed to generate the power required for losses. Since the losses are unknown the real and
reactive power are not specified for slack bus. They are estimated through the solution of line
flow equations.

28. What is the effect of acceleration factor in load flow study?

 In load flow solution by iterative methods, the number of iterations can be reduced if the
correction voltage at each bus is multiplied by some constant. The multiplication of the
constant will increase the amount of correction to bring the voltage closer to the value it is
approaching. The multipliers that accomplish this improved converged are called acceleration
factors. An acceleration factor of 1.6 is normally used in load flow problems.

29. When Generator buses are treated as load bus?

 If the reactive power constraint of a generator bus violates the specified limits then the
generator is treated as load bus.

30. Write the most important mode of operation of power system and mention the major
problems encountered with it.
Symmetrical steady state is the most important mode of operation of power system. Three
major problems are encountered in this mode of operation. They are, 1) Load flow problem
2) Optimal load scheduling problem
3) Systems control problem

31.Why power flow analysis is made?

Power flow analysis is performed to calculate the magnitude and phase angle of voltages at
the buses and also the active power and reactive voltamperes flow for the given terminal or
bus conditions. The variables associated with each bus or node are,
a. Magnitude of voltage |V|
b. Phase angle of voltage δ
c. Active power, P
d. Reactive voltamperes, Q

32.What is power flow study or load flow study?

46
 The study of various methods of solution to power system network is referred to as load study.
The solution provides the voltages at various buses, power flowing in Various lines and line
losses.

33.What are the different types of buses in a power system?

The buses of a power system can be classified into three types based on the quantities being
specified for the buses, which are as follows:
a. Load bus or PQ bus (P and Q are specified)
b. Generator bus or voltage controlled bus or PV bus (P and V are specified)
c. Slack bus or swing bus or reference bus (|V| and δ are specified)

34.Define voltage controlled bus(generator bus/PV bus).

A bus is called voltage controlled bus if the magnitude of voltage |V| and real power (P) are
specified for it. In a voltage controlled bus, the magnitude of the voltage is not allowed to
change. Voltage controlled bus is also called as Generator bus and PV bus.

35.What is PQ bus(load bus)?

A bus is called PQ bus or load bus when real and reactive components of power are specified
for the bus. In a load bus, the voltage is allowed to vary within permissible limits.

36.What is swing bus(slack bus/reference bus)?

A bus is called swing bus when the magnitude and phase of bus voltage are specified for it.
The swing bus is the reference bus for load flow solution and it is required for accounting for
the line losses. Usually one of the generator bus is selected as the swing bus.

37.How will you account for voltage controlled buses in the load flow algorithm?
The acceleration factor is a real quantity and it modifies the magnitude of bus voltage alone.
Since in voltage controlled bus, the magnitude of bus voltage is not allowed to change, the
acceleration factor is not used for voltage controlled bus.

38.Why do we go for iterative methods to solve load flow problems?

The load (or power) flow equations are nonlinear algebraic equations and so explicit solution
is not possible. The solution of nonlinear equations can be obtained only by iterative
numerical techniques.
39.When the generator bus is treated as load bus? What will be the reactive power and bus
voltage when the generator bus is treated as load bus?
If the reactive power of a generator bus violates the specified limits, then the generator bus is
treated as load bus. The reactive power of that particular bus is equated to the limit it has
violated and the previous iteration value of bus voltage is used for calculating current iteration
value.

40. What are the advantages of Gauss-Seidel method?

The advantages of Gauss-Seidel method are,

47
 a. Calculations are simple and so the programming task is less
b. The memory requirement is less
c. Useful for small systems.

41.What are the disadvantages of Gauss-Seidel method?

The disadvantages of Gauss-Seidel method are,
a. Requires large number of iterations to reach convergence.
b. Not suitable for large systems.
c. Convergence time increases with size of the system.

42.How approximation is performed in Newton-Raphson method?

In Newton-Raphson method, the set of non-linear simultaneous (load flow) equations are
approximated to a set of linear simultaneous equations using Taylor’s series expansion and the
terms are limited to first order approximation.

43. What is Jacobian matrix? How the elements of Jacobian matrix are computed?
The matrix formed from the derivates of load flow equations is called Jacobian matrix and it is
denoted by J.
The elements of Jacobian matrix will change in every iteration. In each iteration, the elements
of the Jacobian matrix are obtained by partially differentiating the load flow equations with
respect o unknown variable and then evaluating the first derivates using the solution of
previous iteration.

44.What are the advantages of Newton-Raphson method?

The advantages of Newton-Raphson method are,
a. This load flow method is faster, more reliable and he results are accurate.
b. Requires less number of iterations for convergence.
c. The number of iterations are independent of the size of the system.
d. Suitable for large system.

45.What are the disadvantages of Newton-Raphson method?

The disadvantages of Newton-Raphson method are,
a. Programming is more complex.
b. The memory requirement is more.
c. Computational time per iteration is higher due to larger number of calculations per
iteration.

46.Mention (any) three advantages of N-R method over G-S method?

The three advantages of N-R method over G-S method are,
a. The N-R method has quadratic convergence characteristics and so converges faster
than G-S method.
b. The number of iterations for convergence is independent of the system in N-R
method.

48
 c. In N-R method, the convergence is not affected by the choice of slack bus.

47.Compare G-S method and N-R methods of load flow solutions.

G-S method N-R method
1. The variables are expressed in 1. Variables are expressed in polar co-
rectangular co-ordinates. ordinates.
2. Computation time per iteration is 2. Computation time per iteration is
less. more 3. It has quadratic convergence
3. It has linear convergence characteristics.
characteristics. 4.The number of iterations are independent
of the size of the system.
4. The number of iterations required
for convergence increase with size of 5. The choice of slack bus is arbitrary.
the system.
5.The choice of slack bus is critical.

48.How the convergence of N-R method is speeded up?

The convergence can be speeded up in N-R method by using Fast Decoupled Load Flow
(FDLF) algorithm. In FDLF method, the weak coupling between P-δ and Q-V are decoupled
and then the equations are further simplified using the knowledge of practical operating
conditions of a power system.

49.How the disadvantages of N-R method are overcome?

The disadvantage of large memory requirement can be overcome by decoupling the weak
coupling between P-δ and Q-V (i.e., using decoupled load flow algorithm). The disadvantage
of large computational time per iteration can be reduced by simplifying the decoupled load
flow equations. The simplifications are based on the practical operating conditions of a power
system.

50.Define primitive network.

Primitive network is a set of unconnected elements which provides information regarding the
characteristics of individual elements only. The performance equations of primitive network are given
below.
V + E = ZI (In Impedance form)
I + J = YV (In Admittance form) where V and I are the element voltage and current vectors
respectively.
J and E are source vectors.
Z and Y are the primitive Impedance and Admittance matrices respectively.

51.Explain bus incidence matrix.

For the specific system, we can obtain the following relation (relation between element voltage and
bus voltage).
V = A VBUS
where A is the bus incidence matrix, which is a rectangular and singular matrix. Its elements are found
as per the following rules.
aik = 1, if ith element is incident to and oriented away from the k th node (bus).

49
 = -1, if ith element is incident to but oriented towards the kth node.
= 0, if ith element is not incident to the kth node.

52.What is bus admittance matrix?

The matrix consisting of the self and mutual admittance of the power system network is called bus
admittance matrix. It is given by the admittance matrix Y in the node basis matrix equation of a power
system and it is denoted as Ybus. Bus admittance matrix is a symmetrical matrix.
53. Write the equation for the bus admittance matrix.
The equation for bus admittance matrix is, YbusV = I
where
Ybus = Bus admittance matrix of order (n x n )
V = Bus voltage matrix of order (n x1)
I = Current source matrix of order (n x1)
n = Number of independent buses in the system

54.Mention the advantages of bus admittance matrix, Ybus.

i) Data preparation is simple.
ii) Formation and modification is easy.
iii) Since the bus admittance matrix is sparse matrix(i.e., most of its elements are zero),
the computer memory requirements are less.

55. Explain the requirements of planning the operation of a power system.

Planning the operation of a power system requires load studies, fault calculations, the design
of means for protecting the system against lightning and switching surges and against short
circuits, and studies of the stability of the system.
56. Define steady state operating condition.
A power system is said to be in a steady state operating condition, if all the measured(or
calculated) physical quantities describing the operating condition of the system can be
considered constant for the purpose of analysis.
57.What is a disturbance and what are the two types of disturbances?
If a sudden change or sequence of changes occurs in one or more of the system parameters or
one or more of its operating quantities, the system is said to have undergone a disturbance from
its steady state operating condition.
The two types of disturbances in a power system are,
i) Large disturbance ii) Small disturbance

58. What is a small disturbance? Give example.

If the power system is operating in a steady state condition and it undergoes change, which
can be properly analyzed by linearized versions of its dynamic and algebraic equations, a small
disturbance is said to have occurred.
Example of small disturbance is a change in the gain of the automatic voltage regulator in the
excitation system of a large generating unit.

59. What is a large disturbance? Give some examples.

A large disturbance is one for which the nonlinear equations describing the dynamics of the
power system cannot be validly linearized for the purpose of analysis.

50
 Examples of large disturbances are transmission system faults, sudden load changes, loss of
generating units and line switching.

60. When is a power system said to be steady-state stable?

The power system is steady state stable for a particular steady-state operating condition if,
following a small disturbance, it returns to essentially the same steady state condition of
operation.

61.When is a power system said to be transiently stable?

If the machines of the system are found to remain essentially in synchronism within the first
second following a system fault or other large disturbance, the system is considered to be
transiently stable.
62.What is transient state of the power system?
The state of the system in the first second following a system fault or large disturbance is
called the transient state of the power system.
63.Define per unit value of any electrical quantity.
The per unit value of any electrical quantity is defined as the ratio of the actual value of the
quantity to its base value expressed as a decimal.

Perunitvalue = Actual value

Base value
64.What are the quantities whose base values are required to represent the power system
by reactance diagram?
The base value of voltage, current, power and impedance are required to represent the power
system by reactance diagram. Selection of base values for any two of them determines the base
values of the remaining two. Usually the base values of voltage and power are chosen in
kilovolt and kVA or mVA respectively. The base values of current and impedance are
calculated using the chosen bases.
65.What is the need for base values?
The components of various sections of power system may operate at different voltage and
power levels. It will be convenient for analysis of power system if the voltage, power, current
and impedance ratings of power system components are expressed with reference to a common
value called base value. Then all the voltages, power, current and impedance ratings of the
components are expressed as a percent or per unit of the base value.
66. List the advantages of per unit computations.
(1) The per unit impedance referred to either side of a single phase transformer is the
same.
(2) The per unit impedance referred to either side of a three phase transformer is the same
regardless of the three phase connections whether they are Y-Y, ∆-∆ or ∆-Y
(3) The chance of confusion between the line and phase quantities in a three phase
balanced system is greatly reduced.
(4) The manufacturers usually provide the impedance values in per unit.
(5) The computational effort in power system is very much reduced with the use of per
unit quantities.

51
67. What are the factors that affect the transient stability?
The transient stability is generally affected by two factors namely,
1.Type of fault 2. Location of fault.

68.List the methods of improving the transient stability limit of a power system.
1.Increase of system voltage, use of AVR.
2.Use of high speed excitation systems.
3.Reduction in system transfer reactance.
4.Use of high speed reclosing breakers.

69.What is meant by stability study?

The procedure of determining the stability of a system upon occurrence of a disturbance
followed by various switch off and switch on actions is called a stability study.
70.What is meant by short circuit fault?
Short circuit faults involve power conductor or conductors-to-ground or short circuit between
conductors. These faults are characterized by increase in current and fall in voltage and
frequency.
71.What is a reactor?
Reactor is a coil, which has high inductive reactance as compared to its resistance and is used to
limit the short circuit current during fault conditions.

72.What is meant by a fault?

A fault in a circuit is any failure which interrupts with the normal flow of current. The faults
are associated with abnormal change in current, voltage and frequency of the power system.
The faults may cause damage to the equipments, if it is allowed to persist for a long time.

73.Give the reason for faults in power system?

Faults occur in a power system due to insulation failure of equipments, flashover of lines
initiated by a lightening stroke, permanent damage to conductors and towers or accidental
faulty operations.

74.List the various types of symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults.

Symmetrical fault: Three phase fault
Unsymmetrical faults:
1.Single line-to-ground fault
2.Line-to-line fault
3.Double line-to-ground fault

75.For a fault at a given location, rank the various faults in the order of severity.
In a power system, the most severe fault is three phase fault and less severe fault is open
conductor fault. The various faults in the order of decreasing severity are,
1.3 phase fault
2)Double line-to-ground fault
3)Line-to-line fault

52
 4)Single line-to-ground fault
5)Open conductor fault

76.What is meant by fault calculations?

The fault condition of a power system can be divided into subtransient, transient, and steady
state periods. The currents in the various parts of the system and in the fault locations are
different in these periods. The estimation of these currents for various types of faults at various
locations in the system is commonly referred to as fault calculations.

77.What is synchronous reactance?

The synchronous reactance is the ratio of induced emf and the steady state rms current (i.e., it
is the reactance of a synchronous machine under steady state condition). It is the sum of
leakage reactance and the reactance representing armature reaction. It is given by,
Xs = Xl + Xa
Where,
Xs = Synchronous reactance
Xl = Leakage reactance
Xa = Armature reaction reactance.

78.Define subtransient reactance.

The subtransient reactance is the ratio of induced emf on no-load and the subtransient
symmetrical rms current, (i.e., it is the reactance of a synchronous machine under subtransient
condition).

79.Define transient reactance.

The transient reactance is the ratio of induced emf on no-load and the transient symmetrical
rms current. (i.e.,it is the reactance of synchronous machine under transient condition).

80.What is the significance of subtransient reactance and transient reactance in short

circuit studies?
The subtransient reactance can be used to estimate the initial value of fault current
immediately on the occurrence of the fault. The maximum momentary short circuit current
rating of the circuit breaker used for protection or fault clearing should be less than this initial
fault current.
The transient reactance is used to estimate the transient state fault current. Most of the circuit
breakers open their contacts only during this period. Therefore for a circuit
breaker used for fault clearing (or protection), its interrupting short circuit current rating
should be less than the transient fault current.
Xd’ = Direct axis transient reactance
Eg = RMS voltage from one terminal to neutral at no load.

81.Write the equation for subtransient and transient internal voltage of the generator.
The equation for subtransient internal voltage is,
Eg '' =Vt + jIL X d ''

53
Transient internal voltage is,
Eg ' =Vt + jI L X d '
where
Eg’’ = Subtransient internal voltage of generator
Eg’ = Transient internal voltage of generator
Vt = Terminal voltage
IL = Load current
Xd’’ =Direct axis subtransient reactance
Xd’ =Direct axis transient reactance

82.Write the equation for subtransient and transient internal voltage of the motor. The
equation for subtransient internal voltage is,

Em '' =Vt − jI L X d ''

Transient internal voltage is,
Em ' =Vt − jI L X d ' s where
Em’’ = Subtransient internal voltage of generator
Em’ = Transient internal voltage of generator
Vt = Terminal voltage
IL = Load current
Xd’’ =Direct axis subtransient reactance
Xd’ =Direct axis transient reactance

83. Define doubling effect and DC off-set current.

Doubling effect:
If a symmetrical fault occurs when the voltage wave is going through zero then the maximum
momentary short circuit current will be double the value of maximum symmetrical short
circuit current. This effect is called doubling effect.
DC off-set current:
The unidirectional transient component of short circuit current is called DC offset current.

84.Differentiate between subtransient and transient reactance.

Subtransient reactance Transient reactance
1) This is the ratio of induced emf and 1) This is the ratio of induced emf and
subtransient current. transient current.
2) Flux created by induced currents in 2) There is no damper winding and
the damper winding is included. hence no flux is created.
3) This is the smallest reactance among 3) This is larger than the subtransient
the reactance values. reactance.
4) This cannot be extrapolated. 4) This can be extrapolated backwards
in time

85.What are symmetrical components?

54
 An unbalanced system of N related vectors can be resolved into N systems of balanced
vectors called symmetrical components. Positive sequence components Negative sequence
component Zero sequence components.

86.Write the symmetrical components of three phase system.

In a 3-phase system, the three unbalanced vectors (either current or voltage vectors) can be
resolved into three balanced system of vectors. They are,
1) Positive sequence components
2) Negative sequence components
3) Zero sequence components.

87.Define negative sequence and zero sequence components.

Negative sequence components consist of three phasors equal in magnitude, displaced from
each other by 120o in phase, and having the phase sequence opposite to that of the original
phasors. Va2, Vb2 and Vc2 are the negative sequence components of Va,
Vb and vc.
Zero sequence components consist of three phasors equal in magnitude and with zero phase
displacement from each other. Vao, Vbo and Vco are the zero sequence components of Va, Vb and
Vc.

88.How do you classify steady state stability limit. Define them.

Depending on the nature of the disturbance, the steady state stability limit is classified into,
a. Static stability limit refers to steady state stability limit that prevails without the aid
of regulating devices.
b. Dynamic stability limit refers to steady state stability limit prevailing in an unstable
system with the help of regulating devices such as speed governors, voltage
regulators, etc.

89.What are the machine problems seen in the stability study.

1. Those having one machine of finite inertia machines swinging with respect to an
infinite bus
2. Those having two finite inertia machines swinging with respect to each other.

90.Give the expression for swing equation. Explain each term along with their units.

Where H = Inertia constant in MJ/MVA.

f = Frequency in Hz.
M = Inertia constant in p.u.
Pm= Mechanical power input to the system (neglecting mechanical losses) in p.u.
Pe = Electrical power output of the system (neglecting electrical losses) in p.u.

91.What are the assumptions made in solving swing equation?

55
 1) Mechanical power input to the machine remains constant during the period of
electromechanical transient of interest.
2) Rotor speed changes are insignificant that had already been ignored in formulating
the swing equations.
3) Effect of voltage regulating loop during the transient are ignored.

92.Define swing curve. What is the use of swing curve?

The swing curve is the plot or graph between the power angle δ, and time, t. It is usually
plotted for a transient state to study the nature of variation in δ for a sudden large disturbance.
From the nature of variations of δ, the stability of a system for any disturbance can be
determined.
93.Give the control schemes included in stability control techniques?
The control schemes included in the stability control techniques are:
a. Excitation systems
b.Turbine valve control
c.Single pole operation of circuit breakers
d.Faster fault clearing times

94.What are the systems design strategies aimed at lowering system reactance?
The system design strategies aimed at lowering system reactance are:
a. Minimum transformer reactance
b.Series capacitor compensation of lines
c.Additional transmission lines.
95.What are coherent machines? (APR/MAY 2004)
Machines which swing together are called coherent machines. When both ωs and δ are
expressed in electrical degrees or radians, the swing equations for coherent machines can be
combined together even though the rated speeds are different. This is used in stability studies
involving many machines.

96.State equal area criterion. (NOV/DEC 2004)

In a two machine system under the usual assumptions of constant input , no damping and
constant voltage being transient reactance , the angle between the machines either increases
or else, after all disturbances have occurred oscillates with constant amplitude. There is a
simple graphical method of determining whether the system comes to rest with respect to
each other. This is known as equal area criterion

97.What are various faults that increase severity of equal area criterion?
The various faults that increases severity of equal area criterion are,
A Single line to ground fault
A Line to line fault
A Double line to ground fault
A Three phase fault

56
98.List the types of disturbances that may occur in a single machine infinite bus bar system
of the equal area criterion stability
The types of disturbances that may occur are,
Sudden change in mechanical input
Effect of clearing time on stability
Sudden loss of one of parallel lines
Sudden short circuit on one of parallel lines
i) Short circuit at one end of line
ii) Short circuit away from line ends
iii) Reclosure

99.Define critical clearing angle

The critical clearing angle δcc is the maximum allowable change in the power angle δ before
clearing the fault , without loss of synchronism.

100.Define critical clearing time.

The critical clearing time , tcc can be defined as the maximum time delay that can be
allowed to clear a fault without loss of synchronism . The time corresponding to the critical
clearing angle is called critical clearing time tcc.

101. What are the assumptions that are made inorder to simplify the computational task in
stability studies?
The assumptions are,
• The D.C offset currents and harmonic components are neglected. The currents
and voltages are assumed to have fundamental component alone.
• The symmetrical components are used for the representation of unbalanced
faults.
• It is assumed that the machine speed variations will not affect the generated
voltage.

102.What is Multimachine stability?

If a system has any number of machines, then each machine is listed for stability by
advancing the angular position, δ of its internal voltage and noting whether the electric power
output of the machine increases (or) decreases. If it increases, i.e if ∂Pn / ∂δn > 0 then
machine n is stable. If every machine is stable, then the system having any number of machine
is stable.

103. What is meant by an infinite bus?

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 The connection or disconnection of a single small machine on a large system would not
affect the magnitude and phase of the voltage and frequency. Such a system of constant voltage
and constant frequency regardless of the load is called infinite bus bar system or infinite bus.

104.List the assumptions made in multimachine stability studies.

The assumptions made are,

• The mechanical power input to each machine remains constant during the
entire period of the swing curve computation
• Damping power is negligible
• Each machine may be represented by a constant transient reactance in series
with a constant transient voltage.
• The mechanical rotor angle of each machine coincides with δ , the electrical
phase angle of the transient internal voltage.

105. Explain the concept synchronous speed.

The mechanical torque Tm and the electrical torque Te are considered positive for
synchronous generator. Tm is the resultant shaft torque which tends to accelerate the rotor in
the positive θm direction of rotation . Under steady-state operation of the generator Tm and Te
are equal and the accelerating torque Ta is zero. Hence there is no acceleration of deceleration
of the rotor, masses and the resultant constant speed is the synchronous speed.

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