Part 1: Analyze the local impact of computing on individuals, organizations, and society.

Introduction

The growing adoption of smart devices, such as smart phones and tablets, is fundamentally

changing the way how business is conducted. New mobile technologies exert a significant

influence on individuals, organizations, and society at large. Our paper provides an analysis of

empirical research on mobile computing in the information systems literature. The mobile

computing paradigm has been used in various contexts, often interchangeably with ubiquitous

and pervasive computing. Confusion surrounds how mobile computing should be delimited from

these related but conceptually different notions, suitable levels of analysis, and appropriate

research methods. Our goal is to reduce this confusion and to guide future research on mobile

computing. We classify extant mobile computing literature and synthesize results. Based on the

analysis, we develop a research agenda that will enable IS researchers to more readily account

for the multi-level nature of mobile computing when investigating its role in everyday life,

organizations, and society.

Impact of computing on society

 Information Is Changing from a Scarce Resource to an Abundant Resource

Few people disagree with the notion that information is a valuable resource and that increased

availability of information can be beneficial for individuals and organizations alike. However,

information technology’s capability to introduce ever-growing amounts of data and information

into our lives can exceed our capacity to keep up with them, leading to information overload.

Business users are not suffering from the scarcity of data; instead, they are discovering that the
process of finding the information they need in massive collections of documents can be

complicated, time consuming, and expensive.

 Machines Are Performing Functions Previously Performed by Humans

One of the distinguishing traits of humankind is the continuous quest to find tools and techniques

to replace human work and manual labor. Information technology greatly accelerates this process

and allows machines to perform a variety of complex functions, which, in the past, could be

performed only by humans. Robotics offers a clear example of information technology

eliminating the need for human labor. Computerized transaction processing systems, automated

teller machines, intelligent scheduling software, and voice recognition systems illustrate

information technology’s capability to replace administrative and clerical work. Moreover,

artificial intelligence and expert systems are now able to perform the work of white-collar

professionals. As functionality of machines and computer systems continues to evolve, it will

transform societies by influencing such critical factors as the quality of life, the dynamics of

labor markets, and the nature of human interactions

Impact of computing on individual

 Dehumanization and Other Psychological Impacts

Many people feel a loss of identity, dehumanization, because of computerization; they feel like

“just another number” because computers reduce or eliminate the human element that was

present in the no computerized systems. Some people also feel this way about the Web.
  Information Anxiety

Another potential negative impact is information anxiety. This disquiet can take several forms,

such as frustration with our inability to keep up with the amount of data present in our lives.

Information anxiety can take other forms as well. One is frustration with the quality of the

information available on the Web, which frequently is not up-to-date or incomplete. Another is

frustration or guilt associated with not being better informed, or being informed too late

 Impacts on Health and Safety

Job Stress: An increase in workload and/or responsibilities can trigger job stress. Although

computerization has benefited organizations by increasing productivity, it has also created an

ever-increasing workload for some employees. Some workers, especially those who are not

proficient with computers, but who must work with them, feel overwhelmed and start feeling

anxious about their jobs and their job performance. These feelings of anxiety can adversely

affect workers’ productivity.

Repetitive Strain (Stress) Injuries: Other potential health and safety hazards are repetitive

strain injuries such as backaches and muscle tension in the wrists and fingers. Carpal tunnel

syndrome is a painful form of repetitive strain injury that affects the wrists and hands. It has been

associated with the long-term use of keyboards.

Lessening the Negative Impact on Health and Safety:

Designers are aware of the potential problems associated with prolonged use of computers.

Consequently, they have attempted to design a better computing environment. Research in the

area of ergonomics (the science of adapting machines and work environments to people)
provides guidance for these designers. For instance, ergonomic techniques focus on creating an

environment for the worker that is safe, well lit, and comfortable. Devices such as antiglare

screens have helped alleviate problems of fatigued or damaged eyesight, and chairs that contour

the human body have helped decrease backaches.

Impact of computing on organizations

 Managerial Issues

Offshore outsourcing: The movement of computing work abroad represents economic risks, but

the fears of job migration far outweigh the reality so far, according to a 2006 study by the

Association for Computing Machinery (ACM, acm.org). The study concluded that dire

predictions of job losses from shifting high-technology work to low-wage nations with strong

education systems, like India and China, were greatly exaggerated.

Managing and evaluating non present workers: Telecommuting increases the number of

employees working away from the office. To manage these employees, it is vital to place a

greater emphasis on regular formal communications.

Dealing with information overload: The capacity of information systems to collect, generates,

and distributes information has outpaced the ability of human employees to absorb or process it.

The resulting stress or confusion from information overload can negatively impact employees

and their productivity.

Providing high-quality information: Information quality is critical to business planning and

operations. It is so important that according to GartnerGroup.

Displacement of employees with information technology: In blue-collar, clerical, service, or

white-collar jobs, intelligent machines are acquiring the capabilities to perform human tasks

more effectively or efficiently. While this trend is unlikely to result in massive worldwide

unemployment, it can have dramatic impacts on individual organizations or employees. Thus,

managers should be aware of the potentially disruptive technologies that may displace them,

their colleagues, or subordinates.

Use of electronic surveillance: The need to defend against computer and white-collar crime

requires employers to monitor their employees, which is typically done with information

technology. While electronic surveillance may reduce the incidence of unlawful activities, it may

also result in employee resentment and other unintended consequences.

Ethical issues: The increasing complexity of the global international business environment

makes ethical decisions more difficult. Globalization has the power to undermine our sense of

moral responsibility because it becomes relatively easy to ignore harm that is being done to

others in distant locations and the long-range consequences.

 IMPACT ON LABOR MARKET

One of the most prominent concerns is the fear that due to technological advances, machines will

replace millions of workers, leading to mass unemployment. Robots and office automation

systems are effectively competing with humans for blue-collar and clerical jobs. It is important

to note that white-collar occupations are not immune to the impact of information technology

either. In fact, machines are beginning to challenge scientists, interpreters, computer

programmers, lawyers, aircraft pilots, and other professionals in their jobs.

  VIRTUAL COMMUNITIES

An innovative combination of communication tools can be used to create a virtual community. A

community is a group of people with some common interests who interact with one another.

Virtual communities parallel typical physical communities, such as neighborhoods, clubs, or

associations, except that people do not meet face-to-face. Instead, community members meet

online using digital tools to communicate and collaborate. Similar to the click-and-mortar e-

commerce model, many physical communities also have an online presence for Internet-related

activities.

Part 2: Analyze the global impact of computing on individuals, organizations, and society?

Global Impacts of computing on society

 IT Is Eliminating the Barriers of Time, Space, and Distance

GLOBALIZATION: One of the most noticeable developments precipitated by information

technology is the elimination of numerous barriers that traditionally separated individuals,

organizations, and societies at different geographic locations. In essence, information technology

is redefining the entire concept of time, space, and distance. Proliferation of high-speed data

communication networks that span the globe enables companies to integrate geographically

distant manufacturing and research facilities, link international financial markets, and even

provide customer service from halfway around the world.

TELECOMMUTING: Broadband Internet access, secure virtual private networks, and mobile

computing technologies are making it possible for many professionals to telecommute, or work

from outside the office. According to some estimates, by the year 2010 more than half of
workers in the United States will spend 2 or more days a week working away from the office.

However, experts estimate that even in 10 years it would be uncommon to find workers who

telecommute 5 days a week, suggesting that telecommuting would not fully eliminate the need

for central office locations

Impacts of Working from Home or Virtual Office: All forms of telecommuting— working

from home (WFH) or a virtual office—give employees greater flexibility in their working

locations and hours. Working in a virtual office is one way an employee can telecommute by

completing job duties virtually anywhere—a car, hotel room, airport, or any hotspot.

Telecommuting (or telework) played a significant role in business continuity and continuity of

operations planning.

STRUCTURE, AUTHORITY, POWER, JOB CONTENT, and PERSONNEL ISSUES:

The IT revolution may result in many changes in structure, authority, power, and job content, as

well as personnel management and human resources management.

Global Impacts of computing on organization

 INFORMATION QUALITY

As organizations and societies continue to generate, process, and rely on the rapidly increasing

amounts of information, they begin to realize the importance of information quality. Information

quality is a somewhat subjective measure of the utility, objectivity, and integrity of gathered

information. Quality issues affect both the simple collections of facts (data) and the more

complex pieces of processed data (information). To be truly valuable, both data and information

must possess a number of essential characteristics, such as being complete, accurate, up-to-date,
and “fit for the purpose” for which they are used. The value and usability of data and information

that do not satisfy these requirements are severely limited.

Among the most common problems that plague online information sources is omission of

materials. A number of online “full-text” periodicals databases may omit certain items that

appeared in the printed versions of those publications. In addition, online sources of information

leave out older documents, which are not available in digital form. Thus, one cannot be assured

of having access to a complete set of relevant materials. Even materials that are available from

seemingly reputable sources present information quality concerns. Information may have been

reported wrong, whether intentionally or unintentionally, or the information may have become

out of date. These and other information quality issues are contributing to the frustration and

anxiety that for some have become the unfortunate side effect of the Information Age.

 SPAM

Spamming, the practice of indiscriminately broadcasting unsolicited messages via e-mail and

over the Internet, is one of the most widespread forms of digital noise. Spam is typically directed

at a person and presents a considerable annoyance, with 70 percent of users indicating that “spam

makes being online unpleasant”.

Bulk unsolicited electronic messages—spam—accounts for more than 66 percent of all e-mail

traffic on the Internet. Some 25.5 billion spam messages were sent in 2004. This volume of

messages significantly impairs the bandwidth of Internet service providers and places excessive

capacity demands on mail servers. In electronic commerce, spam can delay transactions and can

cause problems in supply chains where business data are exchanged through specially configured

e-mail accounts.
Spam hurts businesses even more by lowering the productivity of employees who have to deal

with unwanted messages. Spam can originate in any country, making the anti-spam legislation of

any given country largely ineffective in keeping spam out.

 THE DIGITAL DIVIDE

Technologies enabling access to information are not distributed evenly among various groups of

people. For some people, information continues to be a scarce resource, which puts them at a

comparative economic and social disadvantage. The gap in computer technology in general, and

now in Web technology in particular, between those who have such technology and those who

do not is referred to as the digital divide. However, by 2003, nearly 100 percent of the public

schools in the United States had Internet access (National Center for Educational Statistics,

2005). Not only has the divide in terms of access per se been reduced, but the divide in terms of

the quality (or speed) of access has been reduced. By 2003, 95 percent of public schools used

broadband connections to access the Internet, as compared with 80 percent in 2000 and fewer

than 15 percent in 1996.

Global Impacts of computing on individual?

 SECURITY VERSUS PRIVACY

The issue of security versus privacy is at the forefront of the debate about clashing values that

are heavily influenced by information technology. The terrorist attacks against the United States

on September 11, 2001 demonstrate the tragic consequences of terrorist activities and the critical

threats they present. Violent crime and organized crime inflict enormous pain and suffering on

thousands of victims every year, illustrating another threat to physical safety and security. White-

collar crimes, ranging from accounting irregularities to embezzlement, jeopardize the financial
security of investors and employees of various companies. The collapse of the energy giant,

Enron, the bankruptcy of MCI-WorldCom, and the dissolution of Arthur Andersen exemplify the

magnitude of potential losses resulting from such illegal activities.

 Political Contributions

Thanks to the Web site fundrace.org, individuals can investigate the campaign-giving activities

of neighbors, friends, or strangers. The site is based on publicly available information—the

names, addresses, occupations, and contribution amounts—of individual contributors. This

information is supplied by the Federal Election Commission. Using geocoding, the site enables

various searches. For example, by entering your own address, the site will display other

addresses in the area that have made campaign contributions. While the site is based on public

data, most individuals would not easily access this data were it not provided in such a readily

searchable format. Some individuals might have a fear of being harassed if strangers in their

neighborhood with opposite political viewpoints discover their campaign contributions. Others

might worry that their bosses can discover the amount, and recipient, of their political

contributions. Such a site forces us to consider the meaning of public information.

 FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION VERSUS CENSORSHIP

Freedom of expression is generally regarded as one of the most valuable rights in a democratic

society. Since the passage of the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1789, Congress

has been prohibited from introducing any laws “abridging the freedom of speech.” The volume

and variety of content accessible through the Internet can be viewed as a triumph for the freedom

of speech. However, this very factor provokes an important question regarding the suitability of

the information found on the Internet for those who can access it.
  INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY, PIRACY, AND FAIR USE

One of the fundamental changes that took place at the dawn of the Information Age is the shift in

the nature of outputs produced by individuals and organizations. Instead of tangible goods and

physical objects, a substantial proportion of companies and individual workers are producing

intangible intellectual property. Computer software, books, news articles, music, movies,

paintings, and myriad other forms of intellectual property are becoming the dominant product of

modern economic systems. Furthermore, information technology is introducing entirely new

ways in which intellectual property can be used, transmitted, and manipulated. Ironically, the

same technology greatly enhances the possibilities to abuse the information and infringe on the

rights of authors and owners of the intellectual property.

An example to describe the local impact of computing solutions on individuals: using

technology with every day’s life?

Schools and universities are finding new ways to keep up with technology, such as the

emergence of iPods on campuses. All levels of education are using this brand of portable media

players, designed and marketed by Apple Computer, as a learning tool. Duke University was one

of the first to embrace this technology. Duke’s provost, Peter Lang, said, “the direct effect of

iPods is they learn better in the classroom.” Duke was awarded a grant to give their freshmen 20-

gigabyte iPods—enough storage for up to 5,000 songs.

The results are mixed; about 75 percent of those surveyed at Duke said they use their iPods for

academic work. Half the time, they use the device in ways recommended by the professors. The

positive feedback is that the iPod is similar to the old recording devices used in the past, but with

the ability to store, organize, and access with a click of a couple of buttons. Students do not have
to attend the class to download the materials online or from a fellow student. Some schools feel

that students will skip out on classes and rely on each other’s recordings, or even use the device

to cheat. According to Don McCabe, a Rutgers professor who surveyed nearly 62,000

undergraduates on 96 campuses over four years, two-thirds of the students admitted to cheating.

That is a concern, especially with the compact size, wireless earpieces, and the ability to hold

podcasts—audio recordings that can be distributed over the Internet. But with an abundance of

electronic gadgets, including handheld email devices, wireless access in classrooms to the

Internet, calculators that are preprogrammed with formulas, and pensized scanners used to copy

text or exams for other students, universities have to stay ahead of the curve. Some other

concerns are: How will the lecturer’s words and actions be used for unknown purposes and

when/where is copyright being infringed when students and faculty make their own recordings?

In spite of the worries of skipping class, personal use, and cheating, Apple Computer is behind

the iPod in the education field. Six schools (Duke, Brown, Stanford, the University of Michigan,

the University of Wisconsin–Madison, and the University of Missouri School of Journalism)

recently participated in a pilot program called iTunes U. The program was so popular that Apple

began to offer the program to all colleges for lectures, notes, podcasts, and information in a

library for students to download.

Other schools, such as Brearley School, a private school for girls on the Upper East Side of

Manhattan, use iPods predominantly in interactive exercises, such as foreign language classes.

Katherine Hallissy Ayala, the head of the computer education department, says “the hope is that

if students are interested in this, they’ll download and explore on their own without being told

to.” And Jacques Houis, a French teacher at Brearley, feels that “listening to many different

types of French, not just the teacher, is very important.” Students have said that the iPod has
helped their foreign language skills by listening to playbacks, music, and other sources besides

what is taught in the classroom. One thing is for sure, the iPod is changing the academic field

and schools will have to stay ahead of generations born in the ever-changing world of technology

An example to describe the global impact of computing solutions on individuals: using

technology in trading with other countries

The Alabama Coushatta Indian Tribe Reservation, located 45 miles outside of Houston, Texas, in

Livingston County, has experienced an outmigration of its people to more metropolitan areas in

search of better education, jobs, and health care. Wanting to preserve its race and culture, the

300-member tribe sought ways to make living on the reservation more attractive to its young

members. In partnership with Sam Houston State University (SHSU) and with $350,000 in

funding from the Rural Utilities Services, a network called RESNET was created to bridge the

information and communication gaps for residents of Livingston and surrounding counties.

A fiber-optic network links the medical clinic on the reservation to the University of Texas

Medical Branch in Polk County as well as to the Tyler County Hospital. Tribal members can

now receive more specialized care as two-way consultations between the clinic on the

reservation and the hospital in Polk County or Tyler County are now possible. Individuals with

ailments that might require hospitalization, but about which they are not sure, such as a diabetic

with a concern about a swollen limb, can first check with the medical clinic on the reservation.

Vital signs can be taken and radiology images shared with the specialist physicians at one of the

hospitals, and then informed decisions about whether the patient needs to travel to a hospital can

be made. This helps improve the quality of care as well as saves time both for patients and for

medical staff.
An example to describe the local impact of computing solutions on organizations: using

technology to complete tasks related to business within the company.

With growing amounts of rubbish to deal with at Japanese train stations and fewer people willing

to work as cleaners, officials have started turning the dirty work over to robots. Since May 1993,

the Central Japan Railway Company and Sizuko Company, a Japanese machinery maker, have

been using robots programmed to vacuum rubbish. A railway official said the robots, which are

capable of doing the work of 10 people each, have been operating at the Sizuko station in Central

Japan. The robots measure about 1.5 meters wide and 1.2 meters long. The railway and Sizuko

spent 70 million yen to develop the machines and are planning to program them for other tasks,

such as sweeping and scrubbing.

An example to describe the global impact of computing solutions on organizations: using

technology to complete tasks related to business with other companies.

Cities around the world are transforming themselves to the digital era by replacing copper wires

with fiber-optic cables or by installing fiber optics where there were no wires before. Because

fiber-optic cables are a choice method to deliver high-speed voice and data communication (see

Technology Guide 4), demand for them is expanding. Cities know that in order to attract and

hold on to high-tech business they must provide fiber-optic access to all commercial buildings.

You may have seen this activity many times without realizing it: Workers cut up the street,

creating noise, dust, and traffic problems. But the worst part of it is that the disruption to people

may take weeks, or even months, just to complete one city block. Now, robots are changing it all.

One company that invented a technology to improve the situation is City Net

Telecommunications. The idea is to use the existing sewer system to lay the cables. This way no
trenches need to be dug in the streets. Pioneering work has been done in Albuquerque, New

Mexico, Omaha, Nebraska, and Indianapolis, Indiana. Robots are waterproof and do not have

noses, and so they are not bothered by working in the sewer. They do not complain, nor do they

get sick. As a matter of fact, they work faster than humans when it comes to laying the fiber-

optic cables inside the sewer system.

The company claims that laying the fiber-optic cable with robots costs about the same as the old

method. The major advantage is that it can be done 60 percent faster and without disruption to

people lives.

An example to describe the local impact of computing solutions on society?

Whereas pre-teen girls in the decades since 1959, when Barbie was first introduced by Mattel,

have enjoyed countless hours playing with Barbie, Ken, and other of their pals, young girls of

today are turning toward an online fantasy play land in which they manipulate an electronic

house and all its members. Psychologists have long argued that children enjoy the empowerment

that comes with making play dolls do or say what they want them to do or say. With electronic

tools at hand and increasing dexterity, children are now able to control the worlds of entire

make-believe families.

Online games such as The Sims invite players to enter a suburban family life. Each character,

known as a Sim, is different—one might be a young boy devoted to sports, one an older man

drawn to business, another a housewife trying to manage a large household. The player decides

on each Sim or his or her personality.

The Sims game has become highly popular with both boys and girls from ages 9 to 18 but

particularly so with girls, even in a field, video gaming, that typically appeals to boys and young
men. More than half of the game’s players are female, according to the game’s publisher

(Electronic Arts). Boys tend to be more interested in taking on pretend identities of one of the

characters, whereas girls tend to focus more on creating friends for a Sim.

Parental reactions to the Sims are mixed: Some parents find the game a creative way for their

children to enact and react to different people and personalities, whereas others are troubled by

the sense of control over other people’s lives that the game engenders.

An example to describe the global impact of computing solutions on society?

Generations of moviegoers went to movie theaters to enjoy the latest films. They accepted the

idea of paying for their movies. However, movie piracy, which has been greatly accelerated by

information technology, is challenging this notion. Now, movie pirates are bringing the latest

motion picture releases to an Internet-connected computer near you

For years, movie studios suffered minor losses due to high-tech piracy (theft of digital content)

that was carried out by people duplicating videotapes and DVDs. The need to produce and

distribute physical media presented a number of technical and logistical difficulties for movie

pirates, which limited the scope of their operations. Thus, picture studios largely ignored these

activities. When Napster.com and other sites began to use the Web and peer-to-peer technologies

to share pirated music, movie producers felt reasonably immune to this trend. After all, it would

take more than a week to download a 5-gigabyte DVD-quality movie using a 56-kilobits-per-

second modem.

Some individuals argue that piracy does not hurt film studios but, rather, makes movies available

to those people who would not be able to enjoy them otherwise. Information technology that

enables movie piracy raises a number of significant issues, such as intellectual property rights,
fair use, and the role of government in regulating these issues. Furthermore, information

technology makes it easier than ever to cross national borders, adding international implications

to the issue of movie piracy.

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