PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY

By
K.Satyanarayana
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
 Unit-3
Welding
• Classification of welding processes
• Types of welded joints and their characteristics
• Gas welding, different types of flames and
uses, Oxy – Acetylene Gas cutting
• Basic principles of Arc welding, Manual metal
arc welding, Submerged arc welding
• Inert Gas welding- TIG & MIG welding
 Fabrication Processes

Temporary joints Semi-permanent joints Permanent joints

Screws Bolts/Nuts Rivets

Atomic Bonding

Welding
 Definition of welding
Welding is a process of joining two or more
similar or dissimilar metallic components with or
without application of heat, with or without
application of pressure and with or without
application of filler metal is called welding.
Types of welded joints
 Types of welded joints
1. Butt joint:
In Butt welded type, the parts lie in the same plane and
are joined at their edges.
2. Lap joint:
Lap joint consists of two overlapping parts.
3. Corner joint:
The parts in a corner joint form a right angle and are
joined at the centre of the angle.
4. Tee-joint:
In a Tee-joint, one joint is the right angle to the other joint
in the approximate shape of the letter “T”.
5. Edge joint:
The parts in edge joint are parallel with at least one of
their edges in common and the joint is made at the
common edge(s).
Butt-joint edge preparation methods
Welding positions
Welding positions
 Welding Terminology
Weld puddle (or) Weld pool
• The amount of liquid metal which is available between two
work pieces is known as weld puddle.
Weld bead
• The amount of metal which is added into the joint in a single
pass of welding
Root gap
• It is the minimum distance between the two work pieces
before welding
Penetration
• It is the depth up to which the material will be penetrated into
the base material. It is expressed in terms of % of thickness of
material
 Welding Terminology
Reinforcement:
• It is the projection on the surface of the object.
Weld deposition rate:
• It is the amount of material which is added into the
joint for unit time. It is expressed in terms of kg/hr.
Toe:
• It is the junction between the weld face and base
material.
Throat:
• It is the junction between the two work pieces and the
weld. It is the weakest portion in a fillet weld.
Fuel Gases
 Principle of Gas welding
• Gas welding is a most important type of
welding process. It is done by burning of fuel
gases with the help of oxygen which forms a
concentrated flame of high temperature. This
flame directly strikes the weld area and melts the
weld surface and filler material. The melted part
of welding plates diffused in one another and
create a weld joint after cooling. This welding
method can be used to join most of common
metals used in daily life.
Oxy-Acetelene Gas welding Equipment
Oxy-Acetelene Gas welding Equipment
 Working
• The Oxygen and Acetelene gases are taken from
their respective cylinders at high pressure.
• These gases are mixed together in the torch body
so that the mixture process in certain high
pressure.
• When this high pressure mixture is passing
through the convergent nozzle, the pressure
energy is converted into velocity energy.
• Therefore the mixture is coming out at certain
higher velocity from the nozzle.
• If the initiation for burning of this mixture is
given continuous flame is produced and the heat
available in the flame will be used for melting
and joining the plate.
 Advantages
• Equipment is cheap as compared to other welding
process.
• It can be used for welding of all types of metals.
• Maintenance of equipment is very less.
• It is a portable process.
• It can be used for cutting of metals of small
thickness.
• It is specially used for sheet metal work.
 Disadvantages
• It provides low surface finish. This process needs a
finishing operation after welding.
• Gas welding have large heat affected zone which can
cause change in mechanical properties of parent
material.
• Higher safety issue due to naked flame of high
temperature.
• It is Suitable only for soft and thin sheets.
• Slow metal joining rate.
• No shielding area which causes more welding
defects.
 Applications
• It is used to join thin metal plates.
• It can used to join both ferrous and non-ferrous
metals.
• Gas welding mostly used in fabrication of
sheet metal.
• It is widely used in automobile and aircraft
industries.
 Types of flames
• REACTION:
C2H2 + 2.5O2 = CO2 + H2O + 1284.57 kJ/mol
• For complete combustion of 1 unit volume of C₂H₂ that
total amount of Oxygen required is 2.5 units volume is
required.
• Out of which 1 unit volume of O₂ is obtained from the
Oxygen cylinder and 1.5 unit volume of O₂ is obtained
from atmosphere.
• Based on the amount of O₂ consume from the Oxygen
cylinder the flame produced in the C₂H₂ gas welding
will be divided into three types.
 Types of flames

• Neutral flame
• Oxidising flame
• Carburizing flame
Neutral flame
 Neutral flame
• As the name implies, this flame has equal amount of
oxygen and gases fuel by the volume.
• This flame burns fuel completely and does not produce
any chemical effect on metal to be welded.
• It is mostly used for welding mild steal, stainless steel,
cast iron etc.
• It produces little smoke.
• This flame has two zones.
• The inner zone has white in color and has temperature
about 3100 degree centigrade and outer zone has blue
color and have temperature about 1275 degree
centigrade.
Carburizing flame
 Carburizing flame
• This flame has excess of fuel gas.
• This flame chemically reacts with metal and form metal
carbide.
• Due to this reason, this flame does not used with metal
which absorb carbon.
• It is smoky and quiet flame.
• This flame has three regions.
• The inner zone has white colour, the intermediate zone
which is red in colour and outer cone has blue colour.
• The inner cone temperature is about 2900 degree
centigrade. This flame is used to weld medium carbon
steel, nickel etc.
Oxidizing flame
 Oxidizing flame
• When the amount of acetylene reduces from
neutral flame or amount of oxygen increases, the
inner cone tend to disappear and the flame
obtain is known as oxidizing flame.
• It is hotter than neutral flame and has clearly
defined two zones.
• The inner zone has very bright white colour and
has temperature of about 3300 degree
centigrade.
• The outer flame has blue in colour.
• This flame is used to weld oxygen free copper
alloy like brass, bronze etc.
Applications
 Gas cutting
• It is possible to rapidly oxidise (burn) iron and
steel when it is heated to a temperature between
800 to 1000C this temperature is called kindling
temperature.
• When a high pressure oxygen jet with a pressure
of the order of 300 kPa is directed against a
heated steel plate, the oxygen jet burns the metal
and blows it away causing the cut (kerf).
3Fe + 2O2 → Fe3O4 + 6.67 MJ/kg of iron
Torch tips
 Gas cutting
• The reactions are exothermic in nature and as
such would provide a good amount of heat to
preheat the steel.
• The heat generated causes the metal to melt
and get blown away by the oxygen pressure.
• In fact, about 30 to 40% of the metal in the
kerf is simply blown away, while the rest is
oxidised.
 Arc welding
• Arc welding is a welding process that is used
to join metal to metal by using electricity to
create enough heat to melt metal, and the
melted metals when cool result in a binding of
the metals.
• An electric arc is a discharge of electric current
across a gap in a circuit
• To initiate the arc, electrode is brought into
contact with work and then quickly separated
from it by a short distance
 Arc welding principle
• When the power supply is given between the work piece
and electrode, if they made in contact, due to shortcut arc
will be produced.
• By maintaining the gap between the electrode and work
piece, electrons will gain the momentum and they will be
hitting on the anode with more kinetic energy and heat
generation will takes place due to conversion of kinetic
energy into heat energy.
• The gap between electrode and work piece is called arc
length(1d to 1.5d)
• When the electrons are hitting on the anode, ions will be
moving from anode to cathode due to this heat generation
will be takes place on the electrode(cathode).
• But the Kinetic energy of electrons will be more when
compared to ions due to this more heat will be generated on
the anode when compared to cathode.
Arc welding Layout
 Arc Welding Equipment
• The main requirement in an arc-welding set-up
is the source of electric power.
• They are essentially of two types.
1. Alternating current (AC) machines
• Transformer
• Motor or engine driven alternator
2. Direct current (DC) machines
• Transformer with DC rectifier
• Motor or engine driven generator.
 Arc Welding Equipment
• The transformer does not have any moving part
and as a result operates with less maintenance
cost and also has higher efficiency.
• The power used is also less expensive and
practically there is no noise in operation of the
welding transformer.
• In AC welding, normally only transformers are
used.
• In DC arc welding, a rectifier or a generator can
be used to supply the required DC power.
Equipment used for Arc welding:
• AC & DC machines
• Two cables for conductors
• Electrode holder
• Electrode (Non consumable & Consumable)
ARC Welding Current & Voltage:
• DC-- 30 to 35 V, and while in AC -- 50/ 55V.
• In general arc voltage ranges 15 to 25V -- bare
electrode, 20 to 40V -- covered electrodes.
• Current for manual operation -- 30 to 500 A,
• and for automatic operation -- 75 to 600 A.
 DC Arc welding
Straight polarity
• In straight polarity electrode is negative and
work piece is positive, more amount of heat
will be generated on the work piece.
• It will be used for welding of high thickness
and high melting point materials.
• Depth of penetration is maximum.
• Weld deposition rate will be less.
• Stability of the arc will be more.
 DC Arc welding
Reverse polarity
• In this electrode is positive and work piece is
negative.
• More amount of heat will be on the electrode
due to this it will be used for low thickness and
low melting point materials.
• Weld deposition rate is very high.
• Depth of penetration will be less.
• Stability of the arc will be more.
 Types of welding machines
• These are two movements for electrode
holder with respect to work piece.
• One is linear movement of electrode, with
respect to work piece it is also known as
welding speed (mm/sec).
• If it is a consumable electrode, due to
continuous melting of electrode the gap
between the electrode and work piece will be
increase.
 Types of welding machines
• To maintain the constant gap, electrode will move
toward the work piece in downward direction.
• If these two movements are controlled manually
then it is called manual arc welding technique.
• If these two movements are controlled by
automatic machines then it is called automatic
welding technique.
• If one of the movement is controlled by automatic
machines then it is called semi automatic welding
technique.
 Types of welding machines
• The welding machines can also be divided into
two types, based on the characteristics.
– Constant Current welding machines(Droop
Characteristics)
– Constant Voltage welding machines(Flat or
Straight line Characteristics)
1. Constant Current type(Droop characteristics)
For a small changing the voltage of the arc the
corresponding change in current in the power source
is very less due to this it will be used in ‘Manual arc
welding technique’.
2. Constant Voltage type(Straight line Characteristics)
In this for a small change in voltage of the arc, there will
be a fluctuation of the current in the power source. Due to
this these welding machines will be used in Automatic
welding technique.
 Electrodes
Non consumable electrodes may be made of
carbon, graphite, tungsten which don't
consume during welding process. The filler
metal required has to be deposited by a
separate filler rod.
Consumable electrodes may be made of
various metals depending upon their purpose
& chemical composition of metals to be
welded. And these are classified in to
Bare/Plain electrodes & Coated electrodes.
 Purposes of Coated electrode
• The coatings give off inert gases such as carbon
dioxide under the arc heat, which shields the
molten metal pool.
• The coatings provide flux to the molten metal
pool, which mixed with the oxides and other
impurities present in the puddle, forms a slag.
• Some elements that are required for stabilisation
of the arc are also added in these coatings.
• Special alloying elements can be introduced
through these coatings to improve the strength
and physical properties of the weld metal.
Manual Metal Arc Welding(MMAW)
Introduction
• The manual metal arc welding also called the
shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) is the most
extensively used manual welding process, which
is done with stick (coated) electrodes.
• The main disadvantage of the shielded metal arc
welding process is the slow speed.
• Further, a lot of electrode material is wasted in the
form of unused end, slag and gas.
• Also special precautions are needed to reduce
moisture pick up so that it would not interfere
with the welding.
 Principle of MMAW
• When power supply is ‘ON’ an electric arc
struck between coated electrode & work piece.
• Arc melts the electrode end and job.
• Material is transferred from electrode to job in
the form of droplets, through arc and deposited
along the joint to be welded.
• Flux coating melts, produces a gaseous shield
to prevent formation of metal oxides of molten
weld metal.
Schematic of MMAW (or) SMAW
 MMAW(or)SMAW
▪ As electrode melts, flux covering disintegrates,
giving off vapors that protects the weld area
from atmospheric gases.
▪ In addition flux provides molten slag which
cover the filler metal as it travels from
electrode to weld pool.
▪ Once filler metal is hardened in pool it must
be chipped away to reveal the finished weld.
Advantages:
• It is simplest one of all the available.
• Equipment cost is low and portable.
• Big range of metals and alloys can be joined.
Disadvantages:
• Because of limited length of electrode and brittle flux
coated on it mechanization is difficult.
• In welding long joints as one electrode finishes weld
is to be progressed with other electrode, unless
properly cared defects may occur at the place where
welding is to be restarted.
• As process uses stick electrode it is slower process
compared to MIG welding.
 Applications

▪ Mainly used to weld Iron & Steel, Al, Ni,

Copper alloys.

▪ Finds applications in tanks, boilers and

pressure vessel fabrications, ship buildings,
building and bridge construction.
 Submerged Arc welding(SAW)
Principle
• The welding zone is completely covered by
means of a large amount of granulated flux, which
is delivered ahead of the welding electrode by
means of a welding flux feed tube.
• The arc is produced while the consumable
electrode wire which is continuously fed into the
weld zone.
• The arc occurring between the electrode and the
work piece is completely submerged under the
flux and not visible from outside.
Schematic of SAW
 Working of SAW
• For welding of high thickness material in a single pass we
can use this technique.
• More amount of solid flux provided between the two
work pieces to be welded and arc will be created between
a work piece and a consumable electrode in the form of
spool wire.
• Due to heat generation liquid metal will be formed and it
will react with flux material and slag will be formed.
• After getting sufficient amount of slag by moving the
electrode downward direction.
• Arc will be submerged in the slag, due to this heat
transfer losses from the arc will be minimized, slag
inclusions can be reduced and weld spatter can be
minimized.
 Advantages
• This Process used to weld thicker sections with deeper
penetrations.
• Because of high heat concentration high welding speeds
can be used.
• High metal deposition rates can be achieved in a single
pass i.e. upto 20 kg/h can be achieved .
• Weld metal deposited possesses uniformity, good
ductility.
• No edge preparation is necessary for materials under
12mm thick.
• Able to weld plates of thickness as high as 75mm in butt
joints in single pass.
 Disadvantages
• Since operator can’t see welding being carried out
he can’t judge accurately the progress of weld.
• Process is limited to welding in flat position and
on metal more than 4.8 mm thickness.
• Operation is limited to some specific metals.
• The application is limited to straight seams and
pipes and vessels.
• The flux handling can be tough.
• Slag removal is needed after welding.
 Applications
• Fabrication of pipes, pressure vessels, boilers,
structural shapes, cranes, locomotives.
• Automotive, aviation, ship building and
nuclear power industry.
• For welding metals like MS, medium & high
tensile low alloy steels.
 Inert Gas welding
• The term inert-gas welding describes an
electric-arc welding process in which an inert
gas is used to shield the arc and molten metal
to prevent oxidation and burning.
• The shielding gases most commonly used are
argon, helium, carbon dioxide and mixtures
of them.
• Argon requires a lower arc voltage, allows
for easier arc starting and provides a smooth
arc action.
 Tungsten Inert Gas(TIG) welding
Principle
• TIG welding works on same principle of arc
welding. In a TIG welding process, a high intense
arc is produced between tungsten electrode and
work piece. In this welding mostly work piece is
connected to the positive terminal and electrode is
connected to negative terminal. This arc produces
heat energy which is further used to join metal
plate by fusion welding. A shielding gas is also
used which protect the weld surface from
oxidization.
Schematic of TIG welding
 Working of TIG welding
• Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding or gas tungsten arc
welding (GTAW) is an inert gas shielded arc welding
process using non consumable electrode.
• The non-consumable electrodes may also contain 1
to 2% thoria (thorium oxide)mixed along with
tungsten with 0.15 to 0.40% zirconia (zirconium
oxide).
• It consists of a welding torch at the centre of which is
the tungsten electrode.
• The inert gas is supplied to the welding zone through
the annular path surrounding the tungsten electrode to
effectively displace the atmosphere around the weld
puddle.
 Working of TIG welding
• The smaller weld torches may not be provided with any
cooling devices for the electrodes, but larger ones are
provided with circulating cooling water.
• The TIG welding process can be used for the joining of a
number of materials through the most common ones are
aluminium, magnesium and stainless steel.
• This technique is preferred for welding of less thickness
of material that is up to 5mm without using any filler
material.
• If this technique will be used for high thickness materials
filler material will be supplied externally and its
movement will be controlled manually.
• The power sources used always of the constant current
type.
• Both direct current(DC) and alternating current(AC)
power supplies can be used for TIG welding.
Advantages:
• It is very much suitable for high quality welding of
thin materials (as thin as 0.125mm) which requires
good surface finish.
• No flux is used.
• Precise control of welding variables (heat).
• Because of clear visibility of arc and job operator
can exercise a better control on welding process.
• This method can weld in all positions and
produces smooth & sound welds .
• Very good process for joining non ferrous metals
(Al) & Stainless steel and High carbon steel.
Disadvantages:
• Lower deposition rates
• More costly for welding thick sections as inert gas makes this
process more expensive than SMAW.
• Since TIG welding requires separate filler rod compared to
MIG it is slower process.
• Cost of equipment is high compared to submerged arc
welding.
Applications:
• Joining Al, Mg, Titanium alloys , SS, and other refractory
metals.
• Welding sheet metals and thinner sections.
• Precision welding in atomic energy, air craft, chemical &
instrumental industry.
 MIG Welding Principle
• MIG works on same principle of TIG or arc
welding. It works on basic principle of heat
generation due to electric arc. This heat is
further used to melt consumable electrode and
base plates metal which solidify together and
makes a strong joint. The shielded gases are
also supplied through nozzle which protect the
weld zone from other reactive gases. This
gives good surface finish and a stronger joint.
MIG Welding
 MIG Welding working
• First, a high voltage current is change into DC current
supply with high current at low voltage. This current
passes though welding electrode.
• A consumable wire is used as electrode. The electrode
is connected to the positive terminal and work piece
from negative terminal.
• A fine intense arc will generate between electrode and
work piece due to power supply. This arc used to
produce heat which melts the electrode and the base
metal. Mostly electrode is made by the base metal for
making uniform joint.
• This arc is well shielded by shielding gases. These
gases protect the weld form other reactive gases which
can damage the strength of welding joint.
• This electrode travels continuously on welding area for
making proper weld joint.
 Advantages
• It provide higher deposition rate.
• It is faster comparing to arc welding because it
supply filler material continuously.
• It produce clean weld with better quality.
• There is no slag formation.
• Minimize weld defects.
• This welding produces very little slag.
• It can be used to make deep groove weld.
• It can be easily automated.
 Disadvantages
• It cannot be used for welding in difficult to
reach portions.
• Higher initial or setup cost.
• It cannot be used for outdoor work because
wind can cause damage of gas shield.
• It required high skilled labor.
 Applications
• MIG is best suited for fabrication of sheet
metal.
• Generally all available metals can be weld
through this process.
• It can be used for deep groove welding
 MIG WELDING TIG WELDING
1. This welding is known as metal 1. This is known as tungsten inert
inert gas welding. gas welding.
2. Metal rod is used as electrode 2. Tungsten rod is used as
and work piece used as another electrode.
electrode.
3. It is gas shielded metal arc 3. It is gas shielded tungsten arc
welding. welding.
4. Continuous feed electrode wire 4. Welding rods are used which are
is used which are fast feeding. slow feeding.
5. The welding area is flooded with 5. Gas is used to protect the welded
a gas which will not combine with area form atmosphere.
the metal.
6. MIG can weld materials such as 6. TIG weld things like kitchen
mild steel, stainless steel and sinks and tool boxes. Pipe welding
aluminum. A range of material and other heavier tasks can also be
thicknesses can be welded from performed, you just need to have a