Metabolic processes are sequences of biochemical reactions that take place within living cells

to maintain life. They can be divided into two main types. Catabolic processes, or pathways,
involve the breakdown of complex molecules from food into smaller units that can be used as
building blocks for new molecules or to provide energy. Anabolic pathways involve the use of
energy to build new chemicals that become components of cells. These reactions are made
possible by a number of organic catalysts known as enzymes.
Together, the two types of metabolic processes allow the transformation of the raw materials,
or nutrients, that are taken in by an organism into tissue. One compound, common to all
cellular life, is essential to these transformations. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is used to store
energy obtained from nutrients, such as carbohydrates, and to release energy when it is
required for the building of new molecules.

Catabolic Processes

Some organisms, such as green plants, make their own food from inorganic materials, while
others, such as animals, consume organic materials to obtain their nutrition. The food
consumed by animals can be broken down into three main types — carbohydrates, lipids (fats
and oils), and proteins. Digestion involves catabolic processes that break these down into
simpler components. For example, relatively complex carbohydrates, such as polysaccharides
and disaccharides are broken down into glucose, and proteins are broken down into amino
acids. These simpler compounds may be used by anabolic processes to build new materials, or
they may be further broken down to provide energy.
Cellular respiration is the process by which the carbohydrate glucose (C6H12O6) is broken down
into carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O), producing energy that is stored in ATP. The
procedure involves oxidation, and where there is atmospheric oxygen available it is used in
what is known as aerobic respiration. This is the process that takes place in animals, plants and
some microorganisms. The overall reaction can be summarized as
In conditions where no free oxygen is present, anaerobic respiration takes place. This is found
only in certain microorganisms that live in soil, decaying organic matter, under the sea, deep
underground, and in the intestines of animals. These organisms use alternatives such
as nitrates, sulfates, fumarate, and even sulfur in place of free oxygen. Anaerobic respiration is
much less efficient than the aerobic process, and produces much less ATP, but early in the
Earth’s history — before there was any free oxygen in the atmosphere — this was the only form
of respiration possible.
In animals, lipids are also oxidized to carbon dioxide and water, but the first few steps are
different. The chemistry of organisms takes place in a water-based environment, but fats and
oils do not mix with water. The first step is to emulsify these substances, which means
converting them into a form that will mix with water, in the same way that detergents can help
clean up oil spills. This is done by soap-like substances contained in bile released by the gall
bladder into the small intestine. The lipids are then broken down into fatty acids and glycerol,
which can be absorbed through the intestines, and which can then undergo oxidation reactions
similar to those performed on carbohydrates.
Proteins are very large, complex molecules, made up of building blocks known as amino acids.
They are metabolized by various reactions that split them up into their amino acids, which can
be absorbed, and then used within cells. Generally, proteins are not used to provide energy, but
instead the amino acids are utilized to manufacture new proteins to build tissue and muscle. In
cases where no carbohydrate or fat is available in the diet, and the body has used up its fat
reserves, proteins may be used to generate energy, by oxidation of their amino acids. In these
cases, the body may start breaking down muscle proteins.

Anabolic Processes

Also known as biosynthesis, these are reactions that use up the energy stored in ATP by
catabolic processes. They include the building of proteins from amino acids and the
construction of DNAfrom nucleotides. In animals, the muscle contractions that power
movement can also be included, as these require the use of stored energy. In plants, the
synthesis of glucose from carbon dioxide and water through photosynthesis is another anabolic
pathway.
Metabolic Processes and Body Weight

The energy obtained from food by catabolism may be used straight away, by anabolic
processes, but if it is not used, much of it is stored as fat. The amount of energy that can be
extracted from a food can be measured in calories. Similarly, the amount used up by various
forms of exercise can also be measured this way. If consistently more calories are consumed
than are used, fat will build up, resulting in weight gain. Conversely, if more calories are used up
than are consumed, the body will obtain energy by using its fat reserves, losing weight.

Relationship Between Respiration & Metabolism

Respiration is the process that gets oxygen from the air to the tissues of the body and removes
carbon dioxide from the body. Metabolism refers to all the chemical reactions in the body,
including those that use oxygen and create carbon dioxide. Oxygen and carbon dioxide,
therefore, are involved in both respiration and metabolism. Metabolic reactions are sometimes
referred to as cellular respiration, which can cause confusion.

Occurs in the Lungs

Air enters the nose, where it is warmed and humidified before entering the lungs. When the air
reaches the alveoli, small air sacs in the lungs, the oxygen diffuses into the blood in the
capillaries around the alveoli while carbon dioxide (the product of metabolism) leaves the blood
and enters the air. During exhalation the carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere.
Metabolism Occurs in All Tissues
The oxygenated blood leaves the lungs and is pumped throughout the body by the heart. When
the blood enters the capillaries in the tissues, oxygen diffuses out of the blood and into the
tissue. Cells use this oxygen in metabolic reactions. Metabolic reactions produce carbon
dioxide. The carbon dioxide enters the blood as it leaves the tissues to be returned to the lungs
and eventually the atmosphere.

What is Metabolism?
All the chemical reactions that occur in the body are metabolic reactions. Some reactions break
down molecules to make energy while other reactions build up molecules (and use energy).
Reactions that use energy include making new membrane, making proteins that determine the
shape of the cell, and making molecules that are secreted from the cell. Every cell also has to
store energy from nutrients so there is enough energy to make needed molecules.

ATP is the Metabolic Currency

Adenosine triphosphate—ATP—is the intermediate for metabolic reactions because there is a
lot of energy stored in the phosphate bond of ATP. ATP is broken down to adenosine
diphosphate (ADP) and the released energy is used to make other molecules. Reactions that
make more ATP use the energy of food molecules to add a phosphate bond to ADP to
regenerate ATP.

Food Provides Raw Materials

Food is digested into small molecules that can enter the blood stream. Sugars and fiber are
broken down to small sugar molecules. Protein is broken down to amino acids. Special
molecules in the intestines transport these small molecules to the blood. Fats are broken down
to fatty acids which can diffuse across the intestines to enter the blood. All cells have special
molecules that help them absorb nutrients from the blood stream so they can be used in
metabolic reactions.
Metabolism is the set of chemical rections that occur in a cell, which enable it to keep living,
growing and dividing. Metabolic processes are usually classified as:

catabolism - obtaining energy and reducing power from nutrients.

anabolism - production of new cell components, usually through processes that require
energy and reducing power obtained from nutrient catabolism.

There is a very large number of metabolic pathways. In humans, the most important metabolic
pathways are:

glycolysis - glucose oxidation in order to obtain ATP

citric acid cycle (Krebs' cycle) - acetyl-CoA oxidation in order to obtain GTP and valuable
intermediates.
oxidative phosphorylation - disposal of the electrons released by glycolysis and citric acid
cycle. Much of the energy released in this process can be stored as ATP.
pentose phosphate pathway - synthesis of pentoses and release of the reducing power
needed for anabolic reactions.
urea cycle - disposal of NH4+ in less toxic forms
fatty acid β-oxidation - fatty acids breakdown into acetyl-CoA, to be used by the Krebs' cycle.
gluconeogenesis - glucose synthesis from smaller percursors, to be used by the brain.

Click on the picture to get information on each pathway

Metabolic pathways interact in a complex way in order to allow an adequate regulation. This
interaction includes the enzymatic control of each pathway, each organ's metabolic
profile and hormone control.

Enzymatic control of metabolic pathways

Regulation of glycolysis

Metabolic flow through glycolysis can be regulated at three key points:

 hexokinase: is inhibited by glucose-6-P (product inhibition)

 phosphofructokinase: is inhibited by ATP and citrate (which signals the abundance
of citric acid cycle intermediates). It is also inhibited by H+, which becomes important
under anaerobiosis (lactic fermentation produces lactic acid, resulting on a lowering of
the pH ). Probably this mechanism prevents the cell from using all its ATP stock in the
phosphofrutokinase reaction, which would prevent glucose activation by hexokinase. It
 is stimulated by its substrate (fructose-6-phosphate), AMP and ADP (which signal the
lack of available energy), etc.
 pyruvate kinase: inhibited by ATP and acetyl-CoA

Regulation of gluconeogenesis

Flow is regulated in the gluconeogenesis-specific reactions. Pyruvate carboxilase is activated by

acetyl-CoA, which signals the abundance of citric acid cycle intermediates, i.e., a decreased
need of glucose.

Regulation of the citric acid cycle

The citric acid cycle is regulated mostly by substrate availability, product inhibition and by some
cycle intermediates.

 pyruvate dehydrogenase: is inhibited by its products, acetyl-CoA and NADH

 citrate synthase: is inhibited by its product, citrate. It is also inhibited by NADH and
succinyl-CoA (which signal the abundance of citric acid cycle intermediates).
 isocitrate dehydrogenase and a-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase: like citrate synthase,
these are inhibited by NADH and succinyl-CoA. Isocitrate dehydrogenase is also inhibited
by ATP and stimulated by ADP. All aforementioned dehydrogenases are stimulated by
Ca2+. This makes sense in the muscle, since Ca2+ release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
triggers muscle contraction, which requires a lot of energy. This way, the same "second
messenger" activates an energy-demanding task and the means to produce that energy.

Regulation of the urea cycle

Carbamoyl-phosphate sinthetase is stimulated by N-acetylglutamine, which signals the

presence of high amounts of nitrogen in the body.

Regulation of glycogen metabolism

Liver contains a hexokinase (hexokinase D or glucokinase)with low affinity for glucose which
(unlike "regular" hexokinase) is not subject to product inhibition. Therefore, glucose is only
phosphrylated in the liver when it is present in very high concentrations (i.e. after a meal). In
this way, the liver will not compete with other tissues for glucose when this sugar is scarce, but
will accumulate high levels of glucose for glycogen synthesis right after a meal.

Regulation of fatty acids metabolism

Acyl-CoA movement into the mitochondrion is a crucial factor in regulation. Malonyl-CoA

(which is present in the cytoplasm in high amounts when metabolic fuels are abundant) inhibits
carnitine acyltransferase, thereby preventing acyl-CoA from entering the mitochondrion.
Furthermore, 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase is inhibited by NADH and thiolase is inhibited
by acetyl-CoA, so that fatty acids wil not be oxidized when there are plenty of energy-yielding
substrates in the cell.

Regulation of the pentose phosphate pathway

Metabolic flow through the pentose phosphate pathway is controled by the activity of glucose-
6-phosphate dehydrogenase, which is controlled by NADP+ availability.
Metabolic profiles of key tissues

Brain

Usually neurons use only glucose as energy source. Since the brain stores only a very small
amount of glycogen, it needs a steady supply of glucose. During long fasts, it becomes able to
oxidize ketone bodies.

Liver

The maintenance of a fairly steady concentration of glucose in the blood is one of the liver's
main functions. This is accomplished through gluconeogenesis and
glycogen synthesis and degradation. It synthesizes ketone bodies when acetyl-CoA is plenty. It
is also the site of urea synthesis.

Adipose tissue

It synthesizes fatty acids and stores them as triacylglycerols. Glucagon activates a hormone-
sensitive lipase, which hydrolizes triacylglycerols yielding glycerol and fatty acids. These are
then released into the bloodstream in lipoproteins.

Muscle

Muscles use glucose, fatty acids, ketone bodies and aminoacids as energy source. It also
contains a reserve of creatine-phosphate, a compound with a high phosphate-transfer potential
that is able to phosphorilate ADP to ATP, thereby producing energy without using glucose. The
amount of creatine in the muscle is enough to sustain about 3-4 s of exertion. After this period,
the muscle uses glycolysis, first anaerobically (since it is much faster than the citric acid cycle),
and later (when the increased acidity slows phosphofrutokinase enough for the citric acid cycle
to become non-rate-limiting) in aerobic conditions.

Kidney

It can perform gluconeogenesis and release glucose into the bloodstream. It is also responsible
for the excretion of urea, electrolytes, etc. Metabolic acidosis may be increased by the action
of the urea cycle, since urea synthesis (which takes place in the liver) uses HCO 3-, thereby
further lowering blood pH. Under these circunstances, nitrogen may be eliminated by the joint
action of kidney and liver: excess nitrogen is first incorporated in glutamine by glutamine
synthetase. Kidney glutaminase then cleaves glutamine in glutamate e NH3, which the kidney
immediately excretes. This process allows nitrogen excretion without affecting blood
bicarbonate levels.

Hormone control

Hormone control is mainly effected through the action of two hormones synthesized by the
pancreas: insulin and glucagon. Insulin is released by the pancreas when blood glucose levels
are high, i.e., after a meal. Insulin stimulates glucose uptake by the muscle, glycogen synthesis,
and triacylglyceride synthesis by the adipose tissue. It inhibits gluconeogenesis and glycogen
degradation. Glucagon is released by pancreas when blood glucose levels drop too much. Its
effects are opposite those of insulin: in liver, glucagon stimulates glycogen degradation and the
absorption of gluconeogenic aminoacids. It inhibits glycogen synthesis and promotes the
release of fatty acids by adipose tissue.
 TERMINOLOGY
Nutrition is the science that interprets the interaction of nutrients and other substances
in food in relation to maintenance, growth, reproduction, health and disease of an organism. It
includes food intake, absorption, assimilation, biosynthesis, catabolism, and excretion.
Gas exchange is the delivery of oxygen from the lungs to the bloodstream, and the elimination
of carbon dioxide from the bloodstream to the lungs. It occurs in the lungs between the alveoli
and a network of tiny blood vessels called capillaries, which are located in the walls of the
alveoli.
The circulatory system, also called the cardiovascular system or the vascular system, is
an organ system that permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients (such as amino
acids and electrolytes), oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from
the cells in the body to provide nourishment and help in fighting diseases, stabilize
temperature and pH, and maintain homeostasis.
Hemostasis or haemostasis is a process which causes bleeding to stop, meaning to
keep blood within a damaged blood vessel (the opposite of hemostasis is hemorrhage). It is the
first stage of wound healing. This involves coagulation, blood changing from a liquid to a gel.
Intact blood vessels are central to moderating blood's tendency to form clots.
The endothelial cells of intact vessels prevent blood clotting with a heparin-like molecule
and thrombomodulin and prevent platelet aggregation with nitric oxide and prostacyclin. When
endothelial injury occurs, the endothelial cells stop secretion of coagulation and aggregation
inhibitors and instead secrete von Willebrand factor which initiate the maintenance of
hemostasis after injury.
Excretion is the process by which metabolic wastes and other non-useful materials, such as
faeces, are eliminated from an organism. In vertebrates this is primarily carried out by
the lungs, kidneys and skin.[1] This is in contrast with secretion, where the substance may have
specific tasks after leaving the cell. Excretion is an essential process in all forms of life. For
example, in mammals urine is expelled through the urethra, which is part of the excretory
system. In unicellular organisms, waste products are discharged directly through the surface of
the cell.
The immune system is a host defense system comprising many biological structures
and processes within an organism that protects against disease. To function properly, an
immune system must detect a wide variety of agents, known as pathogens,
from viruses to parasitic worms, and distinguish them from the organism's own healthy tissue.
In many species, the immune system can be classified into subsystems, such as the innate
immune system versus the adaptive immune system, or humoral immunity versus cell-
mediated immunity. In humans, the blood–brain barrier, blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier, and
similar fluid–brain barriers separate the peripheral immune system from the neuroimmune
system, which protects the brain.
Chemical changes occur when a substance combines with another to form a new substance,
called chemical synthesis or, alternatively, chemical decomposition into two or more different
substances. These processes are called chemical reactions and, in general, are not reversible
except by further chemical reactions. Cyclical changes in four reproductive hormones—
luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), estrogen, and progesterone—and
in body temperature occur in a normal, ovulatory menstrual cycle. ... At ovulation, an oocyte is
released from the follicle.
The nervous system is the part of an animal that coordinates its actions by
transmitting signals to and from different parts of its body. The nervous system detects
environmental changes that impact the body, then works in tandem with the endocrine system
to respond to such events.
The muscular system is an organ system consisting of skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles. It
permits movement of the body, maintains posture, and circulates blood throughout the body.
The muscular system in vertebrates is controlled through the nervous system, although some
muscles (such as the cardiac muscle) can be completely autonomous.