CHAPTER 1: ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR IN HISTORICAL CONTEXT

UNDERSTANDING PSYCHOPATHOLOGY_______ The Science of Psychopathology/Abnormal

What Is a Psychological Disorder? psychology
Psychological disorder/Abnormal behavior Psychopathology/Abnormal behavior-
is a psychological dysfunction within an scientific study of psychological
individual that is associated with distress disorders.
or impairment in functioning and a -study of individuals with mental,
response that is not typical or culturally emotional, and physical pain.
expected. “Within this field are specially trained
*The 4 D’s of abnormal behavior: professionals.”
1. Dysfunction-behavior causes impairment in Degree
social and occupational functioning. This means Psychiatrists MD, DO
that the behavior interferes with the person’s Psychologists PhD, PsyD, EdD
ability to form and maintain relationships or hold Social workers MSW, DSW
a job. Counselors Various
-refers to a breakdown in cognitive, emotional, or >Counseling psychologists=study and treat
behavioral functioning. adjustment and vocational issues encountered by
2. Distress-Behaviors and feelings that cause relatively healthy individuals.
distress to the individual or to others around him >Clinical psychologists=usually concentrate on
or her. more severe psychological disorders.
3. Deviance-deviant and unusual behaviors lead >Psychiatrists=investigate the nature and causes
to the judgment of abnormality. of psychological disorders, often from a biological
4. Dangerousness-some behaviors and feelings point of view; make diagnoses; and offer
are of potential harm to the individual. treatments. Many psychiatrists emphasize drugs
An accepted definition or other biological treatments.
Health professions will never be able to >Psychiatric social workers=develop expertise in
satisfactorily define disease or disorder. The best collecting information relevant to the social and
we may be able to do is to consider how the family situation of the individual with a
apparent disease or disorder matches a “typical” psychological disorder.
profile of a disorder. =also treat disorders, often concentrating on
Example: family problems associated with them.
Major depression or schizophrenia—when >Psychiatric nurses=specialize in the care and
most or all symptoms that experts would agree are treatment of patients with psychological
part of the disorder are present disorders, usually in hospitals as part of a
(we call this)
Typical profile/Prototype treatment team.
“The differences between DSM-IV and >Marriage therapists, family therapists and
DSM-5 is the addition of dimensional estimates of mental health counselors=are employed to
the severity of specific disorders in DSM-5.” provide clinical services by hospitals or clinics,
Example: usually under the supervision of a doctoral-level
The intensity and frequency of anxiety within clinician.
a given disorder such as panic disorder is rated on a 0 The Scientist-Practitioner
to 4 scale where a rating of 1 would indicate mild or *Mental health practitioners may function as
occasional symptoms and a rating of 4 would indicate scientist-practitioners in one or more of three
continual and severe symptoms ways:
1. Consumer of science-enhancing the practice.

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2. Evaluator of science-determining the 2. Episodic course-likely to recover from
effectiveness of the practice. disorder in a few months, but
3. Creator of science-conducting research that reoccurrence is likely.
leads to new procedures useful in practice. 3. Time-limited course-disorder will
*3 major categories make up the study and improve without treatment in a relatively
discussion of psychological disorders: short period.
a. Clinical description “Closely related to differences in course of
b. Causation (etiology) disorders are differences in onset.”
c. Treatment and outcome a. Acute onset-begins suddenly.
Clinical Description b. Insidious onset-develops gradually over
“In hospitals and clinics, we often say an extended period.
that a patient presents with a specific problem or Prognosis-the anticipated course of a
set of problems or we discuss the presenting disorder.
problem. Describing someone’s presenting Example:
problem is the first step in determining >Prognosis is good= individual will get better
someone’s clinical description.” >Prognosis is guarded= the outcome looks
bad
Presents-traditional shorthand way of
Developmental psychology-study of
indicating why the person came to the
clinic. changes in behavior over time.
Clinical description-represents the unique Developmental psychopathology-study of
combination of behaviors, thoughts, and changes in abnormal behavior.
feelings that make up a specific disorder. Life-span developmental psychopathology-
Clinical-refers both to the types of problems study of abnormal behavior across the
or disorders that you would find in a entire age span.
clinic or hospital and to the activities Etiology(study of origins)-has to do with why
connected with assessment and a disorder begins (what causes it) and
treatment. includes biological, psychological, and
“One important function of the clinical social dimensions.
HISTORICAL CONCEPTIONS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR___
description is to specify what makes the disorder
different from normal behavior or from other I. Supernatural Tradition
disorders. Statistical data may also be relevant.” -The basis of this model is that evil spirits, a god,
Satan, or demons causes the abnormal behavior.
Prevalence of the disorder=how many
people in the population as a whole have Supposedly, these vile spirits take control or
the disorder. possess people, making them behave in immoral
or bizarre ways.
Incidence of the disorder=statistics on how
many new cases occur during a given a. Demons and Witches
period, such as a year. Exorcism-is thought of as another way to
Sex ratio=percentage of males and females release evil spirits who cause
that have the disorder—and the typical pathological behavior within the person.
age of onset, which often differs from b. Stress and Melancholy
one disorder to another. An equally strong opinion reflected the
“Most disorders follow a somewhat enlightened view that insanity was a natural
individual pattern, or course.” phenomenon, caused by mental or emotional
1. Chronic course-disorder has lasted a long stress, and that it was curable.
time. Nicholas Oresme-suggested that the
disease of melancholy (depression) was

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 the source of some bizarre behavior, II. Biological Tradition
rather than demons. Hippocrates and Galen
c. Mass Hysteria Hippocrates-father of modern Western
-large scale outbreaks of bizarre behavior. medicine.
-to this day, these episodes puzzle historians and -saw abnormal behavior as a disease
mental health practitioners. arising from internal physical problems.
Saint Vitus’s Dance/Tarantism-psychological Specifically, he believed that some form
illness characterized by an extreme of brain pathology was the culprit.
impulse to dance, prevalent in southern -he and his associates left a body of work
Italy from the 15th to the 17th century, called the Hippocratic Corpus.
and widely believed at the time to have o Hippocratic Corpus-a group of
been caused by the bite of a tarantula. approximately 60 medical works
d. Modern Mass Hysteria dated to around 450–340 B.C.E.
Emotional Contagion-mass hysterias may -suggests that psychological
simply demonstrate this phenomenon. disorders could be treated like
-phenomenon wherein the experience of any other disease.
an emotion seems to spread to those “They believed that
around us. psychological disorders might also be
Example: caused by brain pathology or head
If someone nearby becomes trauma and could be influenced by
frightened or sad, chances are that for the heredity (genetics).”
moment you also will feel fear or sadness. Galen- later adopted the ideas of
When this kind of experience escalates into
Hippocrates and his associates and
full-blown panic, whole communities are
affected
developed them further.
(this shared response is also known as) “One of the more interesting and
Mob psychology/Mob mentality-the idea influential legacies of the Hippocratic-Galenic
that we act differently in a crowd approach is the humoral theory of disorders.”
because we lose our sense our individual Humoral theory-theory wherein bodily
identities and we desire harmony within chemicals influence mental and physical
the group so we do not protest even functioning.
when actions or sentiments are extreme. -the first example of associating
e. Moon and Stars psychological disorders with a chemical
Paracelsus-rejected notions of possession imbalance.
by the devil, suggesting instead that the
movements of the moon and stars had
profound effects on people’s
psychological functioning.
-speculated that the gravitational effects
of the moon on bodily fluids might be a
possible cause of mental disorders.
(this theory inspired
the word)
o Lunatic(luna=moon)

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*4 humors(Hippocrates):

“Excesses of one or more humors were “Hippocrates also coined the word hysteria
treated by regulating the environment to to describe a concept he learned about from the
increase or decrease heat, dryness, moisture, or Egyptians, who had identified what we now call
cold, depending on which humor was out of the somatic symptom disorders.”
balance. Hysteria-in its colloquial use, describes
*3 treatments: unmanageable emotional excesses.
a. Rest, good nutrition, and exercise Somatic symptom disorders-In these
b. Bloodletting/Bleeding-an amount of blood is disorders, the physical symptoms appear
removed from the body, often with leeches. to be the result of a medical problem for
c. Induced vomiting which no physical cause can be found.
Example(The Wandering Uterus-Egypt):
Robert Burton-recommended eating
>Case=Paralysis and some kinds of blindness that
tobacco and a half-boiled cabbage to
occurred primarily in women, the Egyptians (and
induce vomiting. Hippocrates) mistakenly assumed that they were
“In ancient China and throughout Asia, a restricted to women.
similar idea existed. But rather than humors, the >Cause=Empty uterus wandered to various parts of the
Chinese focused on the movement of air or wind body in search of conception (the Greek word for
throughout the body.” “uterus” is hysteron).
a. Dark wind(Yin)-cold >Cure=Marriage or, occasionally, fumigation of the
b. Life-sustaining wind(Yang)-warm vagina to lure the uterus back to its natural location
19th Century
Biological tradition waxed and waned
during the following centuries, but was
reinvigorated in the 19th century.

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*2 reasons why biological tradition was The Development of Biological Treatment
reinvigorated: >1930-the physical interventions of electric shock
1. Discovery of the nature and cause of Syphilisis and brain surgery were often used.
Syphilis- a sexually transmitted disease >1927-Manfred Sakel, began using increasingly
caused by a bacterial microorganism higher dosages until, finally, patients convulsed
entering the brain, include believing that and became temporarily comatose. Some
everyone is plotting against you actually recovered their mental health, much to
(delusion of persecution) or that you are the surprise of everybody, and their recovery was
God (delusion of grandeur), as well as attributed to the convulsions.
other bizarre behaviors. (procedure known as)

Penicilin-cure for syphilis. “Insulin shock”

Psychosis-has same symptoms of syphilis. >1750-Benjamin Franklin discovered accidentally
-psychological disorders characterized in that a mild and modest electric shock to the head
part by beliefs that are not based in produced a brief convulsion and memory loss
reality (delusions), perceptions that are (amnesia) but otherwise did little harm.
not based in reality (hallucinations), or >1920-Joseph von Meduna observed that
both schizophrenia was rarely found in individuals with
“In 1825, the condition(Syphilis) was epilepsy (which ultimately did not prove to be
designated a disease, general paresis, because it true).
had consistent symptoms (presentation) and a >1938-Ugo Cerletti and Lucio Bini treated a
consistent course that resulted in death.” depressed patient by sending six small shocks
General paresis- chronic inflammation of directly through his brain, producing convulsions,
the brain and its lining that occurs in the the patient recovered.
late stages of syphilis. >1950- the first effective drugs for severe
-causes gradual, widespread damage to psychotic disorders were developed in a
the nerves of the brain, resulting in a systematic way.
variety of physical and psychological Rauwolfia serpentine(Reserpine)
changes such as generalized paralysis Neuroleptics(major tranquilizers)
and progressive dementia. benzodiazepines(minor tranquilizers)
Germ theory of disease(Louise Pasteur)- >1966-Alexander and Selesnick pointed out that
facilitated the identification of the “the general pattern of drug therapy for mental
specific bacterial microorganism that illness has been one of initial enthusiasm
caused syphilis. followed by disappointment.”
2. John P. Grey- champion of the biological >1970- benzodiazepines (known by such brand
tradition in the United States was the most names as Valium and Librium) were among the
influential American psychiatrist of the time. most widely prescribed drugs in the world.
-his position was that the causes of insanity were Consequences of the Biological Tradition
always physical. Therefore, the mentally ill In the late 19th century, Grey and his
patient should be treated as physically ill. colleagues ironically reduced or eliminated
-under his leadership, the conditions in hospitals interest in treating mental patients, because they
greatly improved and they became more thought that mental disorders were the result of
humane, livable institutions. some as-yet-undiscovered brain pathology and
were therefore incurable.
Emil Kraepelin- was the dominant figure
during this period and one of the
founding fathers of modern psychiatry.

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 -was one of the first to distinguish among women’s hospital Salpétrière, where he
various psychological disorders, seeing invited Pussin to join him. Here again,
that each may have a different age of they instituted a humane and socially
onset and time course, with somewhat facilitative atmosphere that produced
different clusters of presenting miraculous results.
symptoms, and probably a different After William Tuke followed Pinel’s lead in
cause. England, Benjamin Rush introduced
III. Psychological Tradition moral therapy in his early work at
Plato-thought that the two causes of Pennsylvania Hospital. It then became
maladaptive behavior were the social the treatment of choice in the leading
and cultural influences in one’s life and hospitals.
the learning that took place in that 1833, Horace Mann, reported on 32
environment. patients who had been given up as
incurable. These patients were treated
“This was very much a precursor with moral therapy, cured, and released
to modern psychosocial treatment to their families.
approaches to the causation of Asylum Reform and the Decline of Moral
psychopathology, which focus not only Therapy
on psychological factors but also on After the mid-19th century, humane
social and cultural ones as well.” treatment declined because of a convergence of
Aristotle-emphasized the influence of social factors:
environment and early learning on later a. Moral therapy worked best when the
psychopathology. number of patients in an institution
Moral Therapy was 200 or fewer, allowing for a
During the first half of the 19th century, great deal of individual attention.
a strong psychosocial approach to mental After the Civil War, enormous waves
disorders called moral therapy became of immigrants arrived in the United
influential. States, yielding their own
Moral therapy-the idea it rested on was populations of mentally ill.
humane but paternalistic: moral b. Dorothea Dix- campaigned endlessly
treatment’s advocates believed that an for reform in the treatment of
asylum patient had a better chance of insanity.
recovery if treated like a child rather than -her work became known as the
an animal. mental hygiene movement.
Moral>referred more to emotional or c. The decision, in the middle of the
psychological factors rather than to a 19th century, that mental illness was
code of conduct. caused by brain pathology and,
*History: therefore, was incurable.
When Pinel arrived in 1791, Pussin had “The psychological tradition lay dormant
already instituted remarkable reforms by for a time, only to reemerge in several different
removing all chains used to restrain schools of thought in the 20th century.”
patients and instituting humane and 1. Psychoanalysis(Sigmund Freud)-first
positive psychological interventions. major approach.
Pussin persuaded Pinel to go along with 2. Behaviorism(John B. Watson, Ivan
the changes. Much to Pinel’s credit, he Pavlov, and B. F. Skinner)-second major
did, first at La Bicêtre and then at the approach.

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Psychoanalytic Theory Experiment:
-is a method of investigating and treating While his patients were in the highly
personality disorders and is used in suggestible state of hypnosis, Breuer asked
them to describe their problems, conflicts,
psychotherapy.
and fears in as much detail as they could.
-idea that things that happen to people during *Breuer observed two extremely important
childhood can contribute to the way they later phenomena:
function as adults. a. patients often became extremely
Example: emotional as they talked and felt quite
Tom and Ashley were participating in pre-marital relieved and improved after emerging from
counseling. It came up during one session that Ashley the hypnotic state.
may have difficulty really believing that Tom loves her b. seldom would they have gained an
because she never felt that her parents loved her. understanding of the relationship between
Franz Anton Mesmer-suggested to his their emotional problems and their
patients that their problem was caused psychological disorder.
by an undetectable fluid found in all *With this observation, Breuer and Freud
living organisms called animal had discovered 3 things:
magnetism, which could become 1. The unconscious mind and its apparent
blocked. influence on the production of
-father of hypnosis. psychological disorders
o Animal Magnetism-was an 2. It is therapeutic to recall and relive
occult force or invisible fluid emotional trauma that has been made
emanating from the body and unconscious and to release the
that, more generally, the force accompanying tension
permeated the universe,  Catharsis-release of emotional material.
deriving especially from the 3. A fuller understanding of insight.
stars.  Insight-relationship between current
o Hypnosis-state in which emotions and earlier events.
extremely suggestible subjects “Freud and Breuer’s theories were based
sometimes appear to be in a on case observations.”
trance. Case(Anna O./Bertha Pappenheim)-Talking
Jean-Martin Charcot- demonstrated that cure/Chimney sweeping:
some techniques of mesmerism were Anna came to Josef Breur for treatment for
effective with a number of psychological what was then known as hysteria. While caring for her
disorders, and he did much to legitimize dying father, she experienced a range of symptoms
that included partial paralysis, blurred vision,
the fledgling practice of hypnosis.
headaches and hallucinations. During the course of
(1885) treatment, which lasted from 1880 to 1882, Breuer
“Sigmund Freud came from found that talking about her experiences seemed to
Vienna to study with Charcot.” offer some relief from her symptoms. Pappenheim
dubbed the treatment as the "talking cure."
“After returning from France, “Freud took these basic observations
Freud teamed up with Josef Breuer.” and expanded them into the psychoanalytic
Josef Breuer-grandfather of psychoanalysis model.”
-experimented with a somewhat
different hypnotic procedure. Psychoanalytic model
-argues that human behavior is the result of the
interactions among three component parts of the
mind: the id, ego, and superego.
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*Structure of the Mind 2. Ego(“I”)-realistically meet the wishes and
demands of the id in accordance with the outside
world.
-executive or manager of our minds.
-operates according to the reality principle and
employs secondary processes.
Reality principle-satisfies the id’s impulses in
an appropriate manner in the external
world.
Example:
The ego postpones the discharge of
tension until the appropriate object that will
*3 major parts of the mind(Freud): satisfy the need has been found.
1. ID- source of our strong sexual and aggressive Secondary processes-cognitive and
feelings or energies. perceptional skills that help an individual
-is basically the animal within us; if totally distinguish between fact and fantasy.
unchecked, it would make us all rapists or killers. 3. Superego/Conscience (“above-I”)-“innermost
-operates according to the pleasure principle and core”, represents internalized values, ideals, and
employs primary processes. moral standards.
Pleasure principle-has a goal of maximizing -represents the moral principles instilled in us by
pleasure and eliminating any associated our parents and our culture.
tension or conflicts. -is the voice within us that nags at us when we
-seeking immediate tension reduction. know we’re doing something wrong.
Primary process-is emotional, irrational, -its purpose is to counteract the potentially
illogical, filled with fantasies, and dangerous aggressive and sexual drives of the id.
preoccupied with sex, aggression, The Process of ID, Ego and Superego
selfishness, and envy. The role of the ego is to mediate conflict
-hallucinating or forming an image of the between the id and the superego, juggling their
object that would satisfy its needs. demands with the realities of the world. If it
*2 instincts: mediates successfully, we can go on to the higher
a. Life instinct/libido(Eros)- is concerned intellectual and creative pursuits of life. If it is
with the preservation of life and the unsuccessful, and the id or superego becomes
preservation of the species too strong, conflict will overtake us and
-appears as basic needs for health, safety psychological disorders will develop.
and sustenance and through sexual Intrapsychic conflicts-the conflicts within
drives. the mind
-associated with positive emotions of Defense Mechanisms
love, and hence pro-social behavior, -are unconscious protective processes that keep
cooperation, collaboration and other primitive emotions associated with conflicts in
behaviors that support harmonious check so that the ego can continue its
societies. coordinating function.
-It seeks both to preserve life and to
create life.
b. Death instinct(Thanatos)-appears in
opposition and balance to Eros and
pushes a person towards extinction and
an 'inanimate state'.
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 DEFENSE MECHANISMS Phallic Stage(3.5 - 6 years)
Physical focus: genitals
MECHANISM CHARACTERISTIC EXAMPLE
Psychological theme: morality and
Repression Blocking a wish or Being unaware of
desire from conscious deep-seated sexuality identification and figuring out
expression hostilities toward what it means to be a girl/boy.
one’s parents Oedipus complex(boys)- feelings of desire
Denial Refusing to accept an Refusing to believe for his mother and jealously and anger
unpleasant reality that one has AIDS
or a terminal cancer
towards his father.
Projection Attributing an Blaming another for -coined from the story of Oedipus Rex.
unconscious impulse, your act or thinking Castration anxiety(boys)- fears physical
attitude, or behavior that someone is out retaliation from his father, in particular
to another to get you
that he will lose his penis.
Reaction Expressing an Treating someone
formation impulse by its whom you intensely Electra complex(girls)- sense of competition
opposite dislike in a friendly with her mother for the affections of her
manner father.
Regression Returning to an Resuming Penis envy(girls)- sense of inferiority, and a
earlier form of bedwetting after
expressing an one has long since feeling of resentment and hatred toward
impulse stopped the mother, who is held responsible for
Rationalization Dealing with an Arguing that the effected castration.
emotion intellectually “Everybody else Adult character: promiscuous and
to avoid emotional does it, so I don’t
amoral/ asexual and puritanical
concern have to feel guilty.”
Identification Modeling one’s Imitating one’s (Doctrine of opposites again)
behavior after the mother or father Latency Stage(6 years to puberty)
behavior of someone -period of comparative sexual calm.
else -psychic forces develop that inhibit the
Displacement Satisfying an impulse Scapegoating
sexual drive and narrow its direction.
with a substitute
object Sexual impulses, which are unacceptable
Sublimation Rechanneling an Satisfying sexual in their direct expression, are channeled
impulse into a more curiosity by and elevated into more culturally
socially desirable researching sexual accepted levels of activity, such as sports,
outlet behaviors
intellectual interests, and peer relations.
Psychosexual Stages of Development Genital Stage(post puberty)
Oral Stage(Birth - 18 months) Physical focus: genitals
Physical focus: mouth, lips tongue Psychological theme: maturity and
(sucking). Sucking is the primary source creation and enhancement of life
of pleasure for a newborn. Adult character: The genital character is
Psychological theme: dependency not fixed at an earlier stage. This is the
Adult character: highly dependent/highly person who has worked it all out. This
independent person is psychologically well-adjusted
Anal Stage(18 months - 3.5 years) and balanced.
Physical focus: anus (elimination)
Effects of Psychosexual Stages
Psychological theme: self-
If the libido is prevented from obtaining
control/obedience.
optimal satisfaction during one or more
Adult character: anally retentive (rigid,
of the stages because it has been unduly
overly organised, subservient to
frustrated or overindulged, it may
authority) vs. anally expulsive (little self-
become fixated or arrested at that
control, disorganized, defiant, hostile).
particular stage.
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 o Fixation-concept rests on the healthy self-development, of an
insight that people retain individual’s relationships with others and
throughout life latent locates the source of many psychological
attachments to earlier modes of problems in caregivers’ lack of
satisfaction and object- responsiveness to the child’s emotional
relationships, and that these are needs.
reactivated by regression. Object relations-study of how children
Freud also viewed neuroses as the outcome incorporate the images, the memories,
of an inadequate sexual development, in and sometimes the values of a person
particular an unsuccessfully resolved who was important to them and to
Oedipal conflict. whom they were (or are) emotionally
o Neuroses/Neurotic disorders- attached.
formation of behavioral or “According to object relations
psychosomatic symptoms as a theory, you tend to see the world
result of the return of the through the eyes of the person
repressed. incorporated into yourself. Object
-is from an old term referring to relations theorists focus on how these
disorders of the nervous system. disparate images come together to make
Later Developments in Psychoanalytic up a person’s identity and on the
Thought conflicts that may emerge.”
Anna Freud-concentrated on the way in o Object=refers to these
which the defensive reactions of the ego important people.
determine our behavior. o Introjection=process of
-was the first proponent of the modern incorporation.
field of ego psychology. “Introjected objects can
o Ego psychology-its theme is that become an integrated part of
the ego is capable of functioning the ego or may assume
autonomously and is not conflicting roles in determining
confined to internal conflicts the identity, or self. “
with the id and superego. Example:
Your parents may have
“According to Anna Freud, the
conflicting views on relationships or
individual slowly accumulates
careers, which, in turn, may be
adaptational capacities, skill in reality different from your own point of
testing, and defenses. Abnormal view. To the extent that these
behavior develops when the ego is varying positions have been
deficient in regulating such functions as incorporated, the potential for
delaying and controlling impulses or in conflict arises. One day you may feel
marshaling appropriate normal defenses one way about your career
to strong internal conflicts.” direction, and the next day you may
Heinz Kohut-focused on a theory of the feel quite differently.
formation of self-concept and the crucial “Carl Jung and Alfred Adler are students
attributes of the self that allow an of Freud who came to reject his ideas and form
individual to progress toward health, or their own schools of thought.”
conversely, to develop neurosis. Carl Jung-suggested that spiritual and
(This psychoanalytic approach became known as) religious drives are as much a part of
Self-psychology-school of psychoanalytical human nature as are sexual drives.
theory that stresses the importance, in
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 -introduced the concept of the collective primary-process thinking of the id, and
unconscious. systematically relates the dreams to
-emphasized the importance of enduring symbolic aspects of unconscious
personality traits such as introversion conflicts.
and extroversion. Transference-a patient’s displacement or
o Collective unconscious-wisdom projection onto the analyst of those
accumulated by society and unconscious feelings and wishes
culture that is stored deep in originally directed toward important
individual memories and passed individuals, such as parents, in the
down from generation to patient’s childhood.
generation. Countertransference-therapists project
o Introversion-tendency to be shy some of their own personal issues and
and withdrawn. feelings, usually positive, onto the
o Extroversion-tendency to be patient.
friendly and outgoing Therapeutic alliance- relationship of the
Alfred Adler-focused on feelings of therapist and the patient
inferiority and the striving for superiority. “Psychoanalysis is still practiced, particularly
-created the term inferiority complex. in some large cities, but many psychotherapists
o Inferiority complex- basic feeling employ a loosely related set of approaches
of inadequacy and insecurity, referred to as psychodynamic psychotherapy.”
deriving from actual or imagined Psychodynamic psychotherapy- view
physical or psychological individuals as reacting to unconscious
deficiency. forces (e.g., motivation, drive), that focus
“Others took psychoanalytical theorizing on processes of change and
in different directions, emphasizing development development, and that place a premium
over the life span and the influence of culture and on self-understanding and making
society on personality.” meaning of what is unconscious.
Erik Erikson-his greatest contribution was *7 tactics that characterize Psychodynamic
his theory of development across the life Psychotherapy:
span(8 Psychosocial Stages of 1. Focus on affect and the expression of patients’
Development). emotions.
Karen Horneye-her contribution was her 2. Exploration of patients’ attempts to avoid
theory(Psychoanalytical Social Theory) topics or engage in activities that hinder the
that stressed social forces that operate progress of therapy.
within the family. 3. Identification of patterns in patients’ actions,
Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy/Psychoanalysis thoughts, feelings, experiences, and
Free association(Freud)-technique in which relationships.
patients are instructed to say whatever 4. Emphasis on past experiences.
comes to mind without the usual socially 5. Focus on patients’ interpersonal experiences
required censoring. 6. Emphasis on the therapeutic relationship.
-is intended to reveal emotionally 7. Exploration of patients’ wishes, dreams, or
charged material that may be repressed fantasies.
because it is too painful or threatening to
bring into consciousness.
Dream analysis(Freud)-a technique in which
a therapist interprets the content of
dreams, supposedly reflecting the
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Humanistic Theory consciously rather than how a
-derives largely from ideas associated with counsellor can interpret their
existentialism and phenomenology and focuses unconscious thoughts or ideas.
on individuals’ capacity to make their own Unconditional positive regard-complete and
choices, create their own style of life, and almost unqualified acceptance of most of
actualize themselves in their own way. the client’s feelings and actions.
“Freud portrayed life as a battleground Empathy-sympathetic understanding of the
where we are continually in danger of being individual’s particular view of the world.
overwhelmed by our darkest forces. Jung and Behavioral Model/Cognitive-behavioral
Adler, by contrast, emphasized the positive, model/Social learning model
optimistic side of human nature.” >Pavlov and Classical Conditioning
>Carl Jung=talked about setting goals, looking  Classical conditioning- type of learning in
toward the future, and realizing one’s fullest which a neutral stimulus is paired with a
potential. response until it elicits that response.
>Alfred Adler=believed that human nature Ivan Petrovich Pavlov-in his classic study
reaches its fullest potential when we contribute examining why dogs salivate before the
to the welfare of other individuals and to society presentation of food, he initiated the
as a whole. study of classical conditioning.
Self-actualizing-was the watchword for this Experiment:
movement. In a classic laboratory setting, Pavlov took a
-the assumption is that all of us could hungry dog and presented it with food that normally
elicits salivation. Then he simultaneously paired the
reach our highest potential, in all areas of food with the sound of a bell that does not normally
functioning, if only we had the freedom elicit salivation. The dog salivated to the paired food
to grow. and sound of the bell. After several presentations of
Abraham Maslow-postulated a hierarchy of both food and bell, Pavlov was able simply to present
the sound of the bell, and the dog salivated.
needs. >Presented food=unconditioned stimulus
*The Hierarchy of needs: >Salivation=unconditioned/automatic response
>Food+bell-salivation=neutral stimlulius
>Bell+salivation
Bell=conditioned stimulus
Salivation=conditioned response

Carl Rogers-originated client centered

therapy, later known as person-centered
therapy.
oPerson-centered therapy- is a
humanistic approach that deals
with the ways in which
individuals perceive themselves
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 Stimulus generalization-tendency for the “Watson and Rayner embarked on the now
conditioned stimulus to evoke similar infamous Little Albert experiment to prove that
responses after the response has been an individual’s responses could be learned in
conditioned. much the same way that Pavlov had
Example: experimented.”
Fearing a spider and responding the Experiment:
same way to all spiders disregarding the size They placed a white rat next to 11-month-old
or shape. “Albert B” while loudly striking a metal rod out of sight
Extinction-tendency of a response to of the child. Even though he had previously been
disappear when it is not reinforced. attracted to the rat, he soon displayed fear whenever
Example: it approached. Other furry stimuli, including a seal-
A researcher has trained a lab rat to skin coat, a dog, a rabbit and a Santa Claus mask, were
press a key to receive a food pellet. What presented in like manner, resulting in a similar fear
happens when the researcher stops delivering response.
the food? While extinction will not occur Mary Cover Jones-another student of John
immediately, it will after time. If the rat B. Watson.
continues to press the key but does not get -thought that if fear could be learned or
the pellet, the behavior will eventually classically conditioned in this way,
dwindle until it disappears entirely. perhaps it could also be unlearned or
Edward Titchener-emphasized the study of extinguished.
introspection. -became known for her behavior therapy
oIntrospection-precise examination work, notably regarding desensitization.
and description of conscious -did the famous “Little Peter”
experience. experiment.
Example: Experiment:
The subject would be Peter, who at 2 years, 10 months old
presented with an object, such as a was already quite afraid of furry objects.
pencil. The subject would then Jones decided to bring a white rabbit into the
report the characteristics of that room where Peter was playing for a short
pencil (color, length, etc.). The time each day. She also arranged for other
subject would be instructed not to children, whom she knew did not fear rabbits,
report the name of the object to be in the same room. She noted that
(pencil) because that did not Peter’s fear gradually diminished. Each time
describe the raw data of what the it diminished, she brought the rabbit closer.
subject was experiencing. Eventually Peter was touching and even
Watson and the Rise of Behaviorism playing with the rabbit, and years later the
John B. Watson-founder of behaviorism. fear had not returned.
“He decided that to base psychology on The Beginnings of Behavior Therapy
introspection was to head in the wrong Joseph Wolpe-developed a way to treat
direction; that psychology could be made as anxiety and phobia called systematic
scientific as physiology, and that psychology desensitization.
needs introspection or other non- oSystematic desensitization
quantifiable methods no more than individuals were gradually
chemistry and physics do.” introduced to the objects or
Rosalie Rayner-was the assistant and later situations they feared so that
wife of John B. Watson their fear could extinguish.

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*Systematic desensitization has the ff. stages: puzzle box to empirically test the laws of
1. The client is trained in deep-muscle relaxation. learning.
2. Various anxiety-provoking situations related to -best known for the law of effect.
a particular problem are listed in order from Law of effect- states that any behavior that
weakest to strongest. is followed by pleasant consequences is
3. Each of these situations is presented in likely to be repeated, and any behavior
imagination or in reality, beginning with the followed by unpleasant consequences is
weakest, while the client practices muscle likely to be stopped.
relaxation. Since the muscle relaxation is Example:
incompatible with the anxiety, the client If a 5-year-old boy starts shouting at
gradually responds less to the anxiety-provoking the top of his lungs in a restaurant, much to
situations. the annoyance of the people around him, it is
Example: unlikely that his behavior was automatically
Wolpe treated a young man with a phobia of elicited by an unconditioned stimulus. Also,
dogs by training him first to relax deeply and then he will be less likely to do it in the future if his
imagine he was looking at a dog across the park. parents scold him, take him out to the car to
Gradually, he could imagine the dog across the park sit for a bit, or consistently reinforce more
and remain relaxed, experiencing little or no fear. appropriate behavior. Then again, if the
Wolpe then had him imagine that he was closer to the parents think his behavior is cute and laugh,
dog. Eventually, the young man imagined that he was chances are he will do it again.
touching the dog while maintaining a relaxed, almost Shaping-process of reinforcing successive
trancelike state. approximations to a final behavior or set
of behaviors.
Hans Eysenck and Stanley Rachman Example:
called this “Behavior therapy” If you want a pigeon to play Ping-
B. F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning Pong, first you provide it with a pellet of food
every time it moves its head slightly toward a
Operant conditioning-type of learning in
Ping-Pong ball tossed in its direction.
which behavior changes as a function of Gradually you require the pigeon to move its
what follows the behavior. head ever closer to the Ping-Pong ball until it
B.F. Skinner-best known for developing the touches it. Finally, receiving the food pellet is
theory of behaviorism. contingent on the pigeon hitting the ball back
-developed what he called an operant with its head.
conditioning apparatus to do this, which
became better known as the Skinner box.
*His publications:
1. Behavior of Organisms-where he laid
out, in a comprehensive manner, the
principles of operant conditioning.
2. Walden Two-depicts a fictional society
run on the principles of operant
conditioning.
3. Beyond Freedom and Dignity- lays out
a broader statement of problems facing
our culture and suggests solutions based
on his own view of a science of behavior.
Edward L. Thorndike-studied learning in
animals (usually cats). He devised a
classic experiment in which he used a
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