Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Domains

The Three Types of Learning

There is more than one type of learning. A committee of colleges, led by Benjamin Bloom (1956),
identified three domains of educational activities:

o Cognitive: mental skills (Knowledge)

o Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (Attitude)
o Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (Skills)

Domains can be thought of as categories. Trainers often refer to these three categories as KSA
(Knowledge, Skills, and Attitude). This taxonomy of learning behaviors can be thought of as “the
goals of the learning process.” That is, after a learning episode, the learner should have acquired
new skills, knowledge, and/or attitudes.

Cognitive Domain

The cognitive domain (Bloom, 1956) involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills.
This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that
serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills.

There are six major categories, which are listed in order below, starting from the simplest behavior
to the most complex. The categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulties. That is, the first
ones must normally be mastered before the next ones can take place.

Category Example and Key Words (verbs)

Examples: Recite a policy. Quote

prices from memory to a customer.
Knows the safety rules.
Knowledge: Recall data or
information. Key Words: defines, describes,
identifies, knows, labels, lists, matches,
names, outlines, recalls, recognizes,
reproduces, selects, states.

Examples: Rewrites the principles of

test writing. Explain in one's own words
the steps for performing a complex task.
Comprehension: Understand Translates an equation into a computer
the meaning, translation, spreadsheet.
interpolation, and interpretation
of instructions and problems. Key Words: comprehends, converts,
State a problem in one's own defends, distinguishes, estimates,
words. explains, extends, generalizes, gives an
example, infers, interprets,
paraphrases, predicts, rewrites,
summarizes, translates.

Application: Use a concept in a Examples: Use a manual to calculate

 new situation or unprompted an employee's vacation time. Apply
use of an abstraction. Applies laws of statistics to evaluate the
what was learned in the reliability of a written test.
classroom into novel situations
in the work place. Key Words: applies, changes,
computes, constructs, demonstrates,
discovers, manipulates, modifies,
operates, predicts, prepares, produces,
relates, shows, solves, uses.

Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of

equipment by using logical deduction.
Recognize logical fallacies in
reasoning. Gathers information from a
Analysis: Separates material or
department and selects the required
concepts into component parts
tasks for training.
so that its organizational
structure may be understood.
Key Words: analyzes, breaks down,
Distinguishes between facts and
compares, contrasts, diagrams,
inferences.
deconstructs, differentiates,
discriminates, distinguishes, identifies,
illustrates, infers, outlines, relates,
selects, separates.

Examples: Write a company operations

or process manual. Design a machine
to perform a specific task. Integrates
training from several sources to solve a
Synthesis: Builds a structure or problem. Revises and process to
pattern from diverse elements. improve the outcome.
Put parts together to form a
whole, with emphasis on Key Words: categorizes, combines,
creating a new meaning or compiles, composes, creates, devises,
structure. designs, explains, generates, modifies,
organizes, plans, rearranges,
reconstructs, relates, reorganizes,
revises, rewrites, summarizes, tells,
writes.

Examples: Select the most effective

solution. Hire the most qualified
candidate. Explain and justify a new
budget.
Evaluation: Make judgments
about the value of ideas or Key Words: appraises, compares,
materials. concludes, contrasts, criticizes,
critiques, defends, describes,
discriminates, evaluates, explains,
interprets, justifies, relates, summarizes,
supports.

Affective Domain

The affective domain (Krathwohl, Bloom, Masia, 1973) includes the manner in which we deal with
things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes.
The five major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex:

Category Example and Key Words (verbs)

 Examples: Listen to others with
respect. Listen for and remember the
name of newly introduced people.
Receiving Phenomena:
Awareness, willingness to hear,
Key Words: asks, chooses,
selected attention.
describes, follows, gives, holds,
identifies, locates, names, points to,
selects, sits, erects, replies, uses.

Examples: Participates in class

discussions. Gives a presentation.
Responding to Phenomena:
Questions new ideals, concepts,
Active participation on the part of
models, etc. in order to fully
the learners. Attends and reacts to
understand them. Know the safety
a particular phenomenon. Learning
rules and practices them.
outcomes may emphasize
compliance in responding,
Key Words: answers, assists, aids,
willingness to respond, or
complies, conforms, discusses,
satisfaction in responding
greets, helps, labels, performs,
(motivation).
practices, presents, reads, recites,
reports, selects, tells, writes.

Examples: Demonstrates belief in

the democratic process. Is sensitive
towards individual and cultural
Valuing: The worth or value a differences (value diversity). Shows
person attaches to a particular the ability to solve
object, phenomenon, or problems. Proposes a plan to social
behavior. This ranges from simple improvement and follows through
acceptance to the more complex with commitment. Informs
state of commitment. Valuing is management on matters that one
based on the internalization of a feels strongly about.
set of specified values, while clues
to these values are expressed in Key Words: completes,
the learner's overt behavior and demonstrates, differentiates,
are often identifiable. explains, follows, forms, initiates,
invites, joins, justifies, proposes,
reads, reports, selects, shares,
studies, works.

Examples: Recognizes the need

for balance between freedom and
responsible behavior. Accepts
responsibility for one's behavior.
Explains the role of systematic
planning in solving
Organization: Organizes values problems. Accepts professional
into priorities by contrasting ethical standards. Creates a life
different values, resolving plan in harmony with abilities,
conflicts between them, and interests, and beliefs. Prioritizes
creating an unique value time effectively to meet the needs
system. The emphasis is on of the organization, family, and
comparing, relating, and self.
synthesizing values.
Key Words: adheres, alters,
arranges, combines, compares,
completes, defends, explains,
formulates, generalizes, identifies,
integrates, modifies, orders,
organizes, prepares, relates,
 synthesizes.

Examples: Shows self-reliance

when working
independently. Cooperates in
group activities (displays
Internalizing teamwork). Uses an objective
values (characterization): Has a approach in problem solving.
value system that controls their Displays a professional
behavior. The behavior is commitment to ethical practice
pervasive, consistent, on a daily basis. Revises
predictable, and most judgments and changes behavior
importantly, characteristic of the in light of new evidence. Values
learner. Instructional objectives people for what they are, not how
are concerned with the student's they look.
general patterns of adjustment
(personal, social, emotional). Key Words: acts, discriminates,
displays, influences, listens,
modifies, performs, practices,
proposes, qualifies, questions,
revises, serves, solves, verifies.

Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain (Simpson, 1972) includes physical movement, coordination, and use of
the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of
speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. The seven major categories
are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex:

Category Example and Key Words (verbs)

Examples: Detects non-verbal

communication cues. Estimate where a
ball will land after it is thrown and then
moving to the correct location to catch the
ball. Adjusts heat of stove to correct
Perception: The ability to use sensory
temperature by smell and taste of food.
cues to guide motor activity. This
Adjusts the height of the forks on a forklift
ranges from sensory stimulation,
by comparing where the forks are in
through cue selection, to translation.
relation to the pallet.

Key Words: chooses, describes, detects,

differentiates, distinguishes, identifies,
isolates, relates, selects.

Examples: Knows and acts upon a

sequence of steps in a manufacturing
Set: Readiness to act. It includes process. Recognize one's abilities and
mental, physical, and emotional sets. limitations. Shows desire to learn a new
These three sets are dispositions that process (motivation). NOTE: This
predetermine a person's response to subdivision of Psychomotor is closely
different situations (sometimes called related with the “Responding to
mindsets). phenomena” subdivision of the Affective
domain.
 Key Words: begins, displays, explains,
moves, proceeds, reacts, shows, states,
volunteers.

Examples: Performs a mathematical

equation as demonstrated. Follows
Guided Response: The early stages in
instructions to build a model. Responds
learning a complex skill that includes
hand-signals of instructor while learning to
imitation and trial and error. Adequacy
operate a forklift.
of performance is achieved by
practicing.
Key Words: copies, traces, follows, react,
reproduce, responds

Examples: Use a personal

computer. Repair a leaking faucet. Drive a
Mechanism: This is the intermediate
car.
stage in learning a complex
skill. Learned responses have become
Key Words: assembles, calibrates,
habitual and the movements can be
constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens,
performed with some confidence and
fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates,
proficiency.
measures, mends, mixes, organizes,
sketches.

Examples: Maneuvers a car into a tight

Complex Overt Response: The skillful parallel parking spot. Operates a
performance of motor acts that involve computer quickly and accurately. Displays
complex movement competence while playing the piano.
patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a
quick, accurate, and highly coordinated Key Words: assembles, builds,
performance, requiring a minimum of calibrates, constructs, dismantles,
energy. This category includes displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats,
performing without hesitation, and manipulates, measures, mends, mixes,
automatic performance. For example, organizes, sketches.
players are often utter sounds of
satisfaction or expletives as soon as NOTE: The Key Words are the same as
they hit a tennis ball or throw a football, Mechanism, but will have adverbs or
because they can tell by the feel of the adjectives that indicate that the
act what the result will produce. performance is quicker, better, more
accurate, etc.

Examples: Responds effectively to

unexpected experiences. Modifies
instruction to meet the needs of the
Adaptation: Skills are well developed learners. Perform a task with a machine
and the individual can modify that it was not originally intended to do
movement patterns to fit special (machine is not damaged and there is no
requirements. danger in performing the new task).

Key Words: adapts, alters, changes,

rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies.

Examples: Constructs a new theory.

Develops a new and comprehensive
Origination: Creating new movement
training programming. Creates a new
patterns to fit a particular situation or
gymnastic routine.
specific problem. Learning outcomes
emphasize creativity based upon highly
Key Words: arranges, builds, combines,
developed skills.
composes, constructs, creates, designs,
initiate, makes, originates.

Other Psychomotor Domain Taxonomies

As mentioned earlier, the committee did not produce a compilation for the psychomotor domain
model, but others have. The one discussed above is by Simpson (1972). There are two other
popular versions:

Dave's (1975):

o Imitation — Observing and patterning behavior after someone else. Performance may be of
low quality. Example: Copying a work of art.
o Manipulation — Being able to perform certain actions by following instructions and
practicing. Example: Creating work on one's own, after taking lessons, or reading about it.
o Precision — Refining, becoming more exact. Few errors are apparent. Example: Working
and reworking something, so it will be “just right.”
o Articulation — Coordinating a series of actions, achieving harmony and internal
consistency. Example: Producing a video that involves music, drama, color, sound, etc.
o Naturalization — Having high level performance become natural, without needing to think
much about it. Examples: Michael Jordan playing basketball, Nancy Lopez hitting a golf ball,
etc.

Harrow's (1972):

o Reflex movements — Reactions that are not learned.

o Fundamental movements — Basic movements such as walking, or grasping.
o Perception — Response to stimuli such as visual, auditory, kinesthetic, or tactile
discrimination.
o Physical abilities — Stamina that must be developed for further development such as
strength and agility.
o Skilled movements — Advanced learned movements as one would find in sports or acting.
o No discursive communication — Effective body language, such as gestures and facial
expressions.

Bloom's Revised Taxonomy

Lorin Anderson, a former student of Bloom, revisited the cognitive domain in the learning taxonomy
in the mid-nineties and made some changes, with perhaps the two most prominent ones being, 1)
changing the names in the six categories from noun to verb forms, and 2) slightly rearranging them
(Pohl, 2000).

This new taxonomy reflects a more active form of thinking and is perhaps more accurate:
Category Example and Key Words (verbs)

Examples: Recite a policy. Quote prices from

memory to a customer. Knows the safety rules.
Remembering: Recall previous
learned information. Key Words: defines, describes, identifies, knows,
labels, lists, matches, names, outlines, recalls,
recognizes, reproduces, selects, states.

Examples: Rewrites the principles of test writing.

Explain in one's own words the steps for performing
Understanding: a complex task. Translates an equation into a
Comprehending the meaning, computer spreadsheet.
translation, interpolation, and
interpretation of instructions and Key Words: comprehends, converts, defends,
problems. State a problem in distinguishes, estimates, explains, extends,
one's own words. generalizes, gives an example, infers, interprets,
paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summarizes,
translates.

Examples: Use a manual to calculate an

Applying: Use a concept in a employee's vacation time. Apply laws of statistics to
new situation or unprompted evaluate the reliability of a written test.
use of an abstraction. Applies
what was learned in the Key Words: applies, changes, computes,
classroom into novel situations constructs, demonstrates, discovers, manipulates,
in the work place. modifies, operates, predicts, prepares, produces,
relates, shows, solves, uses.

Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by

using logical deduction. Recognize logical fallacies
Analyzing: Separates material in reasoning. Gathers information from a
or concepts into component department and selects the required tasks for
parts so that its organizational training.
structure may be understood.
Distinguishes between facts and Key Words: analyzes, breaks down, compares,
inferences. contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates,
discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates,
infers, outlines, relates, selects, separates.

Examples: Select the most effective solution. Hire

the most qualified candidate. Explain and justify a
new budget.
Evaluating: Make judgments
about the value of ideas or
Key Words: appraises, compares, concludes,
materials.
contrasts, criticizes, critiques, defends, describes,
discriminates, evaluates, explains, interprets,
justifies, relates, summarizes, supports.

Examples: Write a company operations or process

manual. Design a machine to perform a specific
task. Integrates training from several sources to
Creating: Builds a structure or
solve a problem. Revises and process to improve
pattern from diverse elements.
the outcome.
Put parts together to form a
whole, with emphasis on
Key Words: categorizes, combines, compiles,
creating a new meaning or
composes, creates, devises, designs, explains,
structure.
generates, modifies, organizes, plans, rearranges,
reconstructs, relates, reorganizes, revises, rewrites,
summarizes, tells, writes.
 TYPES OF QUESTIONS BASED ON BLOOMS TAXONOMY

From Bloom, et al., 1956

As teachers we tend to ask questions in the “knowledge” category 80% to 90% of the time. These
questions are not bad, but using them all the time is. Try to utilize higher order level of questions.
These questions require much more “brain power” and a more extensive and elaborate answer.
Below are the six question categories as defined by Bloom.

 KNOWLEDGE
o remembering;
o memorizing;
o recognizing;
o recalling identification and
o recall of information
 Who, what, when, where, how …?
 Describe

 COMPREHENSION
o interpreting;
o translating from one medium to another;
o describing in one’s own words;
o organization and selection of facts and ideas
 Retell

 APPLICATION
o problem solving;
o applying information to produce some result;
o use of facts, rules and principles
 How is…an example of…?
 How is…related to…?
 Why is…significant?

 ANALYSIS
o subdividing something to show how it is put together;
o finding the underlying structure of a communication;
o identifying motives;
o separation of a whole into component parts
 What are the parts or features of…?
 Classify…according to…
 Outline/diagram…
 How does…compare/contrast with…?
 What evidence can you list for…?

 SYNTHESIS
o creating a unique, original product that may be in verbal form or may be a physical object;
o combination of ideas to form a new whole
 What would you predict/infer from…?
 What ideas can you add to…?
 How would you create/design a new…?
 What might happen if you combined…?
 What solutions would you suggest for…?
 EVALUATION
o making value decisions about issues;
o resolving controversies or differences of opinion;
o development of opinions, judgments or decisions
 Do you agree…?
 What do you think about…?
 What is the most important…?
 Place the following in order of priority…
 How would you decide about…?
 What criteria would you use to assess….

LEVELS OF COGNITIVE DOMAINS and its examples of behavioral objectives:

 Knowledge: arrange, define, duplicate, label, list, memorize, name, order, recognize, relate, recall,
repeat, reproduce, state.
 Comprehension: classify, describe, discuss, explain, express, identify, indicate, locate, recognize,
report, restate, review, select, translate,
 Application: apply, choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ, illustrate, interpret, operate, practice,
schedule, sketch, solve, use, write.
 Analysis: analyze, appraise, calculate, categorize, compare, contrast, criticize, differentiate,
discriminate, distinguish, examine, experiment, question, and test.
 Synthesis: arrange, assemble, collect, compose, construct, create, design, develop, formulate,
manage, organize, plan, prepare, propose, set up, and write.
 Evaluation: appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose compare, defend estimate, judge, predict,
rate, core, select, support, value, evaluate.
Assessment for learning

 comprises two phases—initial or diagnostic assessment and formative assessment

 assessment can be based on a variety of information sources (e.g., portfolios, works in
progress, teacher observation, conversation)
 verbal or written feedback to the student is primarily descriptive and emphasizes strengths,
identifies challenges, and points to next steps
 as teachers check on understanding they adjust their instruction to keep students on track
 no grades or scores are given - record-keeping is primarily anecdotal and descriptive
 occurs throughout the learning process, from the outset of the course of study to the time of
summative assessment
 a good example is a formative test

Assessment as learning

 begins as students become aware of the goals of instruction and the criteria for
performance
 involves goal-setting, monitoring progress, and reflecting on results
 implies student ownership and responsibility for moving his or her thinking forward
(metacognition)
 occurs throughout the learning process

Assessment of learning

 assessment that is accompanied by a number or letter grade

 compares one student’s achievement with standards
 results can be communicated to the student and parents
 occurs at the end of the learning unit
 a good example is a summative test

Types of Assessment

Diagnostic assessment (now referred to more often as "pre-assessment")

 assessment made to determine what a student does and does not know about a topic
 occurs at the beginning of a unit of study
 used to inform instruction: makes up the initial phase of assessment for learning

Formative assessment

 assessment made to determine a student’s knowledge and skills, including learning gaps as
they progress through a unit of study
 used to inform instruction and guide learning
 occurs during the course of a unit of study
 makes up the subsequent phase of assessment for learning

Summative assessment

 assessment that is made at the end of a unit of study to determine the level of
understanding the student has achieved
 includes a mark or grade against an expected standard

Summative assessment (or summative evaluation) refers to the assessment of the learning and
summarizes the development of learners at a particular time. After a period of work, e.g. a unit for
two weeks, the learner sits for a test and then the teacher marks the test and assigns a score. The
test aims to summarize learning up to that point. The test may also be used for diagnostic
assessment to identify any weaknesses and then build on that using formative assessment.

Summative assessment is characterized as assessment of learning and is contrasted with

formative assessment, which is assessment for learning.
It provides information on the product's efficacy (its ability to do what it was designed to do). For
example, did the learners learn what they were supposed to learn after using the instructional
module. In a sense, it does not bother to assess "how they did," but more importantly, by looking at
how the learners performed, it provides information as to whether the product teaches what it is
supposed to teach.

Principles of Assessment for Learning

'The big 5 principles of assessment for learning

 1. The provision of effective feedback to students.

 2. The active involvement of students in their own learning.
 3. Adjusting teaching to take account of the results of assessment.
 4. Recognition of the profound influence assessment has on the motivation and self esteem
of pupils, both of which are critical influences on learning.
 5. The need for students to be able to assess themselves and understand how to improve.

Feedback

 The purpose of an Assessment for Learning (AFL) task is to provide feedback to both the
teacher and learner regarding the learner's progress towards achieving the learning
objective(s). This feedback should be used by the teacher to revise and develop further
instruction. An effective AFL method is to use a performance task coupled with a rubric. This
type of assessment is fundamental in illustrating how and why such principles need to be
adhered to.

Why is Assessment Important ?

 Assessment is an integral part of instruction, as it determines whether or not the

goals of education are being met.
 Assessment affects decisions about grades, placement, advancement, instructional
needs, curriculum, and, in some cases, funding.
 Assessment inspire us to ask these hard questions:

"Are we teaching what we think we are teaching?"

"Are students learning what they are supposed to be learning?"

"Is there a way to teach the subject better, thereby promoting better
learning?"

Characteristics of Assessment

1. It is the procedure of assess or grade educators' level of learning in certain period of time.
2. It tends to use well defined evaluation designs (i.e. fixed time and content).
3. It provides descriptive analysis (i.e. in order to give a grade, all the activities done
throughout the year are taken into account).
4. It tends to stress local effects.
5. It is unoppressive and not reactive as far as possible.

Test (assessment)

A test or an examination (or "exam") is an assessment intended to measure a test-taker's

knowledge, skill, aptitude, physical fitness, or classification in many other topics (e.g., beliefs).

A test may be administered orally, on paper, on a computer, or in a confined area that requires a
test taker to physically perform a set of skills.

Tests vary in style, rigor and requirements. For example, in a closed book test, a test taker is often
required to rely upon memory to respond to specific items.
In an open book test, a test taker may use one or more supplementary tools such as a reference
book or calculator when responding to an item.

A test may be administered formally or informally. An example of an informal test would be a

reading test administered by a parent to a child. An example of a formal test would be a final
examination administered by a teacher in a classroom or an I.Q. test administered by a
psychologist in a clinic. Formal testing often results in a grade or a test score. A test score may be
interpreted with regards to a norm or criterion, or occasionally both. The norm may be established
independently, or by statistical analysis of a large number of participants.

A standardized test is any test that is administered and scored in a consistent manner to ensure
legal defensibility. Standardized tests are often used in education, professional certification,
psychology , the military, and many other fields.

A non-standardized test is usually flexible in scope and format, variable in difficulty and
significance. Since these tests are usually developed by individual instructors, the format and
difficulty of these tests may not be widely adopted or used by other instructors or institutions.

A non-standardized test may be used to determine the proficiency level of students, to motivate
students to study, and to provide feedback to students.

In some instances, a teacher may develop non-standardized tests that resemble standardized
tests in scope, format, and difficulty for the purpose of preparing their students for an upcoming
standardized test.

Finally, the frequency and setting by which a non-standardized tests are administered are highly
variable and are usually constrained by the duration of the class period. A class instructor may for
example, administer a test on a weekly basis or just twice a semester. Depending on the policy of
the instructor or institution, the duration of each test itself may last for only five minutes to an entire
class period.

In contrasts to non-standardized tests, standardized tests are widely used, fixed in terms of scope,
difficulty and format, and are usually significant in consequences. Standardized tests are usually
held on fixed dates as determined by the test developer, educational institution, or governing body,
which may or may not be administered by the instructor, held within the classroom, or constrained
by the classroom period. Although there is little variability between different copies of the same
type of standardized test (e.g., SAT ), there is variability between different types of standardized
tests.

In general, tests developed and administered by individual instructors are non-standardized

whereas tests developed by testing organizations are standardized.

Types of tests

Written tests are tests that are administered on paper or on a computer. A test taker who takes a
written test could respond to specific items by writing or typing within a given space of the test or
on a separate form or document.

A test developer's choice of which style or format to use when developing a written test is usually
arbitrary given that there is no single invariant standard for testing. Be that as it may, certain test
styles and format have become more widely used than others. Below is a list of those formats of
test items that are widely used by educators and test developers to construct paper or computer-
based tests. As a result, these tests may consist of only one type of test item format (e.g., multiple
choice test, essay test) or may have a combination of different test item formats (e.g., a test that
has multiple choice and essay items).

Multiple choice

In a test that has items formatted as multiple choice questions, a candidate would be given a
number of set answers for each question, and the candidate must choose which answer or group
of answers is correct.
There are two families of multiple choice questions. The first family is known as the True/False
question and it requires a test taker to choose all answers that are appropriate. The second family
is known as One-Best-Answer question and it requires a test taker to only one answer from a list of
answers.

There are several reasons to using multiple choice questions in tests. In terms of administration,
multiple choice questions usually requires less time for test takers to answer, are easy to score and
grade, provide greater coverage of material, allows for a wide range of difficulty, and can easily
diagnose a test taker's difficulty with certain concepts.

As an educational tool, multiple choice items test many levels of learning as well as a test taker's
ability to integrate information, and it provides feedback to the test taker about why distractors
were wrong and why correct answers were right.

Nevertheless, there are difficulties associated with the use of multiple choice questions. In
administrative terms, multiple choice items that are effective usually take a great time to construct.

As an educational tool, multiple choice items do not allow test takers to demonstrate knowledge
beyond the choices provided and may even encourage guessing or approximation due to the
presence of at least one correct answer. For instance a test taker might not work out explicitly that
6.14 * 7.95 = 48.813, but knowing that 6 * 8 = 48, they would choose an answer close to 48.

Moreover, test takers may misinterpret these items and in the process, perceive these items to be
tricky or picky. Finally, multiple choice items do not test a test taker's attitudes towards learning
because correct responses can be easily faked.

True/False

True/False questions present candidates with a binary choice - a statement is either true or false.
This method presents problems, as depending on the number of questions, a significant number of
candidates could get 100% just by guesswork, and should on average get 50%.

Matching

A matching item is an item that provides a defined term and requires a test taker is to match
identifying characteristic to the correct term.

Fill-in-the-blank

A fill-in-the-blank item provides a test taker with identifying characteristics and requires the test
taker to recall the correct term.

Essay

Items such as short answer or essay typically require a test taker to write a response to fulfill the
requirements of the item.

In administrative terms, essay items take less time to construct.

As an assessment tool, essay items can

1. test complex learning objectives as well as processes used to answer the question.
2. provide a more realistic and generalizable task for test.
3. make it difficult for test takers to guess the correct answers and require test takers to
demonstrate their writing skills as well as correct spelling and grammar.

The difficulties with essay items is primarily administrative.

1. take more time for test takers to answer. When these questions are answered, the answers
themselves are usually poorly written because test takers may not have time to organize
and proofread their answers.
 2. it takes more time to score or grade these items. When these items are being scored or
graded, the grading process itself becomes subjective as non-test related information may
influence the process.
3. considerable effort is required to minimize the subjectivity of the grading process.
4. essay questions may potentially be unreliable in assessing the entire content of a subject
matter.

Mathematical questions

Most mathematics questions, or calculation questions from subjects such as chemistry, physics or
economics employ a style which does not fall in to any of the above categories, although some
papers, notably the Maths Challenge employ multiple choice. Instead, most maths questions
simply state a question and require the candidate to solve it, usually with marks given more for the
steps taken than for the correct answer.

If the question has multiple parts, later parts may use answers from previous sections, and marks
may be granted if an earlier incorrect answer was used but the correct method was followed, and
an answer which is correct (given the incorrect input) is returned.

Higher level mathematical papers may include variations on true/false, where the candidate is
given a statement and asked to verify its validity by direct proof or stating a counterexample.

Physical fitness tests

A physical fitness test is a test designed to measure physical strength, agility, and endurance.
They are commonly employed in educational institutions as part of the physical education
curriculum, in medicine as part of diagnostic testing, and as eligibility requirements in fields that
focus on physical ability such as military or police.

Performance tests

A performance test is an assessment that requires an examinee to actually perform a task or

activity, rather than simply answering questions referring to specific parts. The purpose is to ensure
greater fidelity to what is being tested.

An example is a behind-the-wheel driving test to obtain a driver's license. Rather than only
answering simple multiple-choice items regarding the driving of an automobile, a student is
required to actually drive one while being evaluated.

Performance tests are commonly used in workplace and professional applications, such as
professional certification and licensure. When used for personnel selection, the tests might be
referred to as a work sample.

A licensure example would be cosmetologists being required to demonstrate a haircut or manicure

on a live person.

Some performance tests are simulations. For instance, the assessment to become certified as an
ophthalmic technician includes two components, a multiple-choice examination and a
computerized skill simulation. The examinee must demonstrate the ability to complete seven tasks
commonly performed on the job, such as retinoscopy, that are simulated on a computer.
What Are Some Types of Assessment?
In the early theories of learning, it was believed that complex higher-order thinking skills were acquired in
small pieces, breaking down learning into a series of prerequisite skills. After these pieces were memorized,
the learner would be able to assemble them into complex understanding and insight -- the puzzle could be
arranged to form a coherent picture.
Today, we know learning requires that the learner engage in problem-solving to actively build mental
models. Knowledge is attained not just by receiving information, but also by interpreting the information and
relating it to the learner's knowledge base. What is important, and therefore should be assessed, is the
learner's ability to organize, structure, and use information in context to solve complex problems.
Standardized Assessment
Almost every school district now administers state-mandated standardized tests. Every student at a
particular grade level is required to take the same test. Everything about the test is standard -- from the
questions themselves, to the length of time students have to complete it (although some exceptions may be
made for students with learning or physical disabilities), to the time of year in which the test is taken.
Throughout the country, and with the passage of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, commonly
known as the No Child Left Behind Act (which requires research-based assessment), student performance
on these tests has become the basis for such critical decisions as student promotion from one grade to the
next, and compensation for teachers and administrators.

Standardized tests should not be confused with the standards movement, which advocates specific grade-
level content and performance standards in key subject areas. Often, in fact, standardized tests are not
aligned with state and district content standards, causing considerable disconnect between what is being
taught and what is being tested.
The questions then become: What is evidence-based assessment? Is it standardized tests? Is it portfolios?
If portfolios are a part of evidence-based assessment, what else is necessary? Reflections? Work samples?
Best work?
Alternative Assessment
Alternative assessment, often called authentic, comprehensive, or performance assessment, is usually
designed by the teacher to gauge students' understanding of material. Examples of these measurements
are open-ended questions, written compositions, oral presentations, projects, experiments, and portfolios of
student work. Alternative assessments are designed so that the content of the assessment matches the
content of the instruction.
Effective assessments give students feedback on how well they understand the information and on what
they need to improve, while helping teachers better design instruction. Assessment becomes even more
relevant when students become involved in their own assessment. Students taking an active role in
developing the scoring criteria, self-evaluation, and goal setting, more readily accept that the assessment is
adequately measuring their learning.
Authentic assessment can include many of the following:
 Observation
 Essays
 Interviews
 Performance tasks
 Exhibitions and demonstrations
 Portfolios
 Journals
 Teacher-created tests
 Rubrics
 Self- and peer-evaluation

CRITERION- VERSUS NORM-REFERENCED TESTING

Many educators and members of the public fail to grasp the distinctions between criterion-
referenced and norm-referenced testing. It is common to hear the two types of testing referred to as
if they serve the same purposes, or shared the same characteristics. Much confusion can be
eliminated if the basic differences are understood.

The following is adapted from: Popham, J. W. (1975). Educational evaluation. Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Criterion-Referenced Norm-Referenced
Dimension
Tests Tests

To determine whether each student has To rank each student with respect to the
achieved specific skills or concepts. achievement of others in broad areas of
Purpose knowledge.
To find out how much students know
before instruction begins and after it has To discriminate between high and low
finished. achievers.
Measures specific skills which make up a
designated curriculum. These skills are
Measures broad skill areas sampled from a
identified by teachers and curriculum
Content variety of textbooks, syllabi, and the
experts.
judgments of curriculum experts.
Each skill is expressed as an instructional
objective.
Each skill is tested by at least four items in Each skill is usually tested by less than four
order to obtain an adequate sample of items.
student
Item
performance and to minimize the effect of Items vary in difficulty.
Characteristics
guessing.
Items are selected that discriminate between
The items which test any given skill are high
parallel in difficulty. and low achievers.
Each individual is compared with a preset Each individual is compared with other
standard for acceptable achievement. The examinees and assigned a score--usually
performance of other examinees is expressed as a percentile, a grade
Score irrelevant. equivalent
Interpretation score, or a stanine.
A student's score is usually expressed as
a percentage. Student achievement is reported for broad
skill areas, although some norm-referenced
Student achievement is reported for tests do report student achievement for
individual skills. individual skills.