Introduction

The conversion process in power electronics requires the utilization of trans-

formers and components that are often the heaviest and bulkiest thing in
the transformation circuit. Magnetic component technology has received
impressive consideration in recent years since it is broadly perceived that
the capacity to produce little and proficient magnetic components is the
way to accomplishing high power density. High frequency transformers are
widely used in converter circuits to provide galvanic isolation between low
and high voltage sides. The high-frequency transformer is the major con-
tributor in the size of any Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS) since it
decides about 25 percent of the general volume and more than 30 percent
of the general weight. Principal issues in the structure of any high-power,
high-frequency transformer are to limit the loss and the volume. They ad-
ditionally have a significant impact upon the performance and efficiency of
the system. Because of the interdependence and connection of parameters,
prudent trade-offs are important to accomplish design optimization. The
optimum design of a high-frequency transformer means
1) Selection of the smallest standard core shape relevant to the power and
frequency.
2) Calculation of the flux density providing minimum transformer loss.
3) Calculation of the wire diameters of the winding.
In order to compile such a complex optimization procedure, worked is done
on following areas:
1) Core loss determination.
2) Copper loss determination.
3) Optimization.
There is a set of constraints that must be consider in the design of high-
frequency transformer. One of these constraints is the output power, Po.
The secondary winding must be capable of delivering it to the load within
specified regulation limits. Another constraint is the minimum efficiency of
operation, that depends upon the maximum power loss that allowed in the
transformer.
Selection of Core Material
Selection of proper core material is one of the basic steps in the design
of high-frequency transformer. Every material has its own optimum point

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in the size, frequency, efficiency spectrum and cost. There is a huge cost
difference between ferrite, silicon-iron, nickel-iron and amorphous materi-
als. Other constraints relate to the occupied volume by the transformer
and particularly in aerospace applications, the weight, since minimization
of weight is an important goal in today’s electronics. Finally, cost effec-
tiveness is always an important consideration. Core selection is based upon
power handling capability, operating frequency and flux density. Cores
The main purpose of the core is to contain the magnetic flux and create a
well-defined, predictable path for the flux. This flux path, and the mean
distance covered by the flux within the magnetic material, is defined as the
Magnetic Path Length (MPL) as shown in figure.The Magnetic Path Length
and permeability are vital keys in predicting the operation characteristic of a
magnetic device. Selection of a core material and geometry are usually based
on a compromise between conflicting requirements, such as size, weight,
temperature rise, flux density, core loss, and operating frequency.
Types of Core Construction
There are two types of construction for magnetic cores, core type and shell
type. The shell type construction is shown in Figure , and the core type
construction is shown in Figure.
Types of Core Materials
Magnetic cores are made of three basic materials. The first is bulk metal,
the second is powdered materials, and the third is ferrite material. Ferite
Cores
Ferrites are ceramic materials of iron oxide, alloyed with oxides or carbon-
ate of manganese, zinc, nickel, magnesium, or cobalt. Alloys are selected
and mixed, based on the required permeability of the core. Ferrites are
ceramic, homogeneous materials composed of oxides; iron oxide is their
main constituent. Soft ferrites can be divided into two major categories;
manganese-zinc and nickel-zinc. In each of these categories,changing the
chemical composition, or manufacturing technology, can manufacture many
different Mn-Zn and Ni-Zn material grades. The two families of Mn-Zn and
Ni-Zn ferrite materials complement each other, and allow the use of soft
ferrites from audio frequencies to several hundred megahertz. Manufactur-
ers do not like to handle manganese-zinc in the same area, or building with
nickel zinc, because one contaminates the other, which leads to poor perfor-
mance yields. The basic difference between Manganese-Zinc and Nickel-Zinc
is shown in Table1. The biggest difference is Manganese Zinc has a higher

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permeability and Nickel-Zinc has a higher resistivity. Shown in Table 2 are
some of the most popular ferrite materials. Also,given in Table, is the Figure
number for the B-H loop of each of the materials.
Manganese-Zinc Ferrites
This type of soft ferrite is the most common,and is used in many more
applications than the nickel-zinc ferrites. Within the Mn-Zn category, a
large variety of materials are possible. Manganese-zinc ferrites are primarily
used at frequencies less than 2 MHz.
Nickel-Zinc Ferrites
This class of soft ferrite is characterized by its high material resistivity,
several orders of magnitude higher than Mn-Zn ferrites. Because of its high
resistivity, Ni-Zn ferrite is the material of choice for operating from 1-2
MHz to several hundred megahertz. The material permeability, um , has
little influence on the effective permeability, ue , when the gap dimension is
relatively large, as shown in Table 3.
Advantages of Ferrite Cores
1. High Resistivity
2. Wide Erequency Range(10 kHz to 50 MHz)
3. Low cost
4. Large selection material
5. Shape versatility
6. Economical assembly
7. Temperature and time stability
8. High Q/small package
Ferrites have a paramount advantage over other types of magnetic materials:
high electrical resistivity and resultant low eddy current losses over a wide
frequency range. Additional characteristics such as high permeability and
time/temperature stability have expanded the use of ferrite into quality lter
circuits, high frequency transformers, wide-band transformers, adjustable
inductors, delay lines, and other high-frequency electronic circuitry. As
the high frequency performance of other circuit components continues to
improve, ferrites are routinely designed into magnetic circuits for both low
level and power applications. For the most favorable combination of low

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cost, high Q, high stability and lowest volume, ferrites are the best core
material choice for frequencies from 10 kHz to 50 MHz. Ferrites offer a nun
matched exibility in magnetic and mechanical parameters.
Classification of Ferrite Materials
Ferrite materials are classied into two categories
1. Soft ferrites
2. Hard ferrites
Ferrites can be classied according to crystal structurethat is, cubic vs. hexag-
onal ferriteor magnetic behavior; that is, soft vs. hard ferrite. Soft ferrites
are easy to magnetize and demagnetize. Hard ferrites are hard to mag-
netize and demagnetize. Hard magnetic materials are commonly used for
permanent magnetic applications.
Soft Ferrites
Ferrites that are used in transformer or electromagnetic cores contain nickel,
zinc, or manganese compounds. They have a low coercivity and are called
soft ferrites. Due to their comparatively low losses at high frequencies, they
are extensively used in the cores of switched-mode power supply (SMPS)
and radio-frequency (RF) transformers and inductors.
Hard Ferrites
In contrast, permanent ferrite magnets (or hard ferrites),which have a high
remanence after magnetization, are composed of iron and barium or stron-
tium oxides. In a magnetically saturated state, they conduct magnetic ux
well and have a high magnetic permeability. This enables these so-called
ceramic magnets to store stronger magnetic elds than iron itself. They are
the most commonly used magnets in radios. The maximum magnetic eld B
is about 0.35 Tesla and the magnetic eld strength H is about 30 to 160 kA
turns per meter. Hard ferrites have a hexagonal structure.
Approach for Transformer Design
Output power, Po, has significant impact on transformer design. The ap-
parent power, Pt, depends upon the geometry of the transformer. The core
of an isolation transformer has only two winding in the window area, a pri-
mary and a secondary. The window area, Wa, is divided up in proportion
to the power-handling capability of the windings, using equal current den-
sity. The primary winding handles, Pin, and the secondary handles, Po, to
the load. Since the high frequency power transformer has to be designed to

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accommodate the primary power, Pin, and secondary ppower, Po, then,

Pt = Pin + Po (1)

Transformer apparent power, Pt, can also be calculated by

Pt = Po ∗ (1/n + 1) (2)

Transformer apparent power, Pt, plays an important role in transformer de-

sign. Electrical conditions, Ke , depends upon operating frequency, f, wave-
form co-efficient, Kf , and flux density, B, and is given by

Ke = 0.145 ∗ Kf2 ∗ f 2 ∗ B 2 ∗ 10−4 (3)

Core geometry constant, Kg , is calculated by following equation,

Kg = Pt /(2 ∗ Ke ∗ α) (4)

here α is a regulation constant.

Primary number of turns, Np , is calculated by following equation

Np = (Vin ∗ 104 )/(Kf ∗ Bac ∗ f ∗ Ac ) (5)

Current density, J, is calculated by following formula;

J = (P t ∗ 104 )/(Kf ∗ Ku ∗ f ∗ Bac ∗ Ap) (6)

Bare wire area is determined by following equation;

Awpb = Iin /J (7)

Primary resistance, Rp is calculated by following equation;

Rp = M LT ∗ NP ∗ 10−6 (8)

Primary copper loss is calculated by following equation;

Pp = I 2 p/Rp (9)

Secondary number of turns, Ns, is determined by following equation;

Ns = ((Np ∗ Vs )/Vi n) ∗ (1 + α/100) (10)

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Secondary bare wire area is determined by following equation;

Awsb = Io /J (11)

Secondary wire resistance is calculated by following equation;

Rp = M LT ∗ NP ∗ 10−6 (12)

Secondary copper loss is calculated by following equation;

Ps = I 2 o ∗ Rs (13)

Total primary and secondary copper loss

Pcu = Pp + Ps (14)

Transformer regulation is determined by following equation;

α = (Pcu ∗ 100)/Po (15)

Watts per kilogram, W/Kg, is determined by following equation;

0
W/K = K ∗ f m ∗ Bac
n
(16)

Core loss is determined by following equation;

Pf e = W/K ∗ Wtf e ∗ 10−3 (17)

Total loss is the sum of copper loss, Pcu , and iron loss, Pf e ;

P = Pcu + Pf e (18)

Watts per unit area is calculated by following equation;

W atts/Area = P/At (19)

Rise in temperature is determined by following equation;

Tr = 450 ∗ (W atts/Area)0.826 (20)

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Total window utilization factor, Ku , is calculated by following equation;

Ku = Kus + Kup (21)

Kup = (Np ∗ Awpb )/Wa (22)

Kus = (Ns ∗ Awsb )/Wa (23)

Dot Convention and Polarity Markings of Transformer

Polarity of windings of transformer will be the same if current entering the
primary winding lead results in current leaving the secondary winding lead
just like the two windings are forming the continuous circuit. When two
windings are wound around the same core, the same ends of windings will
have same polarity. Current in the first coil will induce a voltage opposing
the sudden increase in the first and also in the second coil, because the
current in the first coil produces inductive magnetic field flows through the
two coils in the same manner. Current will induce in the second coil opposite
to the direction of induce current in the first coil. Both leads act like a
continuous circuit, one current enters into the first lead and another current
leaves the second lead. Polarity markings of transformer windings are a
means of describing the relative directions in which the two windings are
wound on the transformer core. The terminals identied by solid marks
indicate the starting ends of the two windings, meaning that if these are
considered to be the starting points, and we trace the two windings along
the transformer core, both windings will go around the core in the same
sense. In a transformer, if one of the winding currents is considered to be
owing into the marked terminal, the current in the other winding should be
considered to be leaving its marked terminal. The two currents will then
be (approximately) in phase with each other. Similarly, the voltages of the
two windings, when measured from the unmarked terminal to the marked
terminal, will be approximately in phase with each other. An alternative
way is to label the primary winding terminals H1 and H2, and the secondary
winding terminals X1 and X2. H1 and X1 may then be assumed to have the
polarity mark on them. Both of these conventions are shown in Figure 1

Figure 1: Polarity markings of transformer

It is extremely important that the meaning of the polarity marking be clearly

understood. A current I1 in the primary winding of the transformer will pro-
duce a current I2 in its secondary winding, where the magnitudes of I 1 and

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I2 are in inverse proportion to the turns ratio (neglecting the magnetizing
current for the moment), and their phase angles will be as indicated by the
polarity markings. An easy way to remember this is to think of H1 being the
same terminal as X1. The continuity of the current is then reected by the
polarity markings. It is good to think of the transformer secondary winding
as a constant current source of I2 as determined by I1. If I1 is zero, I2
also must be zero, and the secondary winding of such a transformer may be
considered to be open-circuited.
Modeling of Transformer
Figure 2 shows a commonly-used model for a two-winding transformer. On
the primary side, the winding resistance is represented by Rp , the leakage
inductance by LIk , magnetizing inductance by Lc , core loss by Rc , and self-
capacitance by Cp . The secondary winding resistance is Rs, the secondary
self-capacitance is Cs, and the primary to secondary capacitance is Cm.

Table 1: Transformer Model Parameters

Parameter Cp Cs Rp Rs Lm Llk
Value 50 uF 837 uF 970

The elements of this transformer model are used for several purposes char-
acterizing components, identifying problem design areas, and circuit simu-
lation. However, this apparently simple model is complicated by the fact
that all of the resistors and inductors of the model are nonlinear functions
of either frequency, or excitation level, or both. The capacitors can also
exhibit minor nonlinearities, but are further complicated by the fact that
the lumped elements shown in Figure 2 are a very crude approximation to
the true multiple interwinding capacitance effects that really exist in the
component. It is very useful to make frequency response measurements on
a high-frequency power transformer, using a wide range of frequencies. For
a two-winding transformer such as the example above, the most common
measurements are impedance measurements from the primary side, with
the secondary both open-circuited, and short-circuited. The magnetizing
inductance can vary significantly from one transformer to another due to
material variations, temperature and frequency. However, for the sake of
keeping this article short, the magnetizing inductance is treated as a con-
stant over our frequency range of interest.
The short-circuit measurement contains a wealth of useful information which
will strongly affect the performance of the transformer. At very low frequen-

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cies we can directly measure the primary dc resistance. At frequencies, the
impedance rises due to an increase in resistance, and the leakage inductor
impedance. We need to separate out the real and imaginary parts to estab-
lish the contribution of each of these elements. As we move towards high
frequency, the inductance changes significantly. The change in inductance
is due to proximity effects in the windings. At high frequencies, the cur-
rent in the primary and secondary are not distributed evenly through the
wire. In fact, they move closer to the surface of the wire at the isolation
boundary between the winding layers. This drops the leakage inductance.
The leakage inductance will cause ringing in the circuit at high frequencies,
so it is essential to know the value at the ringing frequency in order to be
able to design a proper snubber. There is an industry rule of thumb that
The leakage inductance should be 1 percent of magnetizing inductance for a
transformer. Make the best transformer one can with tightly coupled wind-
ings, measure prototype, and expect the manufacturer to match it closely.
Proximity effects in the windings affect the resistance even more than the
inductance, and the increase in loss at high frequencies can be very severe.
At high frequency AC resistance is higher than the DC resistance. The in-
crease in AC resistance directly affect the losses in the transformer, and it
is crucial to quantify this before settling on a transformer design. When de-
signing transformer, one should always be aware that these seemingly simple
structures are in fact very complex electromagnetic devices. Linear circuit
models are a very crude approximation to the real component, and most of
the elements of the circuit models have strong nonlinearities in them. For
this reason, you can only expect very limited results in trying to run circuit
simulators on power supplies. One should always make extended frequency
response measurements on transformers when developing components. This
will show increase in resistance with frequency, and change in leakage induc-
tance, allowing properly specify the test conditions for a tightly-controlled
part. The changes in the winding resistance and leakage inductance will be
strongly dependent upon the physical winding layouts of the transformer,
and great care should be taken to control this as tightly as possible during
design and manufacturing.
Skin Effect in Litz Wire
Skin effect is the tendency for high-frequency currents to flow on the surface
of a conductor. Skin effect is the tendency of an alternating electric current
(AC) to become distributed within a conductor such that the current den-
sity is largest near the surface of the conductor, and decreases with greater
depths in the conductor. The electric current flows mainly at the ”skin” of

9
the conductor, between the outer surface and a level called the skin depth.
The skin effect causes the effective resistance of the conductor to increase at
higher frequencies where the skin depth is smaller, thus reducing the effec-
tive cross-section of the conductor. The skin effect is due to opposing eddy
currents induced by the changing magnetic field resulting from the alternat-
ing current. Skin depth becomes much lesser at high frequencies. Specially
woven litz wire is used to mitigate the Increased AC resistance due to the
skin effect. Conductors are used to transmit electrical energy or signals
using an alternating current flowing through that conductor. The electric
field due to the source of electrical energy is used to driven charge carriers
usually electrons constituting that current. An alternating magnetic field
in and around the conductor is produced when alternating current passes
through the conductor. Magnetic field is directly related with the current
and changes with the change in the current passing through the conductor.
The change in the magnetic field, in turn, creates an electric field which
opposes the change in current intensity. This opposing electric field is called
counter-electromotive force (back EMF). The back EMF is strongest at the
center of the conductor, and forces the conducting electrons to the outside
of the conductor.
Proximity Effect in Litz Wire
Proximity effect is the tendency for current to flow in other undesirable pat-
terns such as in loops or concentrated distributions due to the presence of
magnetic fields generated by nearby conductors. A changing magnetic field
will influence the distribution of an electric current flowing within an electri-
cal conductor, by electromagnetic induction. When an alternating current
(AC) flows through a conductor, it creates an associated alternating mag-
netic field around it. The alternating magnetic field induces eddy currents
in adjacent conductors, altering the overall distribution of current flowing
through them. The result is that the current is concentrated in the areas of
the conductor farthest away from nearby conductors carrying current in the
same direction.
The proximity effect can significantly increase the AC resistance of adjacent
conductors when compared to its resistance to a DC current. The effect
increases with frequency. At higher frequencies, the AC resistance of a
conductor can easily exceed ten times its DC resistance. For example, if two
wires carrying the same alternating current lie parallel to one another, as
would be found in a coil used in an inductor or transformer, the magnetic
field of one wire will induce longitudinal eddy currents in the adjacent wire,

10
that flow in long loops along the wire, in the same direction as the main
current on the side of the wire facing away from the other wire, and back in
the opposite direction on the side of the wire facing the other wire. Thus the
eddy current will reinforce the main current on the side facing away from the
first wire, and oppose the main current on the side facing the first wire. The
net effect is to redistribute the current in the cross section of the wire into
a thin strip on the side facing away from the other wire. Since the current
is concentrated into a smaller area of the wire, the resistance is increased.
The additional resistance increases power losses which, in power circuits, can
generate undesirable heating. Proximity significantly complicate the design
of efficient transformers and inductors operating at high frequencies, used
for example in switched-mode power supplies.
Air Gap
A high permeability material is one that has a low reluctance for a given
magnetic path length (MPL) and iron cross-section, Ac. If an air gap is
included in a magnetic circuit as shown in Figure , which is otherwise com-
posed of low reluctivity material like iron, almost all of the reluctance in the
circuit will be at the gap, because the reluctivity of air is much greater than
that of a magnetic material. For all practical purposes, controlling the size
of the air gap controls the reluctance. The total reluctance of the core is
the sum of the iron reluctance and the air gap reluctance, in the same way
that two series resistors are added in an electrical circuit. The reluctance
of the gap is higher than that of the iron even when the gap is small. The
reason is because the magnetic material has a relatively high permeability.
Air gaps are introduced into magnetic cores for a variety of reasons. In a
transformer design a small air gap, lg, inserted into the magnetic path, will
lower and stabilize the effective permeability, ue.
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Results
Supply current is shown in Figure
Supply Voltage is shown in Figure
Gate pulses are shown in Figure

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 Figure 2: Supply Current

Voltage on high side of transformer is shown in Figure

Voltage on low side of transformer is shown in Figure
load current is shown in Figure
Load voltage is shown in Figure

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Figure 3: Supply Voltage

13
Figure 4: Gate Pulses

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Figure 5: Voltage on high side of transformer

15
Figure 6: Voltage on low side of transformer

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Figure 7: Load current

17
Figure 8: Load voltage

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