ANSI/AWS D10.

4-86R
An American National Standard

Recommended
Practices for
Welding Austenitic
Chromium-Nickel
Stainless Steel
Piping and Tubing
Key Words — austenitic pipe, chromium-nickel ANSI/AWS D10.4-86
pipe, gas metal arc welding, gas tungsten arc welding, An American National Standard
recommended practice, stainless steel pipe, shielded
metal arc welding
Approved by
American National Standards Institute
November 12,1986

Recommended Practices
for Welding Austenitic
Chromium-Nickel
Stainless Steel
Piping and Tubing

Superseding AWS D10.4-79

Prepared by
AWS Committee on Piping and Tubing

Issued, 1986

Under the Direction of

AWS Technical Activities Committee

Approved by
AWS Board of Directors
April 11, 1986

Abstract
This document presents a detailed discussion of the metallurgical characteristics and weldability of many grades of
austenitic stainless steel used in piping and tubing. The delta ferrite content as expressed by ferrite number (FN) is
explained, and its importance in minimizing hot cracking is discussed.
A number of Figures and Tables illustrate recommended joint designs and procedures. Appendix A presents
information on the welding of high-carbon stainless steel cast pipe fittings.

AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY

550 N.W. LeJeune Road, P.O. Box 351040, Miami, FL 33135
 Policy Statement on Use of AWS Standards

All standards of the American Welding Society (codes, specifications, recommended practices, methods, etc.) are
voluntary consensus standards that have been developed in accordance with the rules of the American National
Standards Institute. When AWS standards are either incorporated in or made part of documents that are included in
federal or state laws and regulations or the regulations of other governmental bodies, their provisions carry the full legal
authority of the statute. In such cases, any changes in those AWS standards must be approved by the governmental
body having statutory jurisdiction before they can become a part of those laws and regulations. In all cases, these
standards carry the full legal authority of the contract or other document that invokes AWS standards. Where this
contractual relationship exists, changes in or deviations from requirements of an AWS standard must be by agreement
between the contracting parties.

International Standard Book Number: 0-8171-267-9

American Welding Society, 550 N.W. LeJeune Road, P.O. Box 351040, Miami, Florida 33135

© 1986 by American Welding Society. All rights reserved

Printed in the United States of America
5 4 3 2 1

Note: By publishing this standard, the American Welding Society does not insure anyone using the information it
contains against liability arising from that. Publication of a standard by the American Welding Society does not carry
with it any right to make, use, or sell any patented items. Each user of the information in this standard should make an
independent investigation of the validity of that information for the particular use and the patent status of any item
referred to herein.

This standard is subject to revision at any time by the Committee on Piping and Tubing. It must be reviewed every five
years and if not revised, it must be either reapproved or withdrawn. Comments (recommendations, additions, or
deletions) and any pertinent data which may be of use in improving this standard are requested and should be addressed
to AWS Headquarters. Such comments will receive careful considerations by the Committee on Piping and Tubing and
the author of the comment will be informed of the committee's response to the comments. Guests are invited to attend all
meetings of the Committee on Piping and Tubing to express their comments verbally. Procedures for appeal of an
adverse decision concerning all such comments are provided in the Rules of Operation of the Technical Activities
Committee. A copy of these Rules can be obtained from the American Welding Society, 550 N.W. LeJeune Rd., P.O.
Box 351040, Miami, Florida 33135.
 Personnel
AWS Committee on Piping and Tubing
R. R. Wright, Chairman Moody-Tottrup International, Incorporated
R. Giambelluca, 1st Vice Chairman C. F. Braun and Company
J. E. Fisher, 2nd Vice Chairman Speri Associates
E. J. Seel, Secretary American Welding Society
W. L. Ballis Columbia Gas Distribution Companies
G. O. Curbow Consultant
H. W. Ebert Exxon Research and Engineering Company
R. S. Green National Certified Pipe Welding Bureau
R. B. Gwin McDermott International
E. A. Harwart Consultant
G. K. Hickox Consultant
J. E. Hinkel Lincoln Electric Company
P. P. Hoh** Consultant
R. B. Kadiyala Techalloy Maryland, Incorporated
A. N. Kugler* Consultant
R. J. Landrum* Consultant
J. R. McGuffey Oak Ridge National Laboratory
L. A. Maier Bethlehem Welding & Safety Supply, Incorporated
J. W. Moeller* Consultant
M. D. Randall* CRC Automatic Welding
H. L. Sounders Alcan International, Ltd.
P. C. Shepard Consultant
E. G. Shifrin Detroit Edison Company
G. K. Sosnin Consultant
H. A. Sosnin Consultant
W. J. Sperko Sperko Engineering Services
J. G. Tack Armco, Incorporated
J. C. Thompson, Jr. * Consultant
D. R. Van Buren The East Ohio Gas Company

AWS Subcommittee on Welding Practices and Procedures for Austenitic Steels

E. A. Harwart, Chairman Consultant
E. J. Seel, Secretary American Welding Society
G. O. Curbow Consultant
H. W. Ebert* Exxon Research and Engineering Company
R. S. Green National Certified Pipe Welding Bureau
R. B. Kaydiyala Techalloy Maryland, Incorporated
J. R. McGuffey Oak Ridge National Laboratory
J. G. Tack Armco, Incorporated
* Advisors
** Deceased

in
 Foreword

(This Foreword is not a part of D10.4-86, Recommended Practices for Welding Austenitic Chromium-Nickel
Stainless Steel Piping and Tubing but is included for information purposes only.)
These recommended practices are intended to provide information which may be used to avoid, or at least minimize,
difficulties in welding austenitic stainless steel piping and tubing. The ievmpipe used in the text also includes tube. Cast
chromium-nickel stainless steel pipe with carbon content above 0.20 percent requires practices different from the
austenitic stainless steels, therefore they are covered in the Appendix.
The first document on this subject was approved by the AWS Board of Directors in August 1955 under the title, The
Welding of Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Steel Piping and Tubing, A Committee Report and published as AWS
D10.4-55T. This version was revised in 1966.
In 1979, a major updating of the document was completed and published as AWS D 10.4-79, Recommended Practices
for Welding Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Piping and Tubing. This version presented a detailed
discussion of the role of delta ferrite in austenitic chromium-nickel steel welds.
The present document further expands and refines this information and, in addition, contains an Appendix which
gives recommendations for welding high-carbon stainless steel castings.
Comments or inquiries pertaining to these recommended practices are welcome. They should be addressed to:
Secretary, AWS Committee on Piping and Tubing, American Welding Society, 550 N.W. LeJeune Road, P.O. Box
351040, Miami, FL 33135.

IV
 Table of Contents
page no.
Personnel iii
Foreword iv
List of Tables vii
List of Figures viii
Introduction 1
/. Material Compositions and Specifications 1
1.1 Compositions 1
1.2 Specifications 1
2. Base Metals 1
2.1 Primary Types (304, 305, 309, and 310) 1
2.2 Chromium-Nickel-Molybdenum Types (316 and 317) 3
2.3 Stabilized Types (321 and 347) 3
2.4 Low Carbon Types (304L, 309S, 310S, and 316L) 3
2.5 "H" Types (305H, 316H, 321H, 347H, and 348H) 4
2.6 Stainless Steel for Nuclear Service Types (348 and 348H) 4
2.7 High Carbon Cast Types (HF, HH, HK, HE, HT, HI, HU, and HN) 5
2.8 Low Carbon Cast Types (CF3, CF8, CF8C, CF8M, CF3M, CH8, CPK20, and CH20) 6
3. Filler Metal 6
3.1 Selection of Filler Metal 6
3.2 Welding Electrodes 6
4. Ferrite 7
4.1 Weld Metal Structure 7
4.2 Ferrite Phase 7
4.3 Measurement of Ferrite 8
4.4 Importance of Ferrite 8
4.5 Ferrite in Root Passes and Subsequent Passes 9
4.6 Effect of Welding Conditions on Ferrite 9
5. Welding Processes 9
5.1 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) 9
5.2 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) 10
5.3 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) 10
5.4 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) II
5.5 Other Welding Processes 11
6. Welding of Dissimilar Stainless Steel Joints 11
7. Welded Joints in Pipe 11
7.1 Joint Design 11
7.2 Consumable Inserts 14
7.3 Insert Application 14
7.4 Inert Gas Purging 16
7.5 Open Butt Welding 18
8. Welding Techniques 18
8.1 Starting the Arc 18
8.2 Welding Positon and Electrode Handling 18
8.3 Weld Size and Contour 19
8.4 Travel Speed 19
8.5 Welding Current 19
8.6 Extinguishing the Arc with SMAW 19
8.7 Cleaning and Finishing 20
8.8 Repair 20
9. Problems Related to Welded Joints 21
9.1 Cracking .' 21
9.2 Corrosion 23
9.3 Sigma Phase Formation — High-Temperature Service 24
10. Inspection Methods 24
10.1 Visual Inspection 25
10.2 Hydrostatic Testing 25
10.3 Liquid Penetrant Methods 25
10.4 Radiography 25
10.5 Ultrasonic Methods 25
10.6 Inspection With Magnetic Instruments 25
10.7 Acoustic Emission Testing Methods (AET) 25
10.8 Chemical Spot Testing 25
10.9 Halogen Leak Testing Methods 25
10.10 Mass Spectrometer Testing Method 25
11. Safety and Health 26
11.1 Fumes and Gases 26
11.2 Radiation 26
11.3 Electric Shock 26
11.4 Fire Prevention 26
11.5 Explosion 26
11.6 Burns 26
11.7 Further Information 26
Appendix A — Welding High-Carbon Stainless Steels 27
Al. Introduction 27
A2. Some Factors Governing Casting Material Use 27
Appendix B — Document List 33
Appendix C — Safety and Health 34

VI
 List of Tables

Table page no.

1 — Types of Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Available in Piping and Tubing 2
2 — Types of Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Castings 2
3 — ASTM Specifications Applicable to Austenitic Stainless Steel Piping and Tubing 3
4 — Electrodes and Welding Rods used in Welding Cast and Wrought Austenitic Stainless Steels 4
5 — Chemical Composition Requirements for Weld Metal from Corrosion-Resisting
Steel Covered Welding Electrodes 5
6 — Chemical Composition Requirements for Corrosion-Resisting Steel Welding Rods and Electrodes 7
7 — General Guide for Selecting Welding Electrodes and Rods for Joints in Dissimilar Austenitic
Stainless Steel Pipe and Tube 12
8 — Procedure for Welding Open Root with GTAW Argon Shielding and Purge, Dcen 21
9 — Procedure for Welding Consumable Insert with GTAW Argon Shielding and Purge, Dcen 22
10 — Procedure for Welding Open Root with GMAW Gas Shielding and Purge 22
Al — Filler Metal Selection Guide 31

vn
 List of Figures

Figure page no.

1 —
Typical Joint Designs for Welding Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe 13
2 —
Standard Consumable Inserts 15
3 —
Typical Sections showing Two Types of Consumable Inserts 16
4 —
Preweld Purging of Oxidizing Atmosphere 17
Al —
Procedure for Removal of "Unsound" Areas during Joint Preparation
for New HK-40 Type Cast Component 28
A2 — Purging Baffle Assembly 29
A3 — Contour of Weld Crater Inhibits Crater Cracks 30

viu
 Recommended Practices for
Welding Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Stainless
Steel Piping and Tubing

Introduction pipe are shown in Table 2. These are included because

cast valves and fittings are considered part of a piping
The ideal piping system would be a single piece of system.
pipe, so formed, shaped, sized, and directed as to contain The weldability of castings may be somewhat less than
or convey the fluid required by the process in which it is that of a wrought stainless steel of the same type. This is
involved. For most systems this cannot be. Changes in because fully austenitic castings have much larger grains
size, shape, direction, and operating conditions usually than similar wrought material. Consequently, there is
preclude such a fabrication. Joints become necessary. less grain boundary area along which to disperse the
Piping systems usually must be made of many different impurities. As a result, there may be a tendency toward
components, and the joints that connect them must be as hot cracking when welding some castings. However,
strong and serviceable as the components themselves. proper control of the composition of the casting, to
Therefore, engineers and mechanics should try to apply obtain four to ten percent delta ferrite, can prevent hot
those joining methods which most nearly meet the con- cracking.
ditions of one-piece fabrication and also allow for neces-
sary assembly, erection, maintenance, and operation. 1.2 Specifications. Typical American Society for Test-
Most of the austenitic stainless steels are readily weld- ing and Materials (ASTM) specifications covering pip-
able when the proper procedures and techniques are ing and tubing in both cast and wrought form (seamless
followed. They can be joined by most of the fusion or welded) are listed in Table 3. ASTM employs the AISI
welding processes, and good pipe welders can adapt very type numbers for designating the austenitic types. How-
quickly from carbon steel or low alloy steel to stainless ever, the ASTM chemical composition requirements
steel. Orbiting pipe welding machines are also very adapt- differ slightly from the AISI requirements and will vary
able to these materials. slightly in different ASTM specifications. The composi-
The instructions in these recommended practices can tion ranges specified for cast tubular products are identi-
be put to use by any competent pipe welder in any good cal with those of the American Castings Institute (ACI).
shop or field site. Reasonable care is required, as in any Specifications for covered welding electrodes and weld-
pipe welding operation; however, careful adherence to ing rods and electrodes are provided in Tables 4 and 5.
the procedure requirements will usually produce excel-
lent welds in stainless steel piping and tubing. 2. Base Metals
2.1 Primary Types (304, 305, 309, and 310). These
1. Material Compositions materials have many applications and are widely used
for their corrosion and oxidation resistance, high-
and Specifications temperature strength, and low-temperature properties.
1.1 Compositions. Chemical composition ranges and However, there are a number of welding-related charac-
type numbers for those stainless steels generally available teristics that may affect all of these, as noted below.
in wrought piping and tubing are listed in Table 1. These Types 304 and 305 may become sensitized by welding,
are American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) Standard depending on their carbon content and the manner in
Compositions. Chemical composition ranges and desig- which they are welded, and as a result may require
nations for five stainless steels generally available as cast solution annealing to restore immunity to intergranular
 Table 1
Types of Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Available in Piping and Tubing
Chemical Composition Limit , Percent a

Type c Mn Si Cr Nib P S Other Elements

304 0.08 2.00 .00 18.0-20.0 8.0-10.5 0.045 0.03
304H 0.04-0.10 2.00 .00 18.0-20.0 8.0-10.5 0.045 0.03 —
304L 0.03 2.00 .00 18.0-20.0 8.0-12.0 0.045 0.03 —
304LN 0.03 2.00 .00 18.0-20.0 8.0-10.5 0.045 0.03 0.10-0.15 N
304N 0.08 2.00 .00 18.0-20.0 8.0-10.5 0.045 0.03 0.10-0.16 N
305 0.12 2.00 .00 17.0-19.0 10.5-13.0 0.045 0.03 —
308 0.08 2.00 .00 19.0-21.0 10.0-12.0 0.045 0.03 —
309 0.20 2.00 .00 22.0-24.0 12.0-15.0 0.045 0.03 —
309S 0.08 2.00 .00 22.0-24.0 12.0-15.0 0.045 0.03 —
310 0.15 2.00 .50 24.0-26.0 19.0-22.0 0.045 0.03 —
310S 0.08 2.00 .50 24.0-26.0 19.0-22.0 0.045 0.03 —
316 0.08 2.00 .00 16.0-18.0 10.0-14.0 0.045 0.03 2.0-3.0 Mo
316H 0.04-0.10 2.00 .00 16.0-18.0 10.0-14.0 0.045 0.03 2.0-3.0 Mo
316L 0.03 2.00 .00 16.0-18.0 10.0-14.0 0.045 0.03 2.0-3.0 Mo
316LN 0.03 2.00 .00 16.0-18.0 10.0-14.0 0.045 0.03 2.0-3.0 Mo
0.10-0.3 N
316N 0.08 2.00 .00 16.0-18.0 10.0-14.0 0.045 0.03 2.0-3.0 Mo
0.10-0.16 N
317 0.08 2.00 1.00 18.0-20.0 11.0-15.0 0.045 0.03 3.0-4.0 Mo
317L 0.03 2.00 .00 18.0-20.0 11.0-15.0 0.045 0.03 3.0-4.0 Mo
321 0.08 2.00 1.00 17.0-19.0 9.0-12.0 0.045 0.03 5 X % C min. Ti
321H 0.04-0.10 2.00 1.00 17.0-19.0 9.0-12.0 0.045 0.03 5 X % C min. Ti
347 0.08 2.00 1.00 17.0-19.0 9.0-13.0 0.045 0.03 10 X % C min. Cb + Ta c
347H 0.04-0.10 2.00 .00 17.0-19.0 9.0-13.0 0.045 0.03 10 X % C min. Cb + Ta
348 0.08 2.00 1.00 17.0-19.0 9.0-13.0 0.045 0.03 10 X % C min. Cb + Ta c 0.2 Cu
348H 0.04-0.10 2.00 1.00 17.0-19.0 9.0-13.0 0.045 0.03 10 X % C min. Cb + Ta c 0.2 Cu
a. Single values are maximums.
b. For some tubemaking processes, the nickel content of certain austenitic types must be slightly higher than shown.
c. Ta is optional.

Table 2
Types of Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Castings
Chemical Composition, Percent"1
ASTM b
Designation Composition c Mn p S Si Cr Ni Other Elements

CF3 19-9 0.03 1.50 0.04 0.04 2.00 17.0-21.0 8.0-12.0

CF8 19-9 0.08 1.50 0.04 0.04 2.00 18.0-21.0 8.0-11.0 —
CF8M 19-10 Mo 0.08 1.50 0.04 0.04 2.00 18.0-21.0 9.0-12.0 2.0-3.0 Mo
CF3M 19-10 Mo 0.03 1.50 0.04 0.04 1.50 17.0-21.0 9.0-13.0 2.0-3.0 Mo
CH8 25-12 0.08 1.50 0.040 0.040 1.50 22.0-26.0 12.0-15.0 —
CPK20 25-20 0.20 1.50 0.040 0.040 1.00 23.0-27.0 19.0-22.0 —
CH20 25-12 0.20 1.50 0.040 0.040 2.00 22.0-26.0 12.0-15.0 —

Note: Chromium-nickel stainless steel castings with carbon content above 0.20% are covered in the Appendix of this report.
a. Single values are maximums.
b. American Society for Testing and Materials.
 cannot be considered totally immune to intergranular
Table 3 attack when they are in a sensitized condition.
ASTM Specifications
2.2 Chromium-Nickel-Molybdenum Types (316 and
Applicable to Austenitic Stainless Steel 317). The addition of molybdenum to the chromium-
Piping and Tubing Components nickel alloys does not alter their welding characteristics
Specification in any significant way. However, the welds themselves
Designation Product may display slightly greater susceptibility to intergranu-
lar corrosion in sensitized heat-affected zones than Type
A213 Seamless ferritic and austenitic alloy steel 304 in nitric acid service. Molybdenum reduces the
boiler, superheater, and heat-exchanger
resistance of stainless steel to corrosion by nitric acid.
tubes
A249 Welded austenitic steel boiler, superheater, 2.3 Stabilized Types (321 and 347). Titanium, colum-
heat-exchanger, and condenser tubes bium and tantalum are carbide stabilizing elements.
During the steel making process, they combine with car-
A269 Seamless and welded austenitic stainless steel
bon before chromium does. Thus, in subsequent weld-
tubing for general service
ing, the formation of chromium carbides is minimized.
A270 Seatr'ess and welded austenitic stainless steel When chromium carbide forms, the adjacent metal is
san t ry tubing depleted of chromium, thus reducing the materials cor-
A271 Seamless austenitic chromium-nickel steel rosion resistance.
still tubes for refinery service However, during welding, a very narrow zone imme-
A312 Seamless and welded austenitic stainless steel diately adjacent to the fusion line, in the heat-affected
pipe zone (H AZ) of the weld, is heated to a temperature high
enough to dissolve almost all of the titanium, columbium
A351 Austenitic steel castings for valves, flanges,
and tantalum carbides. If the welded joint is subse-
fittings, and other pressure-containing
parts
quently heated to a temperature in the vicinity of 1200 ° F
(650 °C) chromium carbides will precipitate at the grain
A358 Electric fusion welded austenitic chromium- boundaries. Thus, the conditions are set up for what is
nickel alloy steel pipe for high-temperature known as "knife line attack" in a corrosive environment.
service
Knife line attack can be prevented by reheating the
A376 Seamless austenitic steel pipe for high temper- welded joint to a temperature in the vicinity of 1600°F
ature central-station service (870 ° C). At this temperature, titanium, columbium, and
A403 Wrought pipe fittings tantalum carbides precipitate in preference to chromium
carbides since their solubility temperature is lower than
A409 Welded large outside diameter light-wall
austenitic chromium-nickel alloy steel pipe that of chromium carbide. This is called a "stabilizing
for corrosive or high-temperature service heat-treatment" since it does not impair the corrosion
' resistance of the steel.
A430 Austenitic steel forged and bored pipe for
Type 321 is stabilized with titanium, while Type 347 is
high-temperature service
stabilized with columbium and tantalum. Type 321 dis-
A451 Centrifugal cast austenitic steel pipe for high- plays a greater susceptibility to knife line attack than
temperature service Type 347 because of the lowered solution temperature of
A452 Centrifugal cast austenitic cold wrought titanium carbide compared with columbium and tanta-
stainless steel pipe for high-temperature lum carbide.
service
2.4 Low Carbon Types (304L, 309S, 310S, and 316L).
A688 Welded tubes These types are low carbon modifications of the corre-
sponding or primary grades. In Types 304L and 316L, an
attack when exposed to certain corrosive environments. extra low carbon content (0.030 percent maximum) min-
(See 9.2 for a detailed discussion of this form of corrosive imizes the precipitation of chromium carbide both dur-
attack.) However, these steels often are used in the as- ing welding and any sensitizing postweld heat treatment.
welded condition when it is known that the service condi- This in turn preserves the corrosion resistance of the
tion does not produce intergranular attack. weldment. Similarly, Types 309S and 310S with 0.08
The likelihood of corrosive attack on material sensi- percent maximum carbon, reduces the likelihood of
tized by welding is not so great for the higher chromium corrosion in comparison with their higher carbon
grades such as Types 309 and 310. However, these types counterparts.
 Table 4
Electrodes and Welding Rods used in Welding Specific Cast
and Wrought Austenitic Stainless Steels
Bare Welding Rods or Electrodes,
Type of Stainless Steel Covered Electrodes, Specification AWS A5.9,
Composition Specification AWS A5.4, Gas Tungsten Arc, Gas Metal Arc,
Wrought Cast a Nominal Shielded Metal Arc Welding and Submerged Arc Welding
304 CF-8 18-8
304H 18-8 E308 ER308
305 20-10
304L CF-3 18-8LC E308L ER308L
E347 ER347
309 CH20 25-12 E309 ER309
3O9S CH8 25-12LC E309 ER309
E309Cb
310 CPK-20 25-20 E310 ER310
310S 25-20LC E310 ER310
E310Cb
316 CF-8M 18-12Mo E316b ER316 b
316H CF-12M 18-12Mo El 6-8-2 ER16-8-2
E316b ER316 b
316L CF-3M 18-12MoLC E316L" ER316L
E318b
317 19-14Mo E317 ER316
317L 19-14MoLC E317L ER317L
321 — 18-10Ti E347C ER321
321H 18-10Ti ER347
347 18-10Cb
347H 18-10Cb
348 18-10Cb E347 ER348
348H 18-10Cb
CF-8C 18-10Cb
a. Castings higher in carbon but otherwise of generally corresponding compositions are available in the heat-resisting grades.
These castings carry the "H" designation (HF, HH, and HK, for instance). Electrodes best suited for welding these high carbon
versions are the standard electrodes recommended for the corresponding but lower carbon corrosion-resistant castings shown
above (see Appendix).
b. Joints containing 316, 316L, 317, and 318 weld metal may occasionally display poor corrosion resistance in the "as-welded"
condition, particularly where hot oxidizing acids are involved. Corrosion resistance of the weldment, for all grades of Cr-Ni-Mo
base metal may be restored by rapid cooling from 1950-2050° F (1065-1120° C).
c. Type 321 covered electrodes are not manufactured because titanium is not readily transferred across an electric arc.

2.5 "H" Types (304H, 316H, 321H, 347H, and 348H). 2.6 Stainless Steel for Nuclear Service (Types 348 and
Carbon contributes to the high-temperature strength of 348H). For nuclear applications, where pipe may be-
austenitic stainless steel. This precludes the application come radioactive, the long-term serviceability of the steel
of austenitic Cr-Ni steel having an extra low carbon can be improved by limiting its tantalum content. Type
content in high-temperature service where strength is an 348 and 348 H steels have properties similar to Types 347
important consideration. Five steels are identified with and 347H, respectively, except that they contain no more
the " H " suffix for use at high temperature. I n these steels, than 0.10 percent tantalum. For this same purpose, limi-
the carbon content must be held within a specified range tations may also be placed on the cobalt content.
(i.e., 0.04-0.10 percent), rather than being held at or In most nuclear applications, the most common types
below a maximum carbon level. of stainless steels have been 304, 304L, 316, and 316L.
 Tables*
Chemical Composition Requirements for Weld Metal
from Corrosion-Resisting Steel Covered Welding Electrodesab
AWS
Classification0 Cd Cr Ni Mo Cb plus Ta Mn Si P S N Cu

E307 0.04-0.14 18.0-21.5 9.0-10.7 0.5-1.5 3.3-4.75 0.90 0.04 0.03 — 0.75
E308 0.08 18.0-21.0 9.0-11.0 0.75 — 0.5-2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 — 0.75
E308H 0.04-0.08 18.0-21.0 9.0-11.0 0.75 — 0.5-2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 — 0.75
E308L 0.04 18.0-21.0 9.0-11.0 0.75 — 0.5-2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 0.75
E308Mo 0.08 18.0-21.0 9.0-12.0 2.0-3.0 — 0.5-2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 — 0.75
E308MoL 0.04 18.0-21.0 9.0-12.0 2.0-3.0 — 0.5-2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 — 0.75
E309 0.15 22.0-25.0 12.0-14.0 0.75 — 0.5-2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 — 0.75
E309L 0.04 22.0-25.0 12.0-14.0 0.75 — 0.5-2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 — 0.75
E309Cb 0.12 22.0-25.0 12.0-14.0 0.75 0.70-1.00 0.5-2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 0.75
E309Mo 0.12 22.0-25.0 12.0-14.0 2.0-3.0 — 0.5-2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 — 0.75
E310 0.08-0.20 25.0-28.0 20.0-22.5 0.75 — 1.0-2.5 0.75 0.03 0.03 — 0.75
E310H 0.35-0.45 25.0-28.0 20.0-22.5 0.75 — 1.0-2.5 0.75 0.03 0.03 — 0.75
E310Cb 0.12 25.0-28.0 20.0-22.0 0.75 0.70-1.00 1.0-2.5 0.75 0.03 0.03 — 0.75
E310Mo 0.12 25.0-28.0 20.0-22.0 2.0-3.0 — 1.0-2.5 0.75 0.03 0.03 — 0.75
E312 0.15 28.0-32.0 8.0-10.5 0.75 — 0.5-2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 — 0.75
E316 0.08 17.0-20.0 11.0-14.0 2.0-3.0 — 0.5-2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 — 0.75
E316H 0.04-0.08 17.0-20.0 11.0-14.0 2.0-3.0 — 0.5-2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 — 0.75
E316L 0.04 17.0-20.0 11.0-14.0 2.0-3.0 — 0.5-2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 — 0.75
E317 0.08 18.0-21.0 12.0-14.0 3.0-4.0 — 0.5-2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 — 0.75
E317L 0.04 18.0-21.0 12.0-14.0 3.0-4.0 — 0.5-2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 — 0.75
E318 0.08 17.0-20.0 11.0-14.0 2.0-2.5 6 X C m i n to 1.00 max 0.5-2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 — 0.75
E320 0.07 19.0-21.0 32.0-36.0 2.0-3.0 8 X Cmin to 1.00 max 0.5-2.5 0.60 0.04 0.03 — 3.0-4.0
E320LR 0.035 19.0-21.0 32.0-36.0 2.0-3.0 8 X C min to 0.40 max 1.50-2.50 0.30 0.020 0.015 — 3.0-4.0
E330 0.18-0.25 14.0-17.0 33.0-37.0 0.75 — 1.0-2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 — 0.75
E330H 0.35-0.45 14.0-17.0 33.0-37.0 0.75 — 1.0-2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 — 0.75
E347 0.08 18.0-21.0 9.0-11.0 0.75 8 X C min to 1.00 max 0.5-2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 — 0.75
E349e.f 0.13 18.0-21.0 8.0-10.0 0.35-0.65 0.75-1.2 0.5-2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 - 0.75
El 6-8-2 0.10 14.5-16.5 7.5-9.5 1.0-2.0 — 0.5-2.5 0.60 0.03 0.03 — 0.75

*Note: See Table 1. AWS A5.4-81.

a. Analysis shall be made for the elements which for specific values are shown in the table. If, however, the presence of other elements is indicated in
the course of routine analysis, further analysis shall be made to determine that the total of these other elements, except iron, is not present in excess of
0.50 percent.
b. Single values shown are maximum percentages except where otherwise specified.
c. Suffix -15 electrodes are classified with direct current, electrode positive. Suffix -16 electrodes are classified with alternating current and direct
current, electrode positive. Electrodes up to and including 5/32 in. (4.0 mm) in size are usable in all positions. Electrodes 3/16 in. (4.8 mm) and larger
are usable only in the flat groove and fillet position and horizontal fillet position.
d. Carbon shall be reported to the nearest 0.01 percent except for the classification E320LR for which carbon shall be reported to the nearest
0.005 percent.
e. Titanium shall be 0.15 percent max.
f. Tungsten shall be from 1.25 to 1.75 percent.

However, problems resulting from the use of these types resistance to oxidation, cast Cr-Ni austenitic heat-
in certain systems of boiling water reactors have resulted resisting steels are used. These castings are modifications
in the development of special nuclear grades. These pro- of the wrought types. The first five listed are basically the
vide an additional margin of resistance to intergranular Types 304, 309, 310, 312, and 330 with carbon content
stress corrosion cracking in the BWR environment. increased up to about 0.75 percent. The three other types
Other specialized techniques have been developed to involve higher carbon content and some changes in the
minimize this cracking problem with conventional chromium, or nickel, or chromium-nickel composition.
materials. These cast alloys are designed for higher temperature
service then the primary types.
The welding of high carbon (over 0.20 percent) stain-
2.7 High Carbon Cast Types (HF, HH, HK, HE, HT, less steel castings requires special high carbon electrodes
HI, HU, and HN). In many applications requiring to match the high-temperature strength and creep prop-
erties. In addition, special welding techniques and 3.2.1 Covered Electrodes. There are two kinds of
procedures are required for these materials to compen- coverings commonly used on stainless steel electrodes,
sate for the low elongation and the aging characteristics "lime" and "titania." The lime covering is designated by
associated with these alloys. the suffix -15 and the titania by -16. The -15 is for use
Weldability differs greatly between high carbon aus- with direct current, electrode positive, and the -16 for
tenitic stainless steel and both wrought and lower carbon use with alternating current or direct current, electrode
components. Weld techniques, filler metal selection, and positive. Some -16 coverings operate satisfactorily with
special treatments for a particular high carbon stainless direct current, electrode negative and may be used in
steel, HK-40, are given in Appendix A. special cases where shallower penetration is desired.
The -16 electrode has a less penetrating arc and pro-
2.8 Low Carbon Cast Types (CF3, CF8, CF8C, CF8M,
duces flatter, smoother welds in the horizontal and flat
CF3M, CH8, CPK20, and CH20). Table 2 lists the most
positions, with easier slag removal than the -15 . The
widely used types of chromium-nickel stainless steel cast-
original -16 types were distinctly inferior to the -15 types
ings with carbon contents under 0.20 percent. These
when welding in positions other than flat (out-of-
castings, although their compositions are not identical,
position welding); thus, the -15 type was preferred for
may be welded in the same way as their wrought equiv-
this work. Improvement in out-of-position welding
alents as listed below:
characteristics of the -16 types has caused increased use
of this type in areas where the -15 type was traditionally
Cast alloy Wrought equivalent used. Where maximum assurance of highest metallurgi-
CF3 304L cal quality weld metal is required, the -15 type may still
CF8 304 be preferred.
CF8M 316 Both types of coverings are hygroscopic, and excessive
CF3M 316L moisture absorption may cause welding problems such
CH8 309S as porosity, flaking and flaring of the covering, and
CPK-20 310 erratic arc action.
CF8C 347 For electrodes in opened containers, the humidity,
CH20 309 length of time of exposure, types of service, and weld
metal quality required are factors which will determine
the need for redrying before use. It is preferable to avoid
3. Filler Metal the need for redrying by keeping the electrodes warm and
3.1 Selection of Filler Metal. Filler metals that yield dry at all times. When redrying is necessary, the electrode
weld metal of the same general composition as the base manufacturer's recommendation should be followed. In
metals are available. However, the selection of a suitable general, unless the manufacturer advises to the contrary,
filler metal to join a particular type of base metal is not long times above 650°F (343 °C) temperatures are to be
always accomplished by matching the type numbers or avoided, as the covering may be damaged.
even actual chemical compositions. The performance of
3.2.2 Bare Filler Metal. Since these materials do
present-day welding electrodes and rods has been im-
not have coverings, their storage and care present no
proved through modifications in composition to control
problem with respect to moisture absorption. However,
weld structure, which in turn determines the properties
storage areas should be dry and clean to avoid contami-
of the weld metal. In some instances, new designations
nation from dirt, oils, and other lubricants and extrane-
are applied to the filler metals because of extensive modi-
ous chemicals, such as sulfur bearing materials.
fications in composition. The types of austenitic stainless
steel used in piping and the filler metals commonly used These materials are supplied in straight lengths, in
for joining them are shown in Table 4. coils with or without support, and on spools.
AWS specification A5.9 has specific requirements for
3.2 Welding Electrodes. Chemical composition require- identification of bare filler metal. Cut lengths present an
ments of weld metal from welding electrodes and rods identification problem after they have been removed
are given in Tables 5 and 6 and the latest editions of from the container. However, adhesive tags on one or
AWS publications; A5.4, Specificationfor Covered Cor- both ends or identification marking are effective identifi-
rosion-Resisting Chromium-Nickel Steel Welding Elec- cation methods.
trodes and A5.9, Specification for Corrosion-Resisting AWS specification A5.30, Specification for Consum-
Chromium-Nickel Steel Bare and Composite Metal able Inserts, has specific requirements for identification
Cored and Stranded Welding Electrodes and Welding of consumable inserts. See 7.2 and 7.3 for details of their
Rods. use.
 Table 6*
Chemical Composition Requirements for
Corrosion-Resisting Steel Welding Rods and Electrodesa<b
AWS
Classification C Cr Ni Mo Cb + Ta Mn Si P S N Cu

ER307 0.04-0.14 19.5-22.0 8.0-10.7 0.5-1.5 3.3-4.75 0.30-0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75
ER3O8d 0.03 19.5-22.0 9.0-11.0 0.75 — 1.0-2.5 0.30-0.65 0.03 0.03 - 0.75
ER308H 0.04-0.08 19.5-22.0 9.0-11.0 0.75 — .0-2.5 0.30-0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75
ER3O8LC 0.03 19.5-22.0 9.0-11.0 0.75 — .0-2.5 0.30-0.65 0.03 0.03 0.75
ER308Mo 0.08 18.0-21.0 9.0-12.0 2.0-3.0 — ; .0-2.5 0.30-0.65 0.03 0.03 - 0.75
ER308MoL 0.04 18.0-21.0 9.0-12.0 2.0-3.0 — .0-2.5 0.30-0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75
ER309c 0.12 23.0-25.0 12.0-14.0 0.75 — ; .0-2.5 0.30-0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75
ER309L 0.03 23.0-25.0 12.0-14.0 0.75 — ; .0-2.5 0.30-0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75
ER310 0.8-0.15 25.0-28.0 20.0-22.5 0.75 — .0-2.5 0.30-0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75
ER312 0.15 28.0-32.0 8.0-10.5 0.75 — .0-2.5 0.30-0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75
ER316C 0.08 18.0-20.0 11.0-14.0 2.0-3.0 — .0-2.5 0.30-0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75
ER316H 0.04-0.08 18.0-20.0 11.0-14.0 2.0-3.0 — .0-2.5 0.30-0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75
ER316LC 0.03 18.0-20.0 11.0-14.0 2.0-3.0 — .0-2.5 0.30-0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75
ER317 0.08 18.5-20.5 13.0-15.0 3.0-4.0 — .0-2.5 0.30-0.65 0.03 0.03 - 0.75
ER317L 0.03 18.5-20.5 13.0-15.0 3.0-4.0 — .0-2.5 0.30-0.65 0.03 0.03 0.75
ER318 0.08 18.0-20.0 11.0-14.0 2.0-3.0 8XCminto 1.0 max .0-2.5 0.30-0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75
ER320 0.07 19.0-21.0 32.0-36.0 2.0-3.0 8XCminto 1.0 max 2.5 0.60 0.03 0.03 — 3.0-4.0
ER320LRd 0.025 19.0-21.0 32.0-36.0 2.0-3.0 8XCminto0.40max .5-2.0 0.15 0.015 0.020 — 3.0-4.0
ER32K 0.08 18.5-20.5 9.0-10.5 0.75 — .0-2.5 0.30-0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75
ER33O 0.18-0.25 15.0-17.0 34.0-37.0 0.75 — .0-2.5 0.30-0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75
ER347C 0.08 19.0-21.5 9.0-11.0 0.75 lOXCmintol.Omax .0-2.5 0.30-0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75
ER349f 0.07-0.13 19.0-21.5 8.0-9.5 0.35-0.65 1.0-1.4 .0-2.5 0.30-0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75
ER16-8-2 0.10 14.5-16.5 7.5-9.5 1.0-2.0 — .0-2.5 0.30-0.65 0.03 0.03 — 0.75

*Note: See Table 1, AWS A5.9-81.

a. Analysis shall be made for the elements for which specific values are shown in this table. If, however, the presence of other elements is indicated in
the course of routine analysis, further analysis shall be made to determine that the total of these other elements, except iron, is not present in excess of
0.50 percent.
b. Single values shown are maximum percentages.
c. These grades are available in high silicon classifications which shall have the same chemical composition requirements as given below with the
exception that the silicon content shall be 0.65 to 1.00 percent. These high silicon classifications shall be designated by the addition "Si" to the standard
classification designations indicated below. The fabricator should consider carefully the use of high silicon filler metals in highly restrained fully
austenitic welds.
d. Carbon shall be reported to the nearest 0.01 percent except for the classification E320LR for which carbon shall be reported to the nearest
0.005 percent.
e. Titanium—9 X C min to 1.0 max.
f. Titanium—0.10 to 0.30. Tungsten is 1.25 to 1.75 percent.

4.2 Ferrite Phase. It may come as a surprise, at first, to

4. Ferrite find that austenitic stainless steel welds may be magnetic,
4.1 Weld Metal Structure. The microstructure of aus- especially those in autogenous GTA welds on nonmag-
tenitic stainless steel weld metal in the as-welded condi- netic base metal.
tion is quite different from that of wrought base metal The delta ferrite phase is responsible for the magnet-
and plays a major role in controlling cracking tendency, ism. Delta ferrite forms in the weld metal at its solidus
mechanical properties, and corrosion resistance. These temperature (freezing point) and persists down to room
alloys are sluggish in their cooling transformations temperature untransformed. The quantity present is
because of the presence of chromium, and, in the as- principally determined by the composition of the weld
welded condition, exhibit some metastable delta ferrite metal. By varying the composition of the filler metal,
in the structure. In wrought products, this phase usually weld metal can be made completely austenitic (such as
has become transformed to austenite, and these steels are with Type 310 weld metal) or partially ferritic (such as
thus nonmagnetic as supplied by the mill. with Types 308, 309, and 312 weld metal). Since some
stainless steel filler metals meeting all specification The ferrite content should be specified and measured in
requirements (such as 309 and 316) are supplied with terms of a ferrite number. A ferrite number is not neces-
some, or even no ferrite, or with a typical ferrite number sarily a true absolute ferrite percentage, but below 10FN
(FN) of 4 to 10, the ferrite content of austenitic stainless it is very close to the actual ferrite content. There is
steel filler metals should be considered when they are general agreement between laboratories when measuring
being ordered. ferrite using the new standard technique and the ferrite
The attention given to ferrite here is an indication of its numbers.
importance in the soundness of some stainless steel weld A standard procedure for calibrating magnetic instru-
metals as well as the subsequent performance of the ments to measure the delta ferrite content of austenitic
weldment in service. Ferrite has eight major effects in stainless steel weld metal, AWS A4.2, Standard Proce-
austenitic stainless weld metal: dures for Calibrating Magnetic Instruments to Measure
(1) Fully austenitic weld deposits are sometimes the Delta Ferrite Content of Austenitic Stainless Steel
prone to hot cracking. This susceptibility seems to arise Weld Metal, has been published by the American Weld-
from the low melting constituents (compounds of phos- ing Society. (See latest edition.) Further information on
phorus, sulfur, silicon, columbium, and other elements) ferrite measurement and calculation is available in the
that make up the grain boundaries in the final stages of AWS Welding Handbook, Vol. 4, 7th Edition.
solidification of the weld. Delta ferrite islands, which
form first during solidification, have greater solubility
for the impurities than the constituents which form later. 4.4 Importance of Ferrite. Fine surface cracks com-
The presence of ferrite also means that there are more monly occur in fully austenitic weld metal strained 20
interphase boundaries available to reduce the low melt- percent, as in a bend test. Hot-short cracks are seen in
ing grain boundary films. heavily restrained welds. Now that ferric can be mea-
sured consistently in ferrite numbers, researchers have
(2) The presence of ferrite increases tensile strength.
found that a delta level of at least 3FN will eliminate fine
(3) High ferrite contents may improve resistance to
surface cracking in welds made with the commonly used
stress-corrosion cracking.
austenitic filler metals El6-8-2, E316L, E308, E316, and
(4) Conversely, the ferromagnetic ferrite phase may
E308L. A ferrite level of 4FN is required with E309,5FN
interfere in applications requiring weld metal with low
with E318, and 6FN with E347 welds, to assure freedom
magnetic permeability, such as the war-time non-mag-
from cracks.
netic mine sweepers and certain control pads in nuclear
Over the years, manufacturers of stainless steel covered
reactors.
electrodes and welding rods had found, through expe-
(5) Ferrite present in a relatively continuous network
rience, that a ferrite-containing weld metal usually was
decreases corrosion resistance of the molybdenum-
more dependable for securing crack-free welds than weld
containing weld metals in certain environments.
metal without ferrite, and it was preferred by most fabri-
(6) Long-term creep strength may be lowered in par-
cators. With an agreed-upon measurement at hand in the
tially ferritic welds.
FN system, electrodes and welding rods may now be
(7) During welding itself (in extreme cases) and dur-
designed to produce weld metal with specified amounts
ing exposure (in heat treatment or in service) to tempera-
of ferrite.
tures in the range of 1100° to 1700°F(590° to 925°C)or
Type 308 filler metal may be designated to produce
lower, welds with high ferrite content become embrittled
through formation of the sigma phase, a brittle interme- weld metal containing ferrite, which helps prevent hot
tallic micro-constituent. Sigma reduces the ductility, cracking. Type 310 weld metal, on the other hand, is fully
impact strength, and corrosion resistance of the weld austenitic, cannot contain ferrite, and thus is more sus-
metal (see 9.3). ceptible to hot cracking.
Types 316 and 317 filler metals may also be designed
(8) Ferrite lowers energy absorption at cryogenic
to produce weld metal containing ferrite; for this reason
temperatures.
and possibly because of some beneficial influence of the
molybdenum, their cracking resistance is satisfactory.
4.3 Measurement of Ferrite. It is difficult to accurately The corrosion resistance of partially ferritic weld metal
determine how much ferrite is present in stainless steel produced from Types 316 and 317 may require special
weld metal. The Advisory Subcommittee on Welding attention under certain conditions. Any 18 percent
Stainless Steels and the High Alloys Committee of the Cr-12 percent Ni-Mo weld metal (including Types 316L
Welding Research Council have attempted to resolve and 318) may display poor corrosion resistance to cer-
this problem by establishing an arbitrary, standardized tain media in the as-welded condition. Such poor corro-
value known as "ferrite number" (FN) to designate the sion resistance, which is manifested by a highly localized
ferrite content of austenitic stainless steel weld metal. attack on the ferrite, does not occur in all media, nor
does it occur under all circumstances. It seems most 4.6 Effect of Welding Conditions on Ferrite. TheAWS
likely to occur when certain hot, oxidizing acids are Advisory Committee on Welding Stainless Steel con-
present. Preventive measures are to anneal the joint after ducted a test program to determine the consistency of
welding or to adjust the composition to eliminate any delta ferrite obtainable in welds made from the same box
ferrite in the weld metal. of welding electrodes. With each laboratory checking on
Type 347 filler metal is usually formulated to produce the other laboratories and using prescribed welding con-
a larger amount of ferrite in the weld metal as a means of ditions, each laboratory produced weld pads that had 95
suppressing cracking. Ferrite is particularly helpful in percent of the FN readings between 4.8 and 7.2FN for
this alloy because columbium, in the quantities used in welding electrodes with a mean of 6FN. The weld pads
this steel, promotes cracking in fully austenitic weld were tested according to AWS A4.2-74 procedures.
metal. However, the method of making a weld alters the
Weld metal from E310Cb electrodes, if selected for a ferrite content of the weld metal. The tests conducted by
particular application, would require special considera- the Advisory Committee studied four weld pad proce-
tion. There is no possibility of obtaining any ferrite at all dures. An electrode normally producing weld metal of
from this composition, and the weld metal may be espe- 6FN, yielded 5.1 in one procedure and 7.6 in another.
cially crack-sensitive. Chemical composition of the weld bead, and therefore,
Electrodes of the El6-8-2 type, containing approxi- its ferrite content, will be noticeably modified by such
mately 16 percent chromium, 8 percent nickel, and 2 variations as a long arc rather than a short arc, welding
percent molybdenum, are used primarily for the welding an exposed weld face pass rather than in a protected deep
of Type 316 stainless steel when employed in high- groove, and welding with turbulent, aspirant shielding
pressure, high temperature piping systems. The weld gas flow rather than with smooth inert gas shielding.
metal has good hot ductility, which offers greater free- Melting the root faces of a groove weld, compared to the
dom from base metal heat-affected zone cracking under multiple beads of subsequent layers in the same groove,
conditions of restraint. The weld metal also has excellent will noticeably vary the percentage dilution of the filler
mechanical properties in either the as-welded or solution- metal by base metal, and so will affect the ferrite content.
treated condition. Extreme variations may cause as much as a 5 or 6FN
change, either plus or minus. However, the ferrite
number resulting from such large variations can be mea-
4.5 Ferrite in Root Passes and Subsequent Passes. The sured and used as a first step toward correcting the
control of weld cracking by introducing delta ferrite in technique.
the weld metal requires control of the weld metal compo-
Good welding procedure requires testing of planned
sition. The weld is formed from the base metal and the
welds to assure adequate, but not excessive, ferrite con-
filler metals. Dilution of the filler metal by admixture
tent. Adhering to such a procedure and using the same
with base metal, oxidation losses to the arc atmosphere
lot of filler metal will give the same planned weld metal
or flux, or nitrogen absorption from the atmosphere,
within about ±2FN.
alters the composition of the weld metal from the origi-
Excessive delta ferrite has been shown to be detrimen-
nal filler metal composition.
tal to both high-temperature creep strength and low-
Dilution may be 50 percent in the root pass of a
temperature toughness. A well-planned test program
shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) or gas tungsten
and consultation with a reliable filler metal producer are
arc welding (GTAW) pipe weld. As an example, if the
recommended for critical applications.
pipe weld metal has no ferrite (or even an excess of
austenitic-forming elements), the filler metal will need
6FN or higher to produce weld metal with 3FN. Also, a
consumable insert, if employed, should have a sufficient 5. Welding Processes
ferrite (11FN, for example); to withstand the dilution
Shielded metal arc and gas tungsten arc are the pro-
obtained with the parent metal when making the root
cesses most commonly used to weld stainless steel piping.
pass so the weld will contain at least 3FN.
Gas metal arc is also used, but to a lesser extent. Sub-
Nevertheless, the detrimental effects of ferrite in high
merged arc welding, although used, is quite limited in
temperature and cryogenic applications, and in certain
this application. Complete details of these processes will
corrosive media, dictate an upper limit on the amount of
be found in the AWS Welding Handbook, 7th Ed., Vol. 2.
ferrite to be permitted. Therefore, extra delta ferrite
should not always be added just to make sure there is 5.1 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW). Shielded
plenty of ferrite. In practice, the control of delta ferrite metal arc welding of austenitic stainless steel piping and
begins by specifying the acceptable ferrite number range tubing may be performed with either dc or ac welding
for the filler metal. power sources and covered electrodes suitable for use
10

with the corresponding power source. Welds of a quality ing process is used extensively for welding the root pass
acceptable for pressure piping service may be made with in pipe of heavier-walled thicknesses, with subsequent
either ac or dc power, but each exhibits certain inherent passes made by shielded metal arc, submerged arc, or gas
advantages and problems. metal arc welding.
Working conditions will have some influence on the Heated filler metal should be protected by shielding
type of welding equipment selected and, therefore, the gas to prevent oxidation. The root side of the weld
type of welding electrode used. In isolated field applica- should also be protected by a suitable shielding gas.
tions where an electric power line is not available, it is A distinctive feature of the gas tungsten arc welding
necesary to utilize portable welding units operated by an process is its ability to transfer filler metal to the weld
internal combustion engine driving a generator. Direct with a minimum loss of alloying elements. One problem
current welding power is almost exclusively used for field associated with this process is tungsten contamination of
welding. In shop work, where an electric power line is the weld metal. This condition occurs when the end of
available, a wider choice of welding equipment is the tungsten electrode is inadvertently dipped into the
possible. weld pool and could occur when the arc is started with-
There are three principal types of dc welding units: (I) out benefit of high frequency equipment.
the electric motor-generator, (2) the gasoline or diesel Gas tungsten arc welding is usable on any thickness of
engine-driven generator, and (3) the rectifier. pipe. It is most advantageous on thin-walled sections,
The shielded metal arc welding process is often used such as schedule 5 and 10, and for root passes on thick-
for welding stainless steel piping; however, the welding of walled pipe.
thin-walled, small diameter pipe is difficult with this
process. The problems encountered are associated with 5.3 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW). In this process,
the need to maintain proper current density and provide the arc is maintained between the workpiece and a filler
satisfactory metal transfer, yet avoid overheating and metal in wire form, fed from a spool or reel. Shielding gas
creating holes. is projected around the arc. The primary gas shield is a
monatomic inert gas, such as helium or argon. The
5.2 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW). In this weld- primary shielding gas may be supplemented with active
ing process, an arc is maintained between a tungsten gas additions, such as oxygen or carbon dioxide. Com-
electrode and the workpiece. A sheath of shielding gas, plete equipment includes a gun that provides a means for
either helium or argon, or a mixture of the two, is supplying welding power to the filler metal and conduct-
projected around the arc. Fluxes are not necessary when ing shielding gas to the arc. The process may be either
welding with this process. Because fluxes are not avail- semiautomatic or automatic. In the high energy mode, it
able to remove impurities, special precautions must be is characterized by high welding speeds and high deposi-
taken to assure the surface cleanliness of base metals and tion rates and is essentially limited to the flat and hori-
filler metals. Wind and drafts must be avoided because zontal welding positions. In the low energy mode (short
they disturb the gas shield. circuiting type of metal transfer), it is readily utilized for
The use of direct current electrode negative (DCEN) is the vertical, overhead, and horizontal welding positions
necessary when GTA welding stainless steel pipe. Argon and especially for welding thin-walled pipe.
shielding gas is used for most applications. For equal arc Power for welding stainless steel is generally direct
lengths and welding currents, the tungsten arc voltage in current electrode positive (DCEP), although direct cur-
helium will be about 50 percent higher than the tungsten rent electrode negative (DCEN) and even alternating
arc voltage in argon. While this permits more uniform current can be used with specially made electrodes.
joint penetration and higher welding speed, it also limits Either argon or helium may be used as shielding gas,
the use of this combination to thick sections. On thin depending on the specific arc characteristics required for
sections, it has been found that the colder arc in argon certain job conditions. Spatter is higher with helium.
assists in avoiding excessive root reinforcement. The Helium may be added to argon (up to 75 percent He,
division between "thin" and "thick" sections is about 14 25% Ar) to control joint penetration and bead contour.
gage Birmingham Wire Gage (0.074 in. 1.88 mm). Oxygen (up to 5 percent) may also be added to the
Thin-walled, stainless steel pipe (schedule 5 and, in helium, argon, or helium-argon mixtures to stabilize the
some cases, schedule 10) may be welded without the arc and reduce undercut. For welding with the short
addition of filler metal simply by fusing the edges circuiting type of metal transfer, argon plus carbon diox-
together. On thick-walled pipe, filler metal for the root ide (up to 25 percent CO 2 ) may be used. Oxygen may be
pass may be provided by the use of consumable inserts. substituted for part of the carbon dioxide. A mixture
For subsequent passes, filler metal may be introduced by that has given very satisfactory results is 90 percent
manual or machine feeding. The gas tungsten arc weld- helium, 7'/2 percent argon and 2'/2 percent carbon diox-
 11

ide. Pure carbon dioxide is not suitable as a shielding gas for the selection of filler metals for welding various
for welding stainless steel. dissimilar austenitic stainless steel joints. Where both the
Welding of larger diameter pipe may be accomplished dissimilar stainless steels are either stabilized or have a
in all of the pipe welding positions. The smaller diame- low carbon content, the filler metal must also be stabi-
ters [below 6 in. (152.4 mm) pipe size] are difficult to lized or have a low carbon content. However, as Table 7
weld in the fixed pipe welding positions. The gas metal indicates, when a stabilized or low carbon stainless steel
arc welding process retains the composition of the filler is to be joined to another austenitic stainless steel that is
metal in the weld metal. Mechanical properties of welds not stabilized or does not have a low carbon content, it is
made with this process are comparable to those obtained satisfactory to select a filler metal that is not stabilized or
with other processes. does not have a low carbon content. For example, if
Type 347 were to be joined to Type 304 stainless steel,
5.4 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW). In this process, an
Type 308 filler metal may be used. Nothing would be
arc is maintained between a bare electrode and the
gained by using Type 347 filler metal, because one-half of
workpiece. Multiple arcs are sometimes used. The weld-
the joint is unstabilized.
ing arc is shielded by a blanket of granular flux. The
Most austenitic stainless steels have nearly equivalent
normal functions of a submerged arc flux are to shield
coefficients of thermal expansion, so that differential
and stabilize the arc, protect the weld metal, and control
thermal expansion is not a problem.
the bead contour. However, stainless steel weld metals
In all cases where dissimilar stainless steeljoints are to
are now frequently required to meet rather narrow
be subjected to severe operating conditions, the joint
ranges of chemical composition and delta ferrite. To
should be thoroughly analyzed to assure safe operation.
adequately satisfy requirements in this area, as well as
perform its other functions, the flux must be carefully
formulated and reinforced with metallic compounds to 7. Welded Pipe Joints
offset losses of elements such as chromium, columbium,
7.1 Joint Design. There are several factors that must be
manganese, etc., that occur during transfer across the
considered when designing edge preparations for aus-
arc. When especially critical control of weld metal com-
tenitic stainless steel welded pipe joints.
position and delta ferrite is required, a specific lot of flux
Since these steels have a thermal expansion about 50
is often formulated to be used with a specific heat of
percent greater than that of carbon steel, the correspond-
electrode wire. When use of a neutral (no metallic com-
ing weld shrinkage is greater. In addition, these steels
pound) flux is specified, and close control of weld metal
have thermal conductivities less than one-half that of
composition and delta ferrite is required, the composi-
carbon steel. These factors make shrinkage and distor-
tion of the electrode wire must be high enough in alloy
tion matters of major consideration. To control the
content to compensate for loss of elements across the arc.
effects of shrinkage and distortion, joints to be welded
The submerged arc welding process is usually charac- should be designed to require a minimum amount of
terized by high welding currents and relatively deep joint weld metal. In general, butt joints without backing are
penetration. When this process is used on stainless steel welded using a root opening of about 3/32 in. (2.4 mm)
pipe, the current is usually lower than the current used on after tack welding. However, because of the effects of
ferritic steels. Welding power may be ac or dc. This weld shrinkage, openings this size may be excessively
process is limited to the flat or horizontal rolled positions. reduced during the process of welding. This can be pre-
5.5 Other Welding Processes. Because of the high vented by using a wider opening or by in-process grind-
chromium content of austenitic stainless steels and the ing. For wall thicknesses greater than 3/4 in. (19 mm),
affinity of this element for carbon and oxygen, the aus- U-grooves or modified U-grooves may be used to reduce
tenitic stainless steels require good protection from car- the width across the weld face (see Figure ]). These de-
burization and oxidation during welding. The latter signs will keep the amount of weld metal to a minimum.
requirement precludes the use of unshielded welding Distortion may be controlled by balancing the
processes for critical work. If the oxyacetylene process is sequence of root passes and placing equal amounts of the
used, a neutral flame is mandatory. root bead on opposite sides of the pipe until the root is
completed.
Joint alignment should be maintained by the use of
6. Welding of Dissimilar Stainless Steel jigs and fixtures or tack welding.
Joints Another factor to be considered in welded joint design
The selection of an appropriate filler metal for dissimi- is the use of gas tungsten arc welding for root passes in
lar stainless steel joints is important for the same reasons thick-walled piping, for complete welding of wall thick-
noted in section 3, Filler Metal. Table 7 presents a guide nesses under 3/8 in. (9.5 mm), or for any joints where
12

Table 7
General Guide for Selecting Welding Electrodes and Rods
for Joints in Dissimilar Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe and Tube*
316 321 347,347H
AISlType 304L 308 309 309S 310 310S 316H 316L 317 321H 348,348H
308 308 308 308 308 308 308 308 308
309 309 309 309 316 316 316
304,304H, 305 308 308
310 310 317
308 308 308 308 308 308L 308 308L 3O8L
309 309 309 309 316 316L 316 347 347
304L 308
310 310 317
308 308 308 308 308 308 308 308 308
309 309 309 309 316 316 316 347
308
310 310 317
309 309 309 309 309 309 309 309
309 319 319 316 316 316 347 347
316 316 317 308 308
310 310 310Mo 310Mo 310 310
310Mo 310 310
316, 316H 316 317 308 308
316 316 316
347
316L 317 316L 316L
347
317 308 308
317 317
347
317, 321H 3O8L
347
* Electrodes and welding rods listed are not in any preferred order.

complete joint penetration and a smooth root surface the addition of filler metal. This edge preparation is also
contour are required. Typical weld joint designs cur- used for some consumable inserts to allow the torch
rently used for welding austenitic stainless steel piping access to the root area.
are shown in Figure 1. The joint design shown in Figure 1 (d) is the same basic
Figure l(a) shows a basic joint design which has been design as shown by Figure 1 (a); however, the root face is
in use since pipe assembly went from threaded and reduced to zero. This edge preparation is also required
screwed joints to welded sections. In some instances, the for some configurations of consumable inserts.
"A" angle of 37-1/2 degrees has been changed to 30 Figure 1 (e) represents a transition joint between pipes
degrees to reduce the volume of weld metal. For better of different wall thicknesses. The groove faces may be
control of weld quality in the root bead through use of adjusted as required for the wall thicknesses involved.
GTAW, the root face dimension "C" is 1 /16 in ± 1 / 32 in. Pipe with wall thickness under 3/16 in. (4.8 mm) may
(1.6 mm ± 0 . 8 mm). or may not require edge preparation, depending upon
The joint design on Figure l(b) is recommended for service conditions.
wall thicknesses above 3 / 4 in. (19 mm). The "A" angle of Another consideration for joint design is that aus-
37-1/2 degrees is maintained for 3/4 in. (19 mm) from tenitic filler metal is generally designed to produce a
the pipe wall at the root side. The "B" angle of 10 degrees crack-resistant microstructure that is slightly different
is used for the remaining pipe thickness. from the base metal. The joint design and the composi-
The U-groove type joint design, shown in Figure l(c), tion of the filler metal must be considered together to
is used where tightly butted root faces are fused without assure a weld metal composition within the range of
 13

(d)

(e)

A = 37-1/2° ±2-1/2°
B = 10° ± 1°
C = 1/16 in. ± 1/32 in. (1.8 mm ± 0.9 mm)
D = 2 times amount of offset
E = 30° max
R = 1/4 in. (6.4 mm)

Figure 1 — Typical Joint Designs for Welding Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe
14

crack-resistant compositions. It has been determined formed rings, or split butted rings with an overlap. This
that a delta ferrite level in the weld metal of 6 to IIFN shape is commonly designated as a "K" shape.
further increases resistance to cracking. The formation Figure 2(d) shows a flat, washer type insert called
of delta ferrite is a function of chemical constituents and shape "G"joint backing. Its average dimensions are I /16
can be controlled by the addition of filler metal with an in. (1.6 mm) wide by 3/16 in. (4.8 mm) deep. It is com-
adjusted chemical composition. Small diameter, thin monly described as a "flat" ring. It is a continuous ring,
wall pipe is frequently welded without the addition of not split.
filler metal. In these cases, base metal composition Figure 2(e) represents an insert configuration desig-
should be considered in determining weld metal crack nated as a "Y" type. The insert is formed from welding
sensitivity. wire and provided in coil form. Rings having diameters
Because stainless steels are used to a large extent in to 2 in. (51 mm) are provided as split rings without an
corrosive services, pipe joints should be designed and overlap. Above 2 in. (51 mm), there is a ring overlap for
welding procedures developed to avoid discontinuities fitting to I.D. variations.
that would promote the formation of stress concen- Figure 3 shows typical pipe sections with two types of
trations, or create areas of stagnant fluid that would consumable inserts.
promote concentration-cell or galvanic corrosion. Con-
sequently, welds should have complete joint penetration 7.3 Insert Application. Consumable insert rings of the
with as smooth an inner surface as is practical. For this required chemical composition are inserted into the
reason, lap or socket type joints should be avoided where joint, as shown in Figure 3. The joint is then aligned and
a corrosive medium is encountered. tack welded. Care and caution must be taken when
tacking inserts in order to avoid prestressing the weld
7.2 Consumable Inserts. High quality root pass welds joint. Improperly placed tack welds may break, causing
can be made using a butt joint without backing and a discontinuities or joint distortion, or both. When the
root shielding gas. This is common in industries where preplaced insert is fused into the root opening with prop-
skilled welders are available. erly adjusted welding procedures, a high quality root
The use of solid backing rings is not encouraged. A bead can be obtained. The success of this procedure is
welded joint made with a backing ring results in the dependent upon welder proficiency with the gas tungsten
formation of two crevices. These crevices act as stress arc process and adequacy of interior gas purge. Com-
concentrators and are focal points for crevice corrosion. plete fusion of the insert pipe is obtained, and a con-
Tack welds, oxidized because of poor shielding, must trolled contour root reinforcement surface results. With
be removed in advance of welding or poor welds may experience, the welder is able to recognize when there is
result. Also, irregular deposition of manually applied complete fusion of the insert. When the molten pool
filler metal can result in corresponding weld irregulari- reaches proper height and width, as determined by the
ties which may be cause for weld rejection. type of insert used, the proper root reinforcement has
Preplaced consumable inserts have been used in an been formed. Speed of travel is adjusted accordingly.
effort to eliminate these difficulties. These inserts have Less skill may be required to weld joints with consuma-
proven to be of value in assuring complete joint penetra- ble inserts than to weld joints without either backing or
tion and uniformity and good contour of root reinforce- consumable inserts.
ment. Commonly used consumable insert configurations Consumable inserts also are preplaced filler metal and
are shown in Figure 2. The following descriptions use provide a means of modifying the chemical composition
generally accepted terminology. (For the standard AWS of the root bead as necessary for weld soundness or
consumable insert classification system, see the latest serviceability. The addition of filler metal is especially
edition of AWS A5.30.) useful with stainless steels, which require ferrite control
Figure 2(a) illustrates a shape "A" insert, formerly to produce sound, crack-free welds. Consumable inserts
called EB. provide more consistent control of composition and
Figure 2(b) shows a variation of shape "A", called "J", microstructure than other root pass methods where filler
which is designed to allow for a certain amount of joint metal is added manually during welding. In general,
misalignment. These inserts are normally provided in visible weld face irregularities on a root bead made with a
coil form, or as formed rings with an overlap or split consumable insert indicate irregularities on the inner
butted rings, to allow for variations in the pipe inside surface. This allows for visual inspection and repair of
diameter (I.D.). irregularities by remelting the area involved. However,
Figure 2(c) represents an insert shape derived from the this must be done with caution. Remelting any root
initial practice of rolling round welding wire into a rec- bead, and especially an insert root bead, may increase its
tangular shape. They are provided as coiled wire, pre- crack sensitivity. This is because wrought stainless steel
 15

Shape " A " (EB) Shape " J "

(a) (b)

Shape " K " Shape " G "

(c) (d)

Not to scale

Figure 2 — Standard Consumable Inserts

16

base metals are sometimes fully austenitic, depending on Metallurgical^ satisfactory welds are best obtained
the chromium-nickel balance. Remelting the root bead with insert rings of welding grade composition rather
must be performed in a manner which minimizes further than base metal composition. The information pre-
dilution by base metal. Added amounts of base metal in viously given regarding welding filler metal, in general,
the weld metal may result in a reduction of ferrite in the applies also to consumable inserts. Rings are available
weld metal. Any reduction in ferrite below the critical for most types of austenitic stainless steels, including 308,
levels discussed in section 4, Ferrite, will increase sensi- 308L, 309, 310, 316L, 317, and 347.
tivity to cracking. For some austenitic base metals, con-
sumable inserts provide better initial ferrite control and
permit more remelting of the root bead than most other 7.4 Inert Gas Purging. Elimination of an oxidizing
root pass welding methods. Ferrite control can also be interior atmosphere is a requirement when using the gas
assured when sufficient root opening is used to permit tungsten arc process for root bead welding of austenitic
the addition of sufficient filler metal to form adequate stainless steels. The purge gas protects the root surface of
ferrite. the weld and adjacent base metal surfaces from oxida-
Well-positioned inserts have an outside diameter flush tion during welding. Because of oxidation protection
with or above the root faces of the joint, depending upon and the related effect on surface tension and weld pool
configuration. Under a gas tungsten arc, the heat of characteristics, purge gas aids in obtaining complete
welding simultaneously melts both inner and outer insert fusion in the root bead and also good contour and
surfaces and fuses them into the joint root faces and surface uniformity. It also lessens the tendency for root
inside pipe surface. The root surface contour may be bead cracking.
controlled from convex, to flush, to concave, by adjust- One of the most common causes of poor root bead
ments in welding current or speed of travel. Pipe end quality is inadequate purging prior to the start of weld-
preparation and insert placement are as shown in Fig- ing. Anything less than substantial elimination of oxy-
ures 2 and 3. gen (1 percent or less) contributes to root bead defects

1/8 to 1/4
6.4)

3/32+ 1/32
(2.4 ± 0.8)
1/32 to 1/16
f~ (0.8 to 1.6)

1/16 (1.6)
Shape " K " or " G " *
Shape " A "
Dimensions are in inches (millimeters)

*Note: In type K or G, placing the consumable insert ring so that it protrudes into the bevel at the top of the pipe (top) and closer to the
pipe centerline at the bottom compensates for the sagging effects which occur in the weld pool.

Figure 3 — Typical Sections Showing Two Types of Consumable Inserts

 17

such as (a) surface oxidation, (b) incomplete joint pene- (3) The venting arrangement should be determined
tration, (c) irregular bead pattern, and (d) incomplete to be adequate to accommodate the flow rate of the
fusion of the insert where a consumable insert is used. purging gas.
Preliminary steps to a prepurging evacuation cycle are The approximate time for adequate purging of a pipe
as follows: run can be determined from Figure 4. Upon completion
(1) All weld joints of the assembly should be tape of the preweld purging period determined from Figure 4,
sealed. the following procedure should be established:
(2) The end of all branch connections should be (1) Vents in all branch connections should be closed,
vented to eliminate air entrapment. with venting through main header or pipe run only.

Pipe size, mm

92 25 51 76 102 129 152 203 254 305 355 405 457 508 559 61

/
20

/
a) 18 J
Q.
Q.
"o /

8
CO
c 14
CN

°O- 19
C 1Z
/

3
C
E /

c 10
/

0)
/

CD

§° 8
Q.

*_ 6
Q.

,
- — •

n 3 4 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

Pipe size, in.

Preweld purge time for 12 in. (300 mm) of pipe at a flow rate of 50 cu ft per hr (23.5 liters per minute)
To calculate the purge time for any length of pipe, multiply the value obtained from the chart by the length of pipe.
Example: Find time required for purging of 200 ft (60 meters) of 5 in. (127 mm) pipe. From chart, read one min per 12 in. (300 mm)
of pipe x 200 ft (60 meters) = 200 minutes or 3 hours 20 minutes.

Figure 4 — Preweld Purging of Oxidizing Atmosphere

18

(2) The gas venting orifice should have a flow capac- 8. Welding Techniques
ity equal to or greater than that of the input side for
assurance of a near zero interior purge gas pressure. (A The following recommendations apply to most arc
purge gas pressure buildup during welding will often welding processes, including shielded metal arc welding
cause root surface concavity.) and gas tungsten arc welding. For the latter process, the
During welding: smallest, lightest, and most flexible water-cooled torch
(1) Seal-tape should be left on all joints except the one obtainable should be used. The tungsten electrode (AWS
to be welded. A5.12, EWTH-2) should be 3/32 or 1/8 in. (2.4 or 3.2
(2) In joints without either backing or consumable mm) in diameter and should be tapered approximately
insert, the tape should be removed just in advance of 1/4 in. (6 mm) from the end to a point; then the point
should be slightly flattened on a grinding wheel. The flat
welding progression around thejoint. This is to minimize
face on the tungsten electrode approximates 0.020 in.
purge gas loss and atmospheric contamination through
(0.5 mm) for a 3/32 or 1/8 in. size electrode.
the root opening. Another procedure is to use a tape
which will burn off as welding proceeds. 8.1 Starting the Arc. Haphazard striking of the elec-
(3) Purge gas flow should be adjusted to maintain trode on the base metal to establish the arc should be
zero interior gage pressure, normally between 6 to avoided because it mars the surface of the pipe. These arc
10 ft 3 /h (3 to 5 liters per min). strikes have acted as focal points for cracking and corro-
The gas purge is to be maintained until at least two sion. The arc should be struck either in thejoint where
additional layers of weld metal have been made in each the metal surface will subsequently be fused into the weld
joint of the assembly. Purge blocks or soluble paper or on a starting tab. High-frequency starting may be
dams are frequently used on each side of the joint to employed for gas tungsten arc welding, especially when
localize the area under purge. high quality welds are required.
The gases used for weld root purging are generally A stainless steel starting block may be used. A carbon
argon and helium. It has been established that nitrogen steel block should not be used because of possible con-
may be used satisfactorily for purging purposes when tamination of the base metal. Starting aids are generally
welding stainless steel pipe. Where weld discoloration not necessary with thoriated tungsten electrodes.
due to slight surface oxidation is not objectionable, use Before striking an arc on a weld bead using the
of commercial or standard dry nitrogen is acceptable. It shielded metal arc process, the weld bead should be
should be recognized that nitrogen absorption can cleaned of any slag present by use of a chipping hammer
reduce the ferrite content of the root pass. and stainless steel wire brush. If the bead has a convex
7.5 Open Butt Welding. Experienced welders may be face, it is particularly important to remove particles of
able to achieve good results with an open root joint with slag from the hollows along the edges of the bead. For
a root opening of about 3/32 in. (2.4 mm) 1 and the best results, the arc should not be extinguished in the
manual addition of filler metal. In order to produce good weld crater. It is usually recommended that the arc crater
results with this technique, the filler metal must be added be filled in before the arc is removed. Equipment to
continuously and uniformly, rather than intermittently. gradually reduce the current (a "decay" switch or crater
This technique requires very careful selection and con- eliminator) may also be used to extinguish the arc.
trol of welding variables such as j oint geometry, welding 8.2 Welding Position and Electrode Handling. Weld-
current, filler rod size, and speed of travel. An open joint ing in the flat position is recommended where practical.
does not permit the maintenance of constant and uni- The flat position is preferred to the horizontal, vertical,
form purge pressure. Pressure-sensitive tape may be used or overhead positions because welding in this position is
on rotated welds where outside access to the joint inte- faster and easier.
rior allows for tape placement. Tape should be used with The attitude of a covered electrode in relation to the
caution due to possible carbon contamination. For more work will vary, depending upon such factors as the type
detailed information, refer to the latest edition of AWS of covering, the kind of joint, and the welding position,
D 10.11, Recommended Practices for Root Pass Weld- etc. Usually, the covered electrode is directed toward the
ing and Gas Purging. progress of welding (forehand), as is the practice in
welding carbon steel. However, the angle of inclination
may be more critical because stainless steel molten weld
1
However, as previously stated, root openings this size may be metal is less fluid, the volume of slag is greater, and it is
excessively reduced through the effects of weld shrinkage dur- important to maintain good arc shielding.
ing welding. A wider opening or inprocess grinding is then A short arc length is desirable. A long arc favors
required. oxidation of elements such as chromium, silicon, man-
 19

ganese, and columbium and can affect the corrosion 8.5 Welding Current. Recommended ranges of welding
resistance and mechanical properties of the weld metal. current are provided by electrode manufacturers. Gen-
Weaving of the electrode during welding should be erally, the current should be held as low as possible
carefully controlled. A slightly transverse oscillation, as within the recommended range but should be high
opposed to a string bead technique, is often helpful in enough to produce complete fusion and the required
avoiding entrapped slag along the groove and minimizes joint penetration. High welding current should be used
the number of beads needed to fill ajoint. However, if the with caution, since hot cracking may occur as a result of
weaving motion is excessive, the weld pool may not be alloy loss, excessive dilution, or poor weld bead shape.
adequately protected by the shielding medium at all Conventionally, welding current for the gas tungsten
times. The weave width usually should not exceed three arc process has been direct current electrode negative
times the electrode core wire diameter when welding with (DCEN). Pulsed current welding is a modification of this
covered electrodes. The maximum weave permissible in type of current, involving a power supply or attachment
gas tungsten arc welding is determined largely by the size for existing equipment which has an adjustable variation
and shape of the gas nozzle on the torch, the composition in arc current that is best described as a pulsing type arc
of the weld metal, and the geometry, position, and loca- action. This action results in a momentary reduction of
tion of the joint being welded. welding current and a corresponding cooling cycle in the
weld pool. This duplicates the manual welding practice
of moving the arc forward, then back, into the weld pool.
8.3 Weld Size and Contour. Tensile strength, fatigue
The first general use of this current pattern was for
strength, etc., are normal considerations when determin-
machine orbiting pipe welding units, where the pulsed
ing the size and shape of welds, but austenitic stainless
current allows for 360 degrees of travel around the
steel welds deserve further attention, particularly if they
pipe in one direction, either clockwise or counterclock-
are the fully austenitic, crack-sensitive type. Microcrack-
wise. Units with this output characteristic are available
ing, hot cracking, or both are promoted by increasing the
for manual welding applications. Where a consumable
width of the bead and by decreasing the bead thickness. insert is used, direction of welding may be established
When making a weld of crack-susceptible composition, a at any point on fixed position pipe, with travel main-
wide bead with a concave face will have a greater ten- tained in one direction to completion of the root
dency to produce longitudinal hot cracking in the center pass.
of the bead than a narrow or stringer bead with a flat or
convex face. 8.6 Extinguishing the Arc with SMAW. For reasons
Unnecessarily heavy weld face reinforcement or a previously mentioned in 8.1, the electrode should not be
sharp change in section thickness between weld and base drawn away from ajoint in a manner that will mar the
metals should be avoided because of the problems that base metal surface. Common practice is to extinguish the
arise from stress concentration at the toe of the weld. arc over the crater by increasing the arc length, but this
Since the strength of the weld metal often exceeds that of seemingly simple procedure has its shortcomings. If the
the base metal, the face reinforcement usually can be electrode is removed suddenly, the underfilled crater
held to a minimum. Overlap or undercut should not be may display crater cracking or a center segregation that
present. can affect corrosion resistance. If the electrode is with-
drawn slowly to fill the crater as much as possible with
8.4 Travel Speed. Travel speed is an important factor in metal, the last droplets may not receive adequate protec-
arc welding because of its influence on joint penetration. tion from oxidation and may not form a sound weld.
Covered stainless steel electrodes do not have the ability Crater cracking or crater segregation cannot be consist-
to penetrate into the base metal as do many types of ently melted out by the start of the subsequent bead.
carbon or low alloy steel electrodes, and difficulty is The following methods have been used to avoid diffi-
sometimes encountered in securing adequate penetra- culty at the weld crater or stopping point. The welding
tion in a stainless steel welded joint. The advantages of conditions involved in each application will determine
edge preparation in obtaining proper penetration have which of these suggested methods would be best applied:
been discussed in 7.1. Circumstances, however, may (1) The entire crater area of bead should be removed
require deeper joint penetration. An increase in welding by grinding or chipping.
current alone is not an efficient method for producing (2) The bead starts should be ground to provide a
deeper penetration. A more effective technique involves ramp, and the individual weld beads should be
an increase in travel speed with a commensurate increase backstepped.
in current so that the arc impinges on the base metal (3) A device in the welding current circuit should be
ahead of the weld pool. employed to allow the welder to gradually reduce the
20

current at the end of the bead to fill the crater as the arc content of most austenitic stainless steel base and filler
fades out. metals is held to a low level, but an undesirable increase
(4) The size of the crater should be diminished by in carbon can easily occur if a carbon-containing foreign
advancing rapidly ahead on the groove face, always material comes in contact with the heated metal around
holding a short arc. the weld or the weld pool. Possible sources of extraneous
Two types of weld metal most likely to display crater carbon are grease or oil on the base or filler metals,
cracking are (1) those which have a fully austenitic struc- markings made with a graphite pencil, fuel gas used for
ture, such as from Type 310, and (2) columbium-bearing root purging, and other oxyfuel gas flames.
types, such as from Type 347. Crater segregation of 8.7.4 Contamination by Sulfur. Care should be taken
sufficient degree to affect corrosion resistance is most to remove materials containing any form of sulfur, espe-
likely to be found in the weld metals containing colum- cially when the weldment is to be heat treated or exposed
bium, such as from Types 347 and 309Cb. to high-temperature service. Sulfur can contaminate the
surface and seriously affect the corrosion and scaling
8.7 Cleaning and Finishing. When welding stainless resistance. For example, ordinary hand soap containing
steel piping and tubing, it is very important to maintain a sulfonated detergent is sometimes used to make a
cleanliness on and around all the materials and equip- solution for pressure (bubble) testing of welded pipe
ment used and to apply proper procedures for cleaning joints. In a case on record, this soap solution was permit-
and finishing the completed weld. Acid cleaning may be ted to dry and remain on a piping system fabricated for
employed (see 9.2.2), as well as mechanical means. Stain- high-temperature service. A disastrous failure occurred
less steel wool or brushes should always be employed for from localized scaling on the contaminated joints.
this purpose. The deleterious effect of a carbonaceous 8.7.5 Contamination by Carbon Steel. The presence
contaminant has been well publicized, but experience of small particles of carbon steel on the surface of stain-
has shown that other contaminating elements, such as less steel is objectionable because of the superficial rust-
copper, iron, sulfur, zinc, and lead, can also cause much ing that quickly takes place on the contaminant. If not
difficulty. removed, the rust particles can nucleate corrosive attack.
8.7.1 Welding Flux and Slag. The need for removing This form of contamination can be from forming tools
slag between passes is well known and has been pre- and dies, carbon steel wire cleaning brushes, the metal
viously emphasized. It is also good practice to remove all powder used in oxygen cutting, and grinding wheels or
flux and slag from the completed weldment to help sandblasting sand used previously on carbon steels.
prevent concentration cell corrosion (see 9.2.4). The 8.7.6 Contamination by Chlorides and Fluorides.
mineral fluxes employed in welding stainless steels often Probably the worst contaminants are chlorides and fluo-
contain flourides and other compounds that, if left on rides. They can cause aggressive pitting of stainless steels,
the weld, can attack the surface of the stainless steel when and the chlorides can cause stress corrosion cracking.
high temperatures are encountered. Such attack could For these reasons, care should be exercised to remove
conceivably occur during annealing or in high-tempera- chlorides and fluorides.
ture service. No backing material or flux containing 8.7.7 Other Contaminants. Other harmful elements
boron should be used, because this element diffuses into that have been encountered are copper and zinc. When
the heated austenitic stainless steel and causes embrittle- copper is melted by a welding arc, the molten copper can
ment and cracking. penetrate the heated base and weld metals and may cause
It should be noted that some slag will be formed on the intergranular cracking. When the surface of an austenitic
root surface of the bead of shielded metal arc welded root stainless steel is contaminated with zinc and heated,
passes. Whenever slag can cause some of the problems cracking will almost invariably result. Other contami-
mentioned above, only inert gas welding processes nants that should be removed are liquid penetrants used
should be employed for root passes if the root surface of for inspection purposes.
the weld can not be cleaned and inspected.
8.7.2 Discoloration and Scale. Heating discolorations 8.8 Repair. In general, any repair welding on an unsatis-
can sometimes affect the corrosion resistance of stainless factory joint calls for removal of the defective area by a
steels. Good finishing practice requires complete remo- suitable method. Attempts to remove porosity, cracking,
val of surface oxidation from welds by a suitable method or other forms of unsoundness by remelting or to cover
to allow the development of a uniform passive surface. these defects by welding over them are seldom satisfac-
8.7.3 Carbonaceous Contaminants. Stainless steels, tory. Machining, grinding, and chipping are the more
when heated, quickly absorb carbon because of the dependable methods of metal removal. Chemical flux
strong affinity of chromium for this element. The carbon cutting, metal powder cutting, or air carbon arc cutting
 21

may be used, provided consideration is given to the 9.1 Cracking. Cracking is occasionally encountered in
nature of the defect. When employing the air carbon arc welding austenitic chromium-nickel stainless steel pip-
gouging process, consideration must be given to the ing and tubing. Such cracking occurs more frequently as
molten metal generated during the operation. This fused the diameter and wall thickness of the pipe increase.
metal is ordinarily blown out of the joint. However, any Cracks can appear in the weld metal or in the base metal
that remains on the gouged surface must be removed. It adjacent to the weld. This cracking is related to the
is necessary to remove all oxides from the surface and chemical and metallurgical characteristics of the weld
obtain shiny metal by machining or grinding. Removing metal and the base metal. For instance, when hot crack-
a few thousands of an inch of base metal will assure ing occurs, it takes place as the weld metal solidifies and
freedom from retained carburized steel. A few specifica- the weld is in a weak condition. Cracking of the base
tions for extra critical applications have mandated up to metal may occur due to propagation of the hot cracks
1 / 8 in. (3.2 mm) of metal removal by mechanical means. formed during welding. The following are suggested to
Common practice is to remove 1/16 in. (1.6 mm). help avoid cracking:
Rewelding can be done using the parameters given in (1) Welders should be well trained and qualified.
Tables 8, 9, and 10. These parameters will vary for Poor workmanship alone can cause cracking.
different conditions and individuals but, in general, will (2) The intended welding procedure should be care-
produce a high quality welded joint. fully qualified. A composition of filler metal that will
eliminate cracking and at the same time satisfy service
conditions should be selected (see Table 6 for recom-
mended electrodes and welding rods).
9. Problems Related to Welded Joints (3) The volume of a weld metal should be kept to a
Millions of welded joints in austenitic chromium- minimum. Choose a joint preparation with as small a
nickel stainless steel piping assemblies have been fabri- root opening as possible, commensurate with complete
cated successfully and have performed well in the joint penetration.
intended service. However, several problems are some- (4) Any external restraint on the pipe during welding
times encountered during fabrication and in service. should be avoided or minimized.
These are cracking, corrosion, and embrittlement at ele- (5) Where possible, the use of filler metals (such as
vated temperatures. Type 347) that are prone to cracking should be avoided.

Table 8
Procedure for Welding Open Root with GTAW Argon Shielding and Purge DCEN
Welding Current Speed Electrode Filler Metal Root Root3
amps Volts ipm Diameter Diameter Opening Face

5 G Position
Root pass 55-70 7-10 1.8-2.5 3/32 in. 3/32 in. 3/32-1/8 in. 1/32-3/32 in.
(2.4 mm) (2.4 mm) (2.4-3.2 mm) (0.8-2.4 mm)
2nd layer 60-85 7-10 2-3 3/32 in. 3/32 in.
(2.4 mm) (2.4 mm)
3rd layer 80-110 8-12 2-1/2-3-1/3 3/32-1/8 in. 3/32-1/8 in.
to finish (2.4-3.2 mm) (2.4-3.2 mm)

2 G Position
Root pass 50-65 7-10 2-3 3/32 in. 3/32 in. 3/32-1/8 in. 1/32-3/32 in.
(2.4 mm) (2.4 mm) (2.4-3.2 mm) (0.8-2.4 mm)
2nd layer 55-80 7-10 2-3-1/2 3/32 in. 3/32-1/8 in.
(2.4 mm) (2.4-3.2 mm)
3rd layer 70-110 7-12 2-4 3/32-1/8 in. 3/32-1/8 in.
to finish (2.4-3.2 mm) (2.4-3.2 mm)
a. Heat input (volts, amps and welding speed) should be lower for smaller root faces and higher for larger root faces.
22

Table 9
Procedure for Welding Consumable Insert
with GTAW Argon Shielding and Purge DCEN
Welding Current Speed Electrode Filler Metal
amps Volts ipm Diameter Diameter Joint Design

5 G Position

Root pass 60-80 7-10 1.5-2.5 3/32 in. none '

(2.4 mm)
Follow insert
2nd layer 60-85 7-10 1.8-2.5 3/32 in. 3/32 in.
manufacturer's
(2.4 mm) (2.4 mm) recommendation
3rd layer 80-110 8-12 2.5-3.5 3/32-1/8 in. 3/32-1/8 in.
to finish (2.4-3.2 mm) (2.4-3.2 mm)

2G Position

Root pass 55-75 7-10 2-3 3/32 in. none

(2.4 mm)

2nd layer 60-80 7-10 2-3.5 3/32 in. 3/32 in.

(2.4 mm) (2.4 mm)

3rd layer 70-110 8-12 2-4 3/32 in. 3/32-1/8 in.

to finish (2.4 mm) (2.4-3.2 mm)

Notes:
1. General welding parameters are listed. The mass of the insert must be considered when determining heat input. For G and K
shaped inserts, the lower end of the range should be used; for half Y and Y inserts the middle of the range and for EB inserts, the
upper part of the range.
2. For all cases, maintain low heat input (consistent with good fusion) for both the root and second layer to prevent excessive
melt-through.
3. The SMAW process may be used after the second layer when the wall thickness is over 3/8 in. (9.5 mm).

Table 10
Procedure for Welding Open Root
with GMAW Gas Shielding and Purge
Weld Diameter Arc Arc Shielding* Argon
Pass Electrode Current Voltage Gas Purge

1 0.035-0.045 in. 110-140 10-20 20-35 CFH 5 CFH

(0.8-1.2 mm)
2 0.035-0.045 in. 120-160 12-24 20-35 CFH 5 CFH
(0.8-1.2 mm)

3 0.035-0.045 in. 140-180 12-24 20-35 CFH

(0.8-1.2 mm)
4 to last 0.035-0.045 in. 140-200 12-24 20-35 CFH
(0.8-1.2 mm)

•Shielding gas: 90% He, 7-1/2% A,2-1/2%CO2

Notes:
1. Root pass downwards, fill passes upwards.
2. Joint design—75 degree included angle; 0-1 /16 in. (0-1.6 mm) root face and 3/32-5/32 in.
(2.4-3.9 mm) root opening.
 23

(6) The use of a fully austenitic weld metal should be The proper postweld heat treatment is to heat to the
avoided because this type of structure is also prone to hot 1900 to 2050°F (1040 to 1120°C) range and quench.
cracking (see 4.1). This is called solution heat treatment, because the chro-
(7) A filler metal and welding procedure that will mium carbides are redissolved or put into solution. This
produce a weld metal having a ferrite number of 4 or treatment is impractical for large pipe and tubing sys-
higher should be used (see 4.2). tems; therefore, selection of an extra low carbon stainless
steel or a stabilized type of stainless steel pipe is advisable
9.2 Corrosion where service conditions may cause intergranular attack
9.2.1 Intergranular Corrosion. One cause of failure (see 2.3).
by corrosion in austenitic stainless steels is carbide pre- 9.2.2 Acid Cleaning Precautions. Occasionally, acid
cipitation. When unstabilized or high carbon stainless cleaning of welded stainless steel piping systems after
steels are held in the sensitizing range between 800 and welding is required. (Refer to ASTM A380, Sections 5
1500°F (425 and 815°C), as occurs during welding, and 6, for specific details.) Such acid cleaning is usually
chromium carbides are precipitated in the grain bound- carried out with a solution containing 15 percent nitric
aries, leaving adjacent areas deficient in chromium. acid. For highly oxidized surfaces, a solution of 15 per-
These grain boundaries are subject to accelerated attack
cent nitric acid and 1/2 to 1-1/2 percent hydroflouric
by specific solutions. However, it must be emphasized
acid may be employed. Because this cleaning involves the
that there are many solutions that will not cause acceler-
use of acids, the precautions in 9.2.1 should be followed.
ated attack even though chromium carbides have been
precipitated. If there is any possibility of such effects, 9.2.3 Stress Corrosion Cracking. The presence of
corrosion tests should be made on welded specimens in certain corrosives, such as chlorides or flourides, in a
the proposed environment before the welding process process solution or vapor coupled with tensile stress may
and heat treatment are selected. cause stress corrosion cracking in stainless steel pipe
Intergranular attack generally occurs parallel to the welds. The presence of corrosives may be controlled in
weld, a short distance away, in the base metal. It is some cases. However, tensile stress is difficult to control,
located where the heat from welding is at the most since even minor residual stresses may be sufficient to
damaging temperature for the longest time (i.e., when cause cracking. It is recommended, in doubtful cases,
the time at temperature is long enough to precipitate that stressed specimens containing welds be tested in
chromium carbides). The weld metal in a single bead is process streams to evaluate the performance of the
not generally susceptible to intergranular attack because selected material.
the cooling rate from the welding temperature through Stress corrosion cracking is generally transgranular
the carbide precipitation range is rapid enough to pre- and is always associated with tensile stress. This type of
vent chromium carbide formation. However, one weld corrosion is manifested by fine many-forked cracks.
bead can sensitize a bead under it in intersecting Such cracks may be longitudinal or transverse to the pipe
multiple-pass welds. Also, starting a new weld bead will or components, depending on the stress level and
sensitize an adjacent zone in the previous bead. direction.
Intergranular carbides precipitate in a more or less 9.2.4 Concentration Cell Corrosion. Welding tech-
complete network when the Cr-Ni or Cr-Ni-Mo steels nique and joint design may directly affect the life of the
with a carbon content of about 0.03 percent or more are weld. Where complete joint penetration has not been
heated to within the sensitizing temperature range. The obtained or where there is excessive root reinforcement,
network will be more complete with higher carbon con- crevices and protrusions are formed where foreign mate-
tents and when the material remains in the sensitizing rial can collect. Undercut and other surface discontinui-
temperature range for a longer period of time. The rate ties, such as backing rings, may also cause foreign mate-
of precipitation also varies over the range of sensitizing rial to collect. Since the metal under the foreign material
temperature. It is very low over the 800 to 900 ° F (425 to is partially shielded from the process stream, a difference
480 °C) end of the range and most rapid at approxi- in concentration of process solution or oxygen content
mately 1200°F (650° C). Consequently, when stainless may result. Such differences in concentration can cause
steels containing more than 0.03 percent carbon are anodic and cathodic areas to be formed, with subsequent
welded (or where extra low carbon stainless steel has corrosion attack.
absorbed extraneous carbon from the surroundings), Craters formed at the completion of welds may also
any zones of metal which enter the temperature range of cause such accelerated corrosion. In severe cases (some-
800 to 1500 ° F (425 to 815 ° C) may become sensitized. In times associated with steam coils), penetration through
this condition, they will be susceptible to intergranular the pipe wall may be rapid. Such craters are conducive to
corrosion in some environments. concentration cell attack when they become filled with
24

foreign matter. Such corrosions may be eliminated by Commercial practice generally limits the amount of as-
using suitable crater-eliminating welding techniques. welded ferrite to 4-8 FN for high-temperature appli-
cations.
9.3 Sigma Phase Formation — High-Temperature Ser-
Some types of stainless steels (such as Type 310) are
vice. In general, the austenitic stainless steels are com-
fully austenitic and are frequently employed in high-
paratively free from embrittlement effects that may
temperature piping. Sound welds can be made with filler
occur in ferritic materials. This is probably due to the
metals of proper chemical composition that produce fully
inherent toughness of the face-centered cubic lattice
austenitic weld metal. However, greater care is advisable
structure of these steels. The very high ductility and
in the preparation and evaluation of the welding proce-
shock resistance of the austenitic steels in their optimum
dure for such fully austenitic weld metals than with the
condition is such that, even if these properties are appre-
18-8 types producing weld metal containing ferrite.
ciably reduced, they may still fall within ranges consi-
Sigma may be removed by high-temperature heat
dered satisfactory for most services. Austenitic stainless
treatment. However, subsequent exposure to the sigma
steel pipe has had considerable use in services where
formation temperature range will cause it to re-form.
process temperatures are above 1000°F (540°C). In
most cases, service life has been long, and no failures 9.4 Cryogenic Service. Austenitic stainless steel piping
have resulted. However, there have been instances where is often specified for cryogenic service because it usually
failures have occurred. When the austenitic stainless retains strength and ductility at low temperatures. How-
steels are held in the temperature range from about 1000 ever, there have been cases of reduced energy absorption.
to 1700°F (540 to 925 °C), an intermetallic compound The following precautions will help to minimize this
called sigmaphase may form. The distribution, particle condition.
size, and amount of sigma phase will vary with alloy (1) A qualified procedure that has been tested both by
content, time, temperature, and stress level. The presence destructive methods (root bend, face bend, side bend,
of certain ferrite-forming elements promotes the forma- Charpy impact, compact tensile and tension tests) and by
tion of sigma phase (see 4.2). Although it usually requires nondestructive methods (radiography or ultrasonic)
appreciable time at high temperatures to form this phase, should be required. Also each heat or lot of welding
there has been some evidence of the presence of sigma consumables scheduled for service below -200 ° F
phase after relatively short times at elevated tempera- (-129°C) should be tested for impact strength or frac-
tures. Another brittle phase known as chi is found in ture toughness, or both.
molybdenum-bearing austenitic stainless steels after (2) A slag-free welding process for the root pass
short periods of time at elevated temperature. This phase should be used.
has properties similar to sigma phase. (3) Nondestructive examination of at least some per-
Sigma phase causes lowered ductility and notched bar centage of production welds should be required.
impact properties in austenitic stainless steels. In ex- (4) Complete fusion welds should be required.
treme cases, room temperature Charpy impact values as (5) The weld face should be smooth, without exces-
low as 5 ft-lb (6.8 joules) may result after 1000 or more sive reinforcement.
hours of exposure in the range of 1300 to 1400 ° F (705 to (6) The weld root surface should be without unfused
760 °C). consumable inserts or excessive root reinforcement. Any
The quantity and distribution of sigma is a function of concavity should be shallow and have smooth edges.
time at temperature, the actual temperature, and the (7) Minimal heat input should be required.
amount of ferrite initially present. Sigma may also form (8) Porosity and other discontinuities should be
from austenite at these temperatures, but it will form limited.
more slowly and to a much lesser degree. Although the (9) No arc strikes outside the weld groove faces
detrimental effects of sigma on room temperature should be permitted.
mechanical properties have been pointed out in the liter- (10) No sharp indentations from hammer blows or
ature, it should be recognized that many welded joints other hard instruments should be permitted.
are performing satisfactorily in service, even though they (11) Separate welder identification straps on alljoints
probably contain significant amounts of sigma. These should be required.
weldments should be handled carefully when they are at (12) Lower FN Numbers may be required.
room temperature because of the lowered ductility.
Although it is desirable to balance a weld metal com- 10. Inspection Methods
position to avoid excessive sigma formation in service, a Because of the need for good inspection, this section
small amount of ferrite is considered essential in 18-8 briefly describes several inspection methods that have
types of weld metals to avoid cracking during welding. proven satisfactory for stainless steel pipe welds.
 25

10.1 Visual Inspection. Visual inspection is of greatest ture of the metal are indicated on a cathode ray tube for
importance and is the most versatile method of inspec- comparison and interpretation. Since sound reflection in
tion available. However, the inspection is only as good as stainless steel is complex, the use of the equipment
the experience, knowledge, and judgment of the inspec- requires a special skill and experience. It is usually not
tor. The AWS text, Welding Inspection, is suggested as practical to ultrasonically inspect welds involving stain-
an adequate guide for visual inspection. less steel castings because of their large grain structures.
10.2 Hydrostatic Testing. A test with water under static 10.6 Inspection with Magnetic Instruments. Checking
pressure will generally reveal only fully penetrating austenitic Cr-Ni stainless steels with a magnet is a quick
defects which were overlooked during visual inspection. and easy way to determine obvious errors in the selection
A water pressure test is usually made at one and one-half of pipe components or weld metal, since any inadvert-
times the operating pressure, or just below the yield ently used carbon, ferritic, or martensitic steels will be
strength of the weakest elements. With the weld under strongly ferromagnetic. It must be appreciated that the
stress, near-penetrating and microthin defects may en- austenitic grades are not always completely nonmag-
large sufficiently to seep water. Temperature of the water netic. This is often the case with as-welded weld metal
should be above that of the ambient air to avoid conden- where the microstructure most desirably contains a small
sation on the pipe which may interfere with the detection amount of ferrite. The presence of small amounts of the
of seeping water. Particular care should be taken to ferrite constituent in base or weld metals can be detected
avoid entrapment of air when testing. Test pressures for by use of a magnetized needle suspended from a thread.
pipe are provided in applicable codes and specifications. This simple instrument is more sensitive than the ordi-
Water high in chlorides, such as sea water, should never nary horseshoe magnet. Magnetic and electronic mea-
be employed as the test water. A good rule is to employ suring instruments, as discussed under 4.3, are also avail-
only potable water. able. Cold-worked austenitic stainless steels are magnetic
to a degree proportional to the amount of cold-work.
10.3 Liquid Penetrant Methods. Several methods of
surface testing of welds are in use. Essentially, all utilize a 10.7 Acoustic Emission Testing Methods (AET). These
suitable penetrating liquid and a developer to expose methods consist of the detection of acoustical signals
surface discontinuities by contrasting color. A few produced by plastic deformation or crack initiation or
methods use a fluorescent penetrant in the solution propagation during loading. Transducers, strategically
which is readily visible under ultraviolet light. The liquid placed on a structure, are activated by the acoustic sig-
penetrant test methods are particularly adaptable to nals. Acoustic emission testing has been applied during
rapid inspection needs. A smooth, clean surface is prefer- proof testing, during recurrent inspections, during ser-
able; however, defects can be distinguished from surface vice, and during fabrication. This technique is consi-
roughness by experienced personnel. Since chloride can dered to be in its early stages of use by industry. More
pit or cause cracking of stainless steel, chloride-free extensive application is to be anticipated in the future.
cleaners and penetrants should be employed. 10.8 Chemical Spot Testing. Spot tests with chemical
10.4 Radiography. Radiographic examination is a non- reagents are used to ascertain the presence of essential
destructive inspection method which is frequently used elements, such as nickel or molybdenum, in pipe weld
to determine surface as well as internal weld defects, such metal. Nearly all elements can be spot tested, some with
as slag and tungsten inclusions, porosity, cracks, incom- more difficulty than others; however, the tests for nickel
plete fusion, and incomplete joint penetration. The and molybdenum are relatively simple.
acceptance criteria for such defects are covered by estab- 10.9 Halogen Leak Testing Methods. Basically, these
lished radiographic standards. Experience, knowledge, methods involve the detection of a leak in pipe contain-
and good judgment are essential in the proper interpreta- ing a gaseous halide under pressure. Two methods can be
tion of radiographs. Rules, procedures, and standards used. One employs a probe with an element sensitive to
are available from several sources, such as the AWS gaseous halides, to provide a meter reading which is a
publications, Welding Inspection and Welding Hand- ratio of detectable gas to that in the atmosphere. The
book, ASTM Standards, and ASME Boiler and Pres- other method utilizes the change in color of an acetylene
sure Vessel Code, Sections I, III, V, and VIII. flame. Very small, fully penetrating defects can be
detected by these means.
10.5 Ultrasonic Methods. These methods utilize equip-
ment capable of propagating an electronically-timed 10.10 Mass Spectrometer Testing Method. This method
ultrasonic beam through the material under inspection. employs an electronic instrument using helium as a
The signals reflected from the surfaces and interior struc- tracer gas and is capable of detecting very minute leaks.
26

Several procedures are available when using the mass tions and employer's safety practices should be man-
spectrometer, including the helium blanket, the helium datory.
probe, and the instrument probe techniques. Considera-
11.4 Fire Prevention. A high-temperature heat source
ble technical knowlege is required for procedure prepa-
is always present in arc and oxyfuel welding processes.
ration, but actual operation may be performed by shop
Sparks can travel horizontally up to 35 ft (10.7 mm) and
personnel after a short training period. This method is
fall much greater distances. They can pass through or
generally used only on very critical pipe work.
lodge in cracks or holes in floors and walls. Combusti-
bles should always be removed from the work area or
11. Safety and Health shielded from the welding operation.
Use of the welding processes and consumables des- 11.5 Explosion. Flammable gases, vapors, and dust
cribed in this document is safe, provided proper proce- can form explosive mixtures with air or oxygen. Welding
dures are followed and precautions taken. If these should never be done in an atmosphere where such
procedures and precautions are followed, welding can be materials could possibly be present.
done safely with minimal health risk.
11.6 Burns. Burns of the eye and body are serious
11.1 Fumes and Gases. Fumes and gases can be dan- hazards in arc and oxyfuel welding. Recommended eye
gerous to health. The welder's head should be kept out of protection, welding helmets, and appropriate protective
the fumes. Use of enough ventilation, exhaust at the clothing should always be worn.
work, or both, to keep fumes and gases from the breath-
ing zone and the general area is very important. 11.7 Further Information. It should be recognized that
the above paragraphs give only a very brief coverage of
11.2 Radiation. Arc rays can injure eyes. Infrared (heat)
the subject of safety in welding. Detailed coverage is
radiation can cause burns. Ultraviolet radiation can
available in the publications listed in Appendix C. The
cause skin injury similar to sunburn.
primary source is ANSI Z49.1, Safety in Welding and
11.3 Electric shock. Electric shock can kill. Contact Cutting, available from the American Welding Society,
with live electrical components should be strictly avoided. 550 NW LeJeune Road, P.O. Box 351040, Miami,
Reading and understanding the manufacturer's instruc- Florida 33135.
 27

Appendix A
Welding High Carbon Stainless Steels
(This Appendix is not part of D 10.4-86, Recommended Practices for Welding Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Stainless
Steel Piping and Tubing, but is included for information purposes only.)

Al. Introduction strength at elevated temperatures, they present several

serious welding problems as outlined below:
HK-40 and similar high carbon stainless steel castings (1) Original as-cast and the reconditioned material
are used by the petroleum and chemical industries for has low ductility. The typical elongation of 10 percent is
high temperature applications such as primary re- much lower than the 25 percent values usually found in
formers and steam crackers. Typical service tempera- wrought steels.
tures range from 1400-2000°F (760-1100°C). While (2) Short time exposure to 1200-1850 °F (650-1000 °C)
these materials are specifically designed to withstand during welding and service conditions further reduces
creep and other metallurgical requirements associated the ductility; the average elongation decreases to about
with such service, they are also among the most difficult three percent and values as low as one and one-half
to weld and to repair under both shop and field percent have been observed.
conditions. (3) Exposure to certain process gases at elevated
This Appendix discusses the welding of cast HK-40 temperature may carburize the steel, making it unsuita-
components which have never been in service. It also ble for welding.
discusses the repair welding and the modification of such (4) The radiographic acceptance standards for cast-
cast components under field conditions. No attempt has ings are much lower than those for wrought materials.
been made to describe the automatic and machine weld- Even the highest quality, commercially available castings
ing processes used successfully by foundries and by fur- contain flaws beyond the standard acceptance limit for
nace tube and header fabricators. weldments. These cause porosity, and a form of cracking
known as internal shrinkage, and occur most frequently
in static castings. In most cases, it is possible to compen-
A2. Some Factors Governing Casting sate for the limitations of these alloys through thorough
planning, welder training, supervision, and inspection to
Material Use produce serviceable joints.
A2.1 Alloy Availability. To withstand high tempera- A2.3 Thermal Effects. When high carbon austenitic
ture service requirements up to 2000°F (1100°C), a stainless steel alloys are exposed to temperatures in the
number of high carbon austenitic stainless steel casting range of 1200-1850°F (650-1000°C), secondary car-
materials are available for furnace tubes and outlet bides will form in a very short time. While these second-
headers. While there are more than a dozen high temper- ary carbides improve high temperature creep strength,
ature casting materials listed under ASTM Specifica- they also reduce elongation and ductility. The high
tions, such as A297 and A351, the following specific temperature exposure can reduce the ten percent min-
alloys are frequently used: imum elongation specified for new HK-40 castings to
(1) HK-40 and CK-40 (0.4% C, 25% Cr, 20% Ni) values as low as one and one-half percent. Such poor
(2) HT-35 (0.35% C, 20% Cr, 35% Ni) ductility decreases and, at times, destroys weldability.
(3) HU-40 (0.4% C, 18% Cr, 37% Ni) Even conventional preheating practices will not over-
(4) HN-40 (0.4% C, 20% Cr, 25% Ni) come this condition, since the low ductility is retained up
(5) HP-40 (0.4% C, 25% Cr, 35% Ni) to temperatures of about 1100°F (600°C).
Solidification and cooling of any weld creates high
A2.2 Welding Problems. Centrifugal castings are most stresses in the weld metal and in the adjacent base metal.
commonly used for tubular components and are availa- When welding wrought steels with typical elongations
ble for some pipe fittings; static castings are employed for exceeding 20 percent, adequate ductility is available to
most fittings and for internal furnace support structures yield or plasticly deform under shrinkage stresses. Even
such as tube sheets. While these cast alloys retain impor- new HK-40 and similar castings with 10 percent min-
tant metallurgical properties, including high creep imum elongation provide sufficient ductility for carefully
28

planned, low restraint joints such as pipe groove joints for all welding. Since castings have rough outside sur-
with 75 degree included bevel angles. However, any faces (also referred to as areas of unsoundness), removal
further reduction in ductility increases the probability of of the unsound areas is essential prior to welding. This
cracking during fabrication and necessitates special can be achieved by machining the ID and OD for about
procedures. If the ductility is very low, crack-free weld- 1 / 2 in. (12 mm) away from the groove face and providing
ing is considered impossible. a gradual taper, as shown in Figure Al. (For bored
tubes, no additional ID machining is required).
A2.4 Postweld Heat Treatment (PWHT). PWHT is
not required for any HK-40 welding. The material is not
air-hardenable and thus does not have to be softened by -Unsound
any heat treating operation. 1/2 in. (12.7 mm)
Since exposure of HK-40 above 1200°F (650°C) and
below 1850°F (1000°C) for even a short time forms
Tube wall
secondary carbides, any PWHT within that range will
have the same effect. Unless a full solution annealing
operation is employed, the subsequent embrittlement
can cause failure during handling and during installation.
PWHT is an important problem when attaching air-
hardenable steels to HK-40 type materials, such as a -Unsound 1/2 in. (12.7 mm)
Cr-Mo steel flange to a catalyst tube. For such applica-
tions, the following procedure has been employed:
(1) The groove and root faces should be buttered with Figure Al — Procedure for Removal of
a non-air hardening material such as Inconel. "Unsound" Areas During Joint Penetration
(2) The buttered part should be PWHT, selecting the for New KH-40 Type Case Component
best temperature for base metal.
(3) The buttered flange weld preparation should be
This preparation will permit visual surface inspection
machined.
with and without optical magnification and with dye
(4) The buttered flange should be joined to the tube
penetrants (PT). Whenever subsurface defects are sus-
using Inconel electrodes.
pected, radiography (RT) should be used for further
(5) There should be no PWHT.
evaluation. Ultrasonics is usually not effective due to the
A2.5 Fabrication of New HK-40 Casting Components. large grains found in austenitic castings.
The fabrication of new components made with HK-40 When probing for defects in centrifugally cast mate-
alloy involves techniques which are different from those rials, the concentration of defects usually decreases near
used for the repair of used HK-40 castings. The differen- the center of the material wall thickness. However, for
ces are due mainly to the embrittlement which occurs in statically cast components, most inclusions and shrink-
service — and this is a primary reason for considering the age defects are in the center of the heaviest sections. The
welding of aged (i.e., used in previous service) castings location and type of defect depends upon the casting
separately. method used for each component.
It is best to retain maximum ductility during the fab- Any concentration of shrinkage defects may reduce or
rication of new components. To accomplish this, the destroy weldability in those regions. Thus, when order-
castings should be kept as cool as possible during all ing static castings, it is essential to indicate the areas in
fabrication phases. The use of thermal cutting tools, such which welding will be subsequently carried out (e.g.,
as powder oxyfuel gas torches, should be avoided, and guide pins on return bends). By appropriate design and
the metal surfaces should not be overheated during foundry practice, poor weldability can be eliminated.
grinding or rotary filing. However, this requires effective communication between
Similar considerations apply to machining of these the welding shop and the foundry.
castings. Water, air, or coolants can be employed to limit
A2.7 Welding Processes Selection. While a fabricator
heat input and temperature increase. Air carbon arc
may employ automatic and machine welding processes
cutting can be employed, provided all heat-affected base
to assemble furnace components, only two types of weld-
metal is subsequently removed by grinding, rotary filing,
ing equipment are all that would essentially be required
or machining.
for the work at the site and in the maintenance shops:
A2.6 Joint Preparation and Initial Inspection. Proper (1) Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)—motor
preparation and inspection of the joint area is important generator or rectifier.
 29

(2) Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) — rectifier with gases) is not recommended because of the lower resist-
high frequency starting, current decay controls and pure ance of the high nickel alloy to sulfur attack. However,
argon or argon plus five percent helium gas. The GTAW for welding of headers and other components not
process should be used with filler metal and should be exposed to furnace gases, high nickel electrodes may be
used for all root passes of butt and socket joints. acceptable.
Best results can be achieved by purging the inside of All stainless steel and nickel alloy covered electrodes
pipe with argon, employing a small root opening and used for this application are of the low hydrogen type
adding filler metal. Whenever an oxide free pipe ID is and are susceptible to moisture absorption. After open-
desired, the purge should be maintained until 3/8 in. (10 ing the containers, the electrodes should be stored at
mm) thick layer of weld metal has been made. The temperatures ranging from 250°-350°F (120-175°C).
amount of argon required for purging can be reduced by If moisture absorption or improper storage is suspected,
constructing internal baffles from paper or similar mate- the electrodes should be baked at 600° F (315 ° C) for 1 h
rial that disintegrates during hydrostatic testing or sub- or 500°F (260 °C) for 2 h prior to hot box storage.
sequent operations. At other times, it may be advisable (Caution: Electrodes should be removed from plastic
to employ a special baffle assembly such as the one container prior to heating.) The bare filler materials for
shown in Figure A2. GTAW should be stored in a clean environment, prefer-
ably in original containers or plastic bags.
A2.9 Welding Procedure Consideration. In view of the
problems associated with high carbon austenitic cast-
ings, it is advisable to follow the planning and welding
requirements noted below.
\
(1) For static castings, areas where weldability is
required should be specified.
^Rubber (2) Joints should be designed to minimize stresses.
Flexible- 18-24 in. hose (3) The filler metal that best matches the properties of
rubber (457.2-609.6 mm)
the base metal should be selected (i.e., E310HC-40 for
HK-40). Factors to be considered include:
Figure A2 — Purging Baffle Assembly (a) High temperature creep strength
(b) Alloy content
For the second pass, either SMAW or GTAW may be
(c) Corrosion resistance
selected. Subsequent passes for all welds on cast mate-
(d) Coefficient of expansion
rials should be performed with the SMAW process, since
(e) Ductility
this process minimizes heat input and increases produc-
(4) The welding procedure minimizing heat input and
tivity.
residual stresses should be employed; this can be aided
For shop fabrication, semiautomatic or automatic
by the following:
welding processes can be employed. Typically, these
(a) Small diameter electrodes, 1/8 in. (3.2 mm)
include autogenous GTAW for root passes of tubular
maximum, for shielded metal arc welding
butt joints and GMAW for subsequent passes, fillet
(b) Low welding currents
welds, and repair activities.
(c) High travel speed
A2.8 Filler Metal Selection. All new HK-40 furnace (d) Narrow stringer beads
components which will be exposed to flue gases that may (e) Low interpass temperature at 350 °F (175°C)
contain sulfur should be welded with high carbon (about max. for joints and 250°F max. (120°C) for repairs
0.4%) 25% Cr, 20% Ni filler metal. These E310HC-40 (f) Multi-bead techniques with final bead near cen-
electrodes are available as a special item from several ter of each layer
suppliers. Covered electrodes for SMAW may be shelf (5) Restraint should be minimized where locating jigs
items, but quick delivery in bare filler material for are employed, ensuring that one side is free to move by a
GTAW may not be possible. In some cases, E310 with sufficient amount to accommodate shrinkage stresses.
standard carbon (about 0.1%) may be substituted for the (6) Tack welds and the root pass should be initiated
root pass only. The use of low carbon filler metal for the and finished on the weld bevel and not in the root, since
entire weld is not acceptable, since it would reduce creep cracks can be more easily ground out on the bevel.
and high temperature tensile strength. (7) The weld reinforcement should be ground, blended
Use of high nickel electrodes for welding of new HK- into base metal, and undercut should be removed to
40 (particularly those components exposed to the furnace reduce stress risers.
30

(8) Slightly convex bead shapes and well-filled craters removed completely, oxide films can contribute to
should be employed to minimize shrinkage stresses (see incomplete fusion, slag, and porosity defects and seriously
Figure A3). impair weld quality.
Local corrosion or oxidation should be completely
Crater
Crater removed in the areas to be welded by grinding or rotary
filing techniques prior to repair welding. When the oxide
is removed, the surface can be visually and penetrant
inspected.
A2.11.2 Carburized Areas Not Weldable. Prior to
Potential crater cracking Unlikely crater cracking considering a casting repair, carburization must be eval-
uated. This can be accomplished by using a standard
Note: Use of slightly convex bead shape for helping to minimize permanent magnet or a permeability meter. Since aus-
effects of shrinkage stresses. At left, shrinkage leads to an tenitic materials are normally non-magnetic and carbu-
increase in surface area at crater while, at right, shrinkage
leads to a decrease in surface area at crater
rized materials are highly magnetic, any attraction of
the magnet is an indication of carburization. A suitable
Figure A3 — Contour of magnetic permeability meter is an inexpensive, pocket-
sized instrument originally developed for the non-
Weld Crater Inhibits Crater Cracks destructive testing of coatings, such as paint, on a mag-
netic surface.
A2.10 Repair Welding of Used Castings. As discussed
Attempts should be made to remove the carburized
previously in detail in A2.3, HK-40 and similar materials
material in the weld area by rotary filing or grinding. If
used for high temperature service only have a fair ductil-
this is not possible, any attempts to repair by welding will
ity when the material is new. After exposure to tempera-
probably fail and the component should be replaced. If
tures ranging between 1200° -1850° F (650°-1000° C)
only a slight magnetism remains after grinding, a test
for only a short time, secondary carbides form and duc-
weld can be attempted by making a single production
tility is drastically reduced.
type bead in the doubtful area. After flush grinding the
Material exposed to 1200°-1850°F (650°-1000°C) weld, the area is dye-penetrant inspected. If no cracks are
temperatures for thousands of hours is expected to have detected, it may be possible to achieve a satisfactory
less than four percent of elongation. In addition, many repair.
castings (especially statically cast components) contain
internal flaws in excess of the discontinuities normally A2.11.3 Solution Annealing Restores Ductility. The
accepted for wrought materials. In many cases, it is loss of ductility associated with exposure to service tem-
possible to overcome the internal effects that make weld- peratures ranging from 1200°-1850°F (650°-1000°C)
more difficult by employing special procedures and by can be overcome by heat treatment. The temperature
increasing planning, training, and inspection activities. must be high enough to dissolve all or most of the
secondary carbides, and the cooling rate must be fast
A2.ll Pre-Weld Correction of Aged Material Condition. enough to prevent the reformation of these secondary
Cast austenitic stainless steels often undergo one or carbides. This can be accomplished by the following heat
more of the following significant changes during service: treating cycle commonly referred to as solution annealing:
(1) Exposure to furnace gases or to oxidizing process (1) The entire casting or circumferential band should
gases may result in the formation of a heavy oxide scale be heated to 2100°-2200°F (1150°-1200°C).
on the surface. (2) The uniform temperature gradient should be
(2) Exposure to certain process materials at elevated maintained by limiting heating rate.
temperatures may carburize the steel to various depths (3) The casting or circumferential band should be
and cause embrittlement. held at temperature for one hour per inch (1 h/ 25.4 mm),
(3) Exposure to 1200 o -1850°F(650 o -1000°C) dur- but not less than one hour.
ing fabrication or operating conditions causes the forma- (4) The casting or band should be cooled rapidly in air
tion of secondary carbides which further reduces the by removing all heat sources and all insulation materials.
original low ductility. (Quenching is neither necessary nor desirable).
Of the above three types of change, only the third Full furnace heat treating represents the easiest tool
reaction is metallurgical^ reversible by a special preweld for solution annealing, but this tool is not suitable for
heat treatment called solution annealing (Ref. 2). most field applications. The employment of high tem-
A2.11.1 Removal of Oxide and Surface Defects. Ox- perature resistance heating elements in the field was
ide films interfere with welding by reducing the wetabil- pioneered in 1967 and has since been successfully
ity of the base metal by the molten weld metal. When not employed in many refineries and chemical plants.
 31

The areas to be solution annealed by resistance heat- dard cu ft (2.8 m3) should be welded with high carbon
ing must be instrumented with thermocouples, and a electrodes matching the chemistry of the base metal
minimum of two layers of thermal insulation should be (such as E310HC-40 for HK-40).
applied to minimize heat loss. End protection should be
A2.13 Special Considerations for Repair Welding. In
provided and, if possible, insulation applied to the inside
addition to the eight recommendations proposed for
of the pipe. At times, the coils and the insulation can be
welding new castings, the following six additional points
encased to permit their easy removal and to obtain uni-
should be considered when welding used or aged castings:
form and rapid air cooling of the pipe.
(1) The base metal temperature during joint prepara-
When pipe sections are annealed in the horizontal
tion, cleaning, and welding should be minimized by:
position, the use of split coils is recommended wherever
(a) Narrow beads with maximum travel speed and
the outside diameter exceeds 10 in. (254 mm). This per-
minimum weaving should be deposited.
mits separate control of the upper and lower halves and
(b) Interpass temperature should be limited by
provides a means to compensate for temperature differ-
cooling between passes to 350° F (175° C) for new mate-
ences. Thermocouple must be located near the 6 and 12
rial; 250° F (120° C) for repairing new material; 250° F
o'clock locations.
(120° C) for solution annealed used material; 150° F
Cooling must be fast enough to prevent the reforma- (65° C) for used material that has not been solution
tion of embrittling secondary carbides. However, accel- annealed.
erated cooling is not required; in fact, water cooling
(2) Alignment and holding assemblies should be
produces high thermal stress that can damage the casting
designed to minimize restraint.
by cracking. The removal of all heating coils and all
(3) The bead should be peened while it is still hot to
insulation produces adequate air cooling. The inability
reduce shrinkage stresses. Sufficient force should be used
to remove all heat retaining components (i.e., internal
to give the weld bead a shot blast appearance. Multi-
refractory) can be compensated for by a uniform flow of needle scaling tools have been used successfully for this
external air. application.
(4) Welding on the H AZ of a previous weld should be
A.2.12 Filler Metal Selection. For joints involving used
avoided, since it has the poorest ductility regardless of
austenitic castings, the use of high nickel filler metals is
heat treatment and service exposure.
recommended, providing that the weld is not exposed to
(5) If new and used components are part of the repair,
a sulfur containing environment. High nickel filler mate-
welds should be minimized between two used com-
rials should not be used if the component is to be exposed
ponents.
to sulfur bearing furnace gases or products containing
more than 50 grains (3.24 g) of sulfur per 100 standard cu A2.14 Buttering. Aged HK-40 with marginal ductility
ft (2.8 m 3 ). At higher sulfur levels, severe sulfur attack can at times be welded by buttering the groove face prior
may occur at service temperatures. Table Al recom- to attempting a butt weld. This operation consists of two
mends the specific grades of high nickel filler materials steps. One or more layers of ductile weld metal are made
on the basis of service temperature. under minimum restraint conditions and are inspected
Joints exposed to furnace gases or products contain- after remachining the groove face. Thus, when attempt-
ing more than 50 grains (3.24 g) of sulfur per 100 stan- ing the more highly restrained butt joint, sufficient due-

Table A1
Filler Metal Selection Guide
Service Temperature Range, F(C)

Below 1100° 1100°-1600° 1600° and above

Welding Process (315) (315-471) (471)

Shieled metal arc

(AWS A5.ll) (ENiCrFe-3) (ENiCrFe-2) (ENiCrMo-3)
a
Gas shielded arc
(AWS A5.14) (ERNiCr-3) (ERNiCr-3) (ERNiCrMo-3)b

a. Gas tungsten arc (GTAW) and gas metal arc (GM AW).
b. Root pass only ERNiCr-3 or ERNiCrMo-3. Complete weld ERNiCrMo-3.
32

tile buttering is available adjacent to the groove weld to (2) Low welding currents
absorb part of the plastic deformation associated with (3) High travel speed
weld solidification and cooling. (4) Narrow stringer beads
When joining aged HK-40 to more ductile materials (5) Multiple bead techniques
such as new or solution annealed HK-40, it is only (6) Low interpass temperatures
necessary to butter the aged component. While many (7) Proper crater filling
welds have been successfully completed employing the (8) Smooth surface finish
buttering technique, very low ductility components can- At the same time, the welder should become familiar
not be salvaged by this method. In such cases, solution with the proper use of the peening tool, or train with
annealing, discussed earlier in this Appendix, appears to another worker as a welding and peening team.
be desirable.
A2.17 Weld Inspection. In addition to the usual final
A2.15 Training and Inspection. Only items peculiar to inspection, a preweld and in-process inspection program
the welding of high carbon austenitic castings are dis- is of prime importance. A complete quality control pro-
cussed, and the important differences between these and gram should include:
standard wrought materials are highlighted. The major (1) Visual and penetrant (PT) inspection of finished
differences are due both to the less ductile nature of these bevels and all areas within 1/2 in. (13 mm) of the planned
castings and to the impossibility of evaluating and joint.
inspecting the weldments by some of the standard tools (2) Review of welder training, qualification, and prac-
such as hardness testers and ultrasonics. tice pipes.
(3) PT inspection of root bead.
A2.16 Welder Training. Even the most qualified welder
(4) Check that low interpass temperatures and ade-
should be given some additional training prior to weld-
quate peening are employed.
ing cast austenitic components. First of all, the welder
(5) Removal of surface irregularities and undercut to
must become thoroughly familiar with the high carbon
prevent stress concentrations.
stainless or high nickel filler metals. When using high
(6) Radiography (RT) of final welds on a 100 percent
nickel filler metal and any type of wrought base metal, he
or spot basis, as required. If this is not possible due to
can be certified by conventional AS ME bend tests or
joint location or lack of adequate equipment, the use of
radiography.
in-process PT inspection should be considered.
Due to lack of ductility, bend tests are not possible
when using the cast base metals and radiography may A2.18 Summary. It is not possible to prepare one doc-
not reveal small cracks. Thus, the welder must use con- ument that details all conditions and all requirements
ventional Type E310 or Inconel filler metal and wrought that may be encountered in welding high carbon stainless
alloy for his initial test. For the second training phase, steel during the fabrication of new components or during
the welder should use cast tubing with production type maintenance activities. However, the foregoing discus-
joints and accessibility restrictions. The soundness of this sion should provide some guidelines in establishing
weld can be evaluated by a combination of visual, pene- sound procedures for welding new and used HK-40 or
trant (PT) and radiographic (RT) inspection, and by similar alloy castings.
metallographic examination. The specific requirements associated with each fabri-
For butt joints requiring open root GTAW, the welder cation and with each component call for detailed proce-
should be given sufficient practice and training until he dures containing the necessary planning, testing, train-
can deposit consistently sound welds with complete and ing, and inspection phases. To accomplish its mission,
uniform penetration. The adequacy of his work can be the final procedure should not only be technically sound,
inspected visually and by PT. but should also be understood by the welder.
Due to the high degree of skill and the critical nature of
the work, it is suggested that the welder be provided with References for Appendix A
a practice pipe on which he completes at least half of a
root pass immediately prior to his production weld. The 1. Voelker, C. H., and Zeis, L. A., How to repair HK-40
welding of the practice pipe should be repeated prior to furnace tubes, Hydrocarbon Processing, 51(4), pp. 121-
every shift to check the welder and the equipment. 124, April 1972.
During all training phases and when working on the 2. Ebert, H. W., Solution annealing in the field, Welding
practice pipes, emphasis should be placed upon the spe- Journal, Vol 53(2), pp. 88-93, February 1974.
cial requirements associated with the welding of castings. 3. Ebert, H. W., Fabrication of HK-40 in the field,
These have been discussed earlier and include: Welding Journal, Vol. 55(11), pp. 939-945, November
(1) Minimum heat input 1976.
 33

Appendix B

Document List

The following is a complete list of the standards prepared by the AWS Committee on Piping and Tubing.

AWS D10.4 Austenitic Chromium-Nickel AWS D10.9 Qualification of Welding

Stainless Steel Piping and Procedures and Welders for
Tubing, Recommended Piping and Tubing,
Practices for Welding Specification for
AWS D10.6 Titanium Piping and Tubing,
Recommended Practices for AWS D10.10 Piping and Tubing, Local Heat
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Treatment of Welds in
AWS D10.7 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy
Pipe, Recommended Practices AWS D10.ll Root Pass Welding,
for Gas Shielded Arc Welding Recommended Practices for
AWS D10.8 Chromium-Molybdenum Steel
Piping and Tubing, AWS D10.12 Plain Carbon Steel Pipe,
Recommended Practices for Recommended Practices and
Welding Procedures for Welding
34

Appendix C

Safety and Health (8) Safe Handling of Compressed Gases in Contain-

ers, P - l , New York: Compressed Gas Association,
There are many factors involved in welding and allied 1974.
processes which may have adverse effects on the safety (9) The Facts About Fume, England: The Welding
and health of those individuals who work in, or who Institute, 1976.
spend time in, areas where welding and allied operations (10) The Welding Environment, Miami: American
are being performed. Welding Society, 1973.
Individuals and organizations using the processes de- (11) Ultraviolet Reflectance of Paint, Miami: Ameri-
scribed in this document should familiarize themselves can Welding Society, 1976.
with the safety and health aspects of the work to be done. (12) Welding Fume Control with Mechanical Venti-
A series of essays on the subjects of "Fumes and lation, 2nd Ed., San Francisco: Fireman's Fund Insur-
Gases", "Noise", "Chromium and Nickel in Welding ance Companies, 1981.
Fume", "Electrical Hazards", "Radiation", "Fire Protec- Further detailed information may be found in the
tion", and "Burn Protection", has appeared in the Weld- publications of the following organizations:
ing Journal (August through December 1982). (1) American Welding Society (AWS)
550 NW LeJeune Road
P.O. Box 351040
Miami, Florida 33135
Supplementary Reading List (2) Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA), all publications available from:
(1) ANSI/NFPA 51-B1977, Cutting and Welding
Superintendent of Documents
Processes, Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection
U.S. Printing Office
Association.
Washington, DC 20402
(2) Arc Welding and Cutting Noise, Miami: Ameri-
can Welding Society, 1979. (3) American Conference of Governmental Industrial
(3) Balchin, N. C , Health and Safety in Welding and Hygienist (ACGIH)
Allied Processes, 3rd Ed., England: The Welding Insti- 6500 Glenway Avenue
tute, 1983. Building D-5
(4) Compressed Gas Association, Inc., Handbook of Cincinnati, Ohio 45211
Compressed Gases, 2nd Ed., New York: Von Nontrand
(4) National Institute for Occupational Safety and
ReinholdCo., 1981.
Health (NIOSH)
(5) Dalziel, Charles F., Effects of Electric Current on
4676 Columbia Parkway
Man, ASEE Journal, 1973, June 18-23.
Cincinnati, Ohio 45226
(6) Effects of Welding on Health, I, II, III, and IV,
Miami: American Welding Society, 1979, 1981, 1983. (5) National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
(7) Fumes and Gases in the Welding Environment, Batterymarch Park
Miami: American Welding Society, 1979. Quincy, Massachusetts 02269