LABORATORY MANUAL

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES – 1

TA 202 LAB
Department of Mechanical Engineering
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY KANPUR
 GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

1. Every student should obtain a set of instruction sheets entitled manufacturing processes Laboratory.

2. For reasons of safety, every student must come to the laboratory in shoes. It is unsafe for the
students to come to the laboratory wearing garments with parts that that hang about loosely. Students
should preferably use half-sleeve shirts. The Students should also ensure that floor around the
machine is clear and dry (not oily) to avoid slipping.

3. An apron will be issued to each student. Students not wearing an apron will not be permitted to the
work in the laboratory.

4. Instruments and tools will be issued from the tool room. Every student must produce his identity card
for the purpose. Tools, etc. must be retuned to the tool room on the same day.

5. The student should take the permission of the Lab Staff / Tutor before handling any machine.

6. The student should not lean on the machine when it is working.

7. Power to the machines will be put off 10 minutes before the end of laboratory session to allow the
students to return the tools.

8. Students are required to clear off the chips from the machine and lubricate the guides etc. at the end
of the session.

9. Laboratory reports should be submitted on A4 size sheets.

10. Reports will not be returned to the students. Students may see the graded reports in the laboratory

Manufacturing Processes I Page - 1 ME - Laboratory

 GENERAL INFORMATION
This laboratory is aimed at providing an introduction to the Know-how of common processes used in
industries for manufacturing parts by removal of material in a controlled manner. Auxiliary methods for
machining to desired accuracy and quality will also be covered. The emphasis throughout the laboratory
course will be on understanding the basic features of the processes rather than details of constructions of
machine, or common practices in manufacturing or acquiring skill in the operation of machines. Evidently,
acquaintance with the machine is desirable and the laboratory sessions will provide adequate opportunity for
this.
LABORATORY EXERCISE

I Turning (T) & NC Demonstration 6 hr.

II Milling 3 hr.
III Drilling and Fitting (D&F) 3 hr.
IV CNC Exercise 3 hr.

LABORATORY EXERCISE
I Turning (T) & Demonstration & Practice 3hrs.
II Milling & Shaping Demonstration & Practice 3 hrs.
III Drilling and Fitting (D&F) Demonstration & Practice 3 hrs.
IV CNC , Demonstration 3 hrs.
V CNC Practice 3 hrs.
LABORATORY EXERCISES SCHEDULE.

EXERCISE
POWER TRANSMITION Video Clip (10 MIN,)
LAB TURN LATHE MILLING & SHAPING DRILLING & FITTING
I A B C
2 B C A
3 C A B
On the 4th and 5th Laboratory turns the whole student group would be divided into two groups A & B and
would be assigned in the following manner

LAB TURN CNC Demonstration and CNC job practice Project discussion
programming with guide
4 (First half class) A B
4 (Second half class) B A
5 (First half class) A B
5 (Second half class) B A
NOTES: Each Section will be divided in to three groups (A, B, & C) in the first three lab turns and into two
groups (A & B) in the next two lab turns PROJECT

The Project consists of conceptualization a device designing, planning of machining and other operations,
fabrication of the components and assembly of the device. Before the final evaluation of the completed
project a report has to be submitted. This report should contain general description of the completed project,
design details, detailed drawings, and fabrication of the components, assembly I and testing, suggestions for
improvements.
I First turn : Project groups should be formed.
II Second turn : Project groups name should be given to the tutor.
III Third turn : Project discussion with Technical Staff / Guide with Material List.
IV Fourth to fifth turn: Everything should be finalized during the 4th to 5th lab turn. So the
work should start without any loss of time on the 6th lab turn.
# Number of components in the project should not be more than 25 (Excluding standard parts)
6th to 12th Projects.
Manufacturing Processes I Page - 2 ME – TA 202 Lab
 MACHINING PROCESSES

Machining is one of the processes of manufacturing in which the specified shape to the work piece is imparted by
removing surplus material. Conventionally this surplus material from the workpiece is removed in the form of chips by
interacting the workpiece with an appropriate tool. This mechanical generation of chips can be carried out by single
point or multi point tools or by abrasive operations these are summarized below:

Machining Processes

Single point tool operations Multi-point tool operations Abrasive operations

1. Turning 1. Milling 1. Grinding
2. Boring 2. Drilling 2. Lapping
3. Shaping 3. Tapping 3. Honing
4. Planing 4. Reaming 4. Super-finishing
5. Hobbing
6. Broaching
7. Sawing

The process of chip formation in metal cutting is affected by relative motion between the tool and the workpiece
achieved with the aid of a device called machine tool. This relative motion can be obtained by a combination of rotary
and translatory movements of either the tool or the workpiece or both. The kind of surface that is produced by the
operation depends on the shape of the tool and the path it traverses through the materials. When the workpiece is
rotated about an axis and the tool is traversed in a definite path relative to the axis, a surface of revolution is generated.
When the tool path is parallel to the axis, the surface generated is a cylinder as in straight turning (Fig.1.) or boring
(Fig.2.) operations. Similarly, planes may be generated by a series of straight cuts without rotating the workpiece as in
shaping and planning operations (Fig.3). In shaping the tool is reciprocating and the work piece is moved crosswise at
the end of each stroke. Planning is done by reciprocating the workpiece and crosswise movement is provided to the
tool.

Surface may be machined by the tools having a number of cutting edges that can cut successively through the
workpiece materials. In plane milling, the cutter revolves and moves over the work piece as shown (Fig.4). The axis of
the cutter is parallel to the surface generated. Similarly in drilling, the drill may turn and be fed into the workpiece of the
workpiece may revolve while the drill is fed into it (Fig.5).

The machine tools, in general, provide two kinds of relative motions. The primary motion is responsible for the cutting
action and absorbs most of the power required to perform the machining action. The secondary motion of the feed
motion may proceed in steps or continuously and absorbs only a fraction of the total power required for machining.
When the secondary motion is added to the primary motion, machine surfaces of desired geometric characteristics are
produced. .

Consider a situation where both the cutting motions as well as the feed motion (provided at the end of each stroke) are
rectilinear but perpendicular to each other. Here the machined surface produced is a plane. The line generated by the
primary motion (cutting motion) is called the generatrix, while the line representing the secondary motion (feed motion)
is called the directrix (Fig. 6a).

Depending upon the shapes of the generatrix and the directrix and their relative orientation various geometries can be
produced on the workpiece. Consider another case when the generatrix is a circle and the directrix is a line
perpendicular to the plane of the generatrix. It is clear that in this situation the surface produced will be a cylinder (Fig.
6b). A tapered surface can be produced by merely changing the angle that the directrix makes with the plane of the
generatrix. When the directrix is in the plane of the circular generatrix (Fig. 6c), lines are generated which results in a
plain surface when a number of generatrices and directrices are placed side by side in the direction perpendicular to the
plane of the generatrix. In actual practice, the cutting is performed by cutting edge and not a point. Thus, a series of
generatrix directrix combinations are involved and the relative motion produces a surface rather than a line.

Basically there are two methods of producing new surfaces, the tracing method and the generation method. In
the tracing method the surface is obtained by direct tracing of the generatrices and when the surface produced is the
envelope of the generatrics the process is known as generation. Figs. 6(a) & 6{b), the plane and the cylindrical surfaces
are obtained by direct tracing, while in Fig. 6(c) the final surface geometry is the envelope of the generatrices.

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 Fig. 1 Straight turning Fig. 2 Straight boring Fig. 3 Shaping and planning

Fig. 5 Drilling

Fig.6 Concept of generatrix and directrix. (a) Rectilinear generatrix and directrix.
(b) Directrix perpendicular to the plane of generatrix.
(c) Directrix in the plane of generatrix.
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 INTRODUCTION TO LATHE MACHINE AND EXERCISE ON TURNING

PART (A)

OBJECTIVE :To study the characteristic features of lathe.

OUTLINE OF PROCEDURE
i) Run the machine at low speed and observe the motions, which control the shapes of the surfaces
produced. Note particularly the features, which control the geometrical form of the surface.
ii) Learn the names of the major units and the components of each machine. Record these details
(Table A). (Please ensure that the main isolator switch is off and check that the machine. cannot be
inadvertently started. Do not remove guards). Use the manufacture's handbook for details that cannot
be inspected.
iii) Record the obtainable speed and feed values (Table B).
iv) Note down the special features of the speed and feed control on each machine.
v) Pay attention to the following:
a. Size specification of various machine tools.
b. Machine tool structures and guide ways I slide ways.
c. Drive mechanism for primary (cutting) motion.
d. Drive mechanism for secondary (feed) motion.
OBSERVATIONS: (a) Record the following in a tabular form:
Machine Tool Specifications (Table A)

Machine Type & Size Speed given to Feed given to Type of

Make Surface
Tool Work Tool Work Produced
lathe

Speed and Feed Data (Table B)

, ..,' ,

No. Lathe

Speed Feed
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

(b) Plot the lathe speeds against No. from Table B on a semi-log graph paper and show that the speed steps are in G.P.

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 PART (B)

OBJECTIVE: To make the part shown in the sketch from a mild steel rod on a Lathe.

EQUIPMENTS: List all tools and Instruments used.

OUTLINE OF PROCEDURE

Hold the bar in a three jaw chuck and face the end with a right hand facing tool. Make central hole
with a center drill. Repeat this operation for the other end of the bar. Replace the chuck by a Dog
plate (Center plate) and hold the work piece in a carrier between centers. Turn the bar to the required
diameter with rough cuts. Face the steps and finishes the diameters to the required sizes. Machine the
groove with form tools. Machine the taper with the help of the cross-slide swiveling arrangement
required surface. Cut the threads.

OBSERVATIONS

(a) Measure all dimensions (up to second decimal place) on the specimen turned by your
group. Make a neat sketch and indicate all measured dimensions.
(b) Discuss briefly how tapered portion was turned.
(c) Show the calculation of the required gear ratio for thread cutting.
(d) Sketch the main drive unit of 'the- lathe and show how the speed steps are obtained.

Manufacturing Processes I Page-6 ME TA-202

 MILLING: INTRODUCTION AND PRACTICE

PART (A)

OBJECTIVE: To study the characteristic features of Milling machine.

OUTLINE OF PROCEDURE

i) Run the machine at low speed and observe the motions, which control the shapes of the surfaces
produced. Note particularly the features, which control the geometrical form of the surface.

ji) Learn the names of the major units and the components of each machine. Record these details
(Table A). (Please ensure that the main isolator switch is off and check that the machine cannot be
inadvertently started. Do not remove guards). Use the manufacture's handbook for details that cannot
be inspected.

jii) Record the obtainable speed and feed values (Table B).

iv) Note down the special features of the speed and feed control on each machine.

v) Pay attention to the following:

a. Size specification of various machine tools.
b. Machine tool structures and guide ways I slide ways.
c. Drive mechanism for primary (cutting) motion.
d. Drive mechanism for secondary (feed) motion.

OBSERVATION: Record the following in a tabular form:

Machine Tool Specifications (Table A)

Milling m/c

Speed and Feed Data (Table B)

No. Milling m/c.

Speed Feed
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
 PART (B)

OBJECTIVE:
To machine the hexagonal head and the slot shown in the sketch on the specimen.

EQUIPMENT: List all tools / cutters and instruments used.

OUTLINE OF PROCEDURE

Fit the helical cutter on the arbor and the specimen between the centers of the dividing head
and the tail center. Carefully adjust the work piece so that the cutter just touches the top
surface of the specimen. Calculate the necessary depth of cut and then mill the six faces of
the hexagonal head in succession. Change the cutter and mill the rectangular slot.

OBSERVATIONS
(a) Measure all dimensions (up to second decimal place) on the specimen milled by your
group. Make a neat sketch and indicate all measured dimensions.
(b) Explain in brief how the required indexing was obtained with the dividing head.
(c) Explain up-milling and down-milling operations. Which one did you use for slot
milling and why?
(d) Explain the advantages of using a helical milling cutter.

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 SHAPING: INTRODUCTION AND PRACTICE

PART (A)

OBJECTIVE: To study the characteristic features of Shaper.

OUTLINE OF PROCEDURE

i) Run the machine at low speed and observe the motions, which control the shapes of the surfaces
produced. Note particularly the features, which control the geometrical form of the surface.

ii) Learn the names of the major units and the components of each machine. Record these details
(Table A). (Please ensure that the main isolator switch is off and check that the machine cannot be
inadvertently started. Do not remove guards). Use the manufacture's handbook for details that cannot
be inspected.

iii) Record the obtainable speed and feed values (Table B).

iv) Note down the special features of the speed and feed control on each machine.

v) Pay attention to the following:

a. Size specification of various machine tools.
b. Machine tool structures and guide ways I slide ways.
c. Drive mechanism for primary (cutting) motion.
d. Drive mechanism for secondary (feed) motion.

OBSERVATION Record the following in a tabular form:

Machine Tool Specifications (Table A)

Machine Type & Size Speed given to Feed given to Type of

Make Surface
Tool Work Tool Work Produced
Shaper
M/c.

Speed and Feed Data (Table 2)

No. Shaper M/c.

Speed Feed
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

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 PART (B)
OBJECTIVE:

To machine a V-block as shown in the sketch out of the workpiece provided.

EQUIPMENT

List all tools and instruments used.

OUTLINE OF PROCEDURE

Hold the work piece in a vice and machine the bottom surface shown in the sketch. Invert the casting in the
vice and machine the top surface till the desired height is obtained. Machine the inclined faces using right
and left hand tools. Finally machine the groove.

OBSERVATIONS

(a) Measure all dimensions (up to second decimal place) on he specimen machined by your group.
Make a neat sketch and indicate all measured dimensions.
(b) Explain -the quick return mechanism.
(c) Explain the use of clapper box on the machine.

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 DRILLING AND FITTING

PART (A)

OBJECTIVE: To study the characteristic features of Drilling machine.

OUTLINE OF PROCEDURE

i) Run the machine at low speed and observe the motions, which control the shapes of the surfaces
produced. Note particularly the features, which control the geometrical form of the surface.

ji) Learn the names of the major units and the components of each machine. Record these details
(Table A). (Please ensure that the main isolator switch is off and check that the machine cannot be
inadvertently started. Do not remove guards). Use the manufacture's handbook for details that cannot
be inspected.

jii) Record the obtainable speed and feed values (Table B).

iv) Note down the special features of the speed and feed control on each machine,

v) Pay attention to the following:

 Size specification of various machine tools,
 Machine tool structures and guide ways I slide ways.
 Drive mechanism for primary (cutting) motion,
 Drive mechanism for secondary (feed) motion.
Vi) Drill geometry - check for angles

OBSERVATION

Record the following in a tabular form:

Machine Tool Specifications (Table A)

Machine Type & Size Speed given to Feed given to Type of Surface
Make Produced
Tool Work Tool Work
Drilling
m/c

Speed and Feed Data (Table B)

No. Drilling M/c.

Speed Feed

1
2
3
4

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 PART (B)

OBJECTIVE:

To drill, file, as shown in the sketch, ream and tap holes on the mild steel plate.

EQUIPMENT: List all tools and instruments used.

OUTLINE OF PROCEDURE
File only two surfaces which make 90° each other mild steel work piece ensuring with a trisquare that the
angle is 90°. Mark two centers of the holes. Punch at the center and at two points on the periphery of the
required holes also punch full length of the Hacksaw cut from top to marking points. Drill and Ream the holes
as required. Tap the hole by using a set of three taps. Saw cut with the help of Hacksaw.

OBSERVATIONS
(a) Measure all dimensions (up to second decimal place) on the specimen made by
your group. Make a neat sketch and indicate all measured dimensions.
(b) Explain how power is transmitted from drill spindle to drill shank.'
(c) Sketch a reamer and show its main features.
(d) Explain why a set of three taps was used.

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 Overview of Numerical Control
A new technique for controlling the machine / production tools, the Numerical Control (NC) was developed in mid 50's. Prior to
this, all the machine / production tools were manually operated and controlled. Quality of the products produced by manually
operated machines is totally dependent on the skills and mind status of the human operator. Numerical control machines are
more accurate than manually operated machines, can produce components more uniformly, faster and in the long-run tooling
costs are smaller but the initial investment is higher.
Numerical Control (NC) has been defined by the Electronic industries Association (EIA) as 'a system in which actions are
controlled by direct insertion of numerical data at some point'. This s -stern automatically interprets symbolic instructions
(numerical dai3) to control machine tools and other manufacturing systems. Symbolic instructions or the numerical data
required to produce a part is called a 'part program'.
Traditionally, in "the NC machining, part drawing of the component to be machined is studied by the NC programmer who
translates the information on the drawing to the necessary programme which issues operational instructions to the machine
tools. The programme represents the path or action at every momment that the machine tool must take to properly machine
the part as described by the engineering drawing.
In the initial stages of NC development the programmed instructions stored on punched tapes where interpreted by
electromechanical tape readers connected to the machine tool. The main problem with tapes was that it was very difficult to
change the instructions on the tape. Even to make very minor instructions in the programme, new tape had to be made in
addition to interrupting machining. Operations. Another draw-back of using the tapes was that they had to be run as many
times as the number of components required, which decreased the life of tape.
With rapid developments in computer technology and its capabilities, the problems associated with punched paper/plastic
tape were solved. Rapid development in computer technology extended numerical control (NC) to direct numerical control
(dNC), computer numerical control (CN C) and distributed numerical control (DNC).

The problems faced by NC lead to the development of a concept known as direct numerical control (dNC) which
eliminates the use of tape as a medium of carrying the programmed instructions. In dNC many machine tools are connected to
a host computer through a data transmission link as shown in Fig. 15.13. Here, the NC programmes requirred to operate the
machines are stored in the host computer and are fed to the machine tool connected through the data transmission lines. Even
though dNC eliminates the use of tape, it will suffer whenever the host computer goes down. This shortfall of dNC led to the
development of computer numerical control (CNC) which allowed NC machines at remote locations to be connected to the
host computer.
The development: of programmable logic controllers (PLC) and micro-computers lead to the development of computer
numerical control (CNC). In CNC technology, each machine tool has a PLC or a micro-computer which allows the programmes
to be input and stored at ea.ch and every machine. In addition. programmes can be developed off-line and down-loaded to the
micro-processors/PLCs present at individual machine tools. Even though it rectified the problems associated with the down-
time of host computer as in dNC, but a new problem known as data management came into picture. For exampIe the same
prorarnmme may get loaded on many different microcomputers Witch control the machine tools as there is no communication
present among them. This problem of data rnanagement was solved by the development of distributed numerical control
(DNC).
Distributed numerical control (Fig. 15.14) \Vas developed by combining the positive point of both direct numerical control
(dNC) and computer numerical control (CNC). Hence, in distributed numerical control (DNC) both host and local computers
are present at individual machine tool. Here host computers are used as main storage devices and programmes are down-
loaded to the mini-computers present at various machines where they are stored or transmitted to the NC machines. Mini-
computer controllers also serve as back-up memory whenever the host computer is down. Therefore, the NC machines do not
have to be down when the host computer is down. An effective data transmission network from the host computer to the
micro-computer controls the NC machines and is key to the success of distributed numerical control systems. In rest of this
book, NC is used as synonym for CNC

Various components present in NC machine tool are:

. Machine tool
. Machine Control Unit (MCU)
. Communication interface and accessories
The machine tool may be any type of machine tool used in the manufacturing industry. Machine control unit (MCV) is the
control unit that reads and interprets the numerical data/part programme from the tap or any other media and passes on this
information in the form of electrical signals to various activators / drive mechanisms of the machine to operate the machine tool
in the desired way.
Numerical control Machines are classified based on the type of motion control. the presence of feed-back loops, the
power drives the positioning system used and the number of axes of motion which can be controlled.

Two types of motion controls are used on NC machines. They are point-to-point or continuous-path controlled. As the name
implies, the point-to-point (PTP) controlled machines move in a series of steps from one point to the other point. A machine
with PTP control can perform very limited number of machining opera ions. In almost all the cases where PTP control is used,

Manufacturing Processes I Page - 13 ME - Laboratory

 its function is to move the machine table or the spindle to a desired position to perform the machining operation at that
position/point. In general, no machining is performed when the movement from one point to other is taking place, hence
movement is made as rapidly as possible.
When there is no need of machining between two points, path to be followed between them is not specified. Continuous
path machines move uniformly and evenly by controlling the motion of two are more axes simultaneously. Here, the path to be
followed along with the destinations have to be mentioned as the machining is invariably done along that path. Figure 15.15
shows the cutting paths followed by PTP and continuous path machines.
Depending on the presence of the feedback, they are classified as open-loop system or closed-loop system (Fig. 15.16 and
15.17). In closed-loop systems, a transducer sends the current table position to the control unit and the driving unit (typically
motor) stops running as the table reaches its desired position, hence accurate positioning can be achieved with closed-loop
control systems. Closed-loop NC systems use servomotors where as open-loop systems use stepper motors.

NC machines are classified into three types: hydraulic, pneumatic or electric based on the type of power used to drive the
axes and spindle. Most of the modern NC machines use electric drives (AC or DC servo motors) to drive its axes and spindle
because of its compact size, ease of control and low cost.
Depending on the positioning system used on the machine, they are classified as incremental or absolute positioning
machines. Modern NC machine tools allow the programmer to choose either of the above mentioned positioning systems or
both of them together through part programme. In absolute positioning system. the end point of the tool for a particular move
has to be mentioned in the programme with respect to the origin. But in incremental system, the end point of the tool for a
particular move has to be mentioned with respect to the current tool position.
Origin is a reference point used within the NC part program as the basis of defining tool location and other geometric
entities. While developing an NC programme the programmer assumes that the tool is located at some Specific point relative
to the workpiece to be machined and this point is designated as origin. In practice, during set-up and before starting the
programme the operator has to move tile tool to a position which is designated as origin in that particular programme and then
presses a button on control panel to select that as the origin. It means that the origin could be any where within the machine
work space, hence it is called a floating zero. In the older generation NC machine tools, this facility was not available. The
origin was a fixed point and the programmer had to write the programme with respect to that particular point.
The purpose of any production system is to produce a part in the most economic way without compromising on the
desired qualities. Many large and small industries have undertaken the conversion from manual machines and processes to
NC to get benefits. Some of these are listed below:

. Flexibiiity is high
. Scheduling is easier
. Set-up lead and processing times arc less.
. Greater uniformity and accuracy in cutting.
. Lover overall tooling costs .
. Low inventory
. Inspection cost is less
. Higher degree of interchangeability of parts and tools

In spite of the above mentioned benefits, there are some negative points as well. The most prominent ones are:
. Large initial investments
. Programming costs
. Training and retraining costs for the existing work force
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 Numerical-Control Programming
10.1 NC PART PROGRAMMING

10.1.1 Coordinate Systems

In an NC system, each axis of motion is equipped with a separate driving source that replaces the hand wheel of
the conventional machine. The driving source can be a DC motor, a stepping motor, or a hydraulic actuator. The
source selected is determined mainly based on the precision requirements of the machine, as described in
Chapter 9.
The relative movement between tools and workpieces is achieved by the motion of the machine tool slides.
The three main axes of motion are referred to as the X, Y. and Z axes. The Z axis is perpendicular to both the X
and Y axes in order to create a right-hand coordinate system, as shown in Figure 10.1.A positive Motion in the Z
direction moves the cutting tool away from the workpiece. This is detailed as follows:

Z AXIS

1. On a workpiece -rotating machine, such as a lathe, the Z axis is parallel In the spindle, and the positive Motion
moves the tool away from the workpiece (figure 10.2).
2. On a tool-rotating machine, such as a milling or boring machine, the Z axis is parallel to the tool axis, and the
positive motion moves the tool away from the workpiece (Figures 10.3 and 10.4).
3. On other machines, such as a press, a planing machine, or shearing machine, the Z axis is perpendicular to
the tool set, and the positive motion increases the distance between the tool and the workpiece.

X AXIS

1. On a lathe, the X axis is the direction of tool movement, and the positive motionmoves the tool away from
the workpiece
2. On a horizontal milling machine, the X axis is parallel to the table.
3. On a vertical milling machine, the positive X axis points to the right when the prorammer is facing the
machine.

The Y axis is the axis left in a standard Cartesian coordinate system.

10.1.2 NC Program Storage Media

Modern CNC controllers provide several ways of transferring data. Perhaps the most typical data-communication
methods used to transfer part program files is an RS-232C interface (see Chapter 8). An NC part program is
stored in a file on a computer or a CNC controller. The file download (or upload) can be initiated by setting up a
transfer mode on the CNC controller. On the other side of the communication cable is a computer that sends or
receives data byte by byte. The operator must start and end the data-transfer process on both the CNC controller
and the computer. Some machines use higher-level protocols to ensure an error-free data transfer. Two of the
higher-level protocols used are Kermit and Xmodem. Kermit and Xmodem arc widely accepted in the computer-
to-computer telecommunication file-transfer process. These protocols allow the file transfer to be controlled by
either the computer or the controller. The computer can send and retrieve data directly.
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 Some machines also provide local-area network (LAN) instead of serial communication. Ethernet and MAP
are two technologies used. Some CNC controllers allow the entire controller function to be initiated from a remote
computer through the data-communication network.

10.1.3

A BCD (binary-coded decimal) or ASCII (American Standard Code for Information interchange) code is frequently
used in NC applications.

. BCD: An eight-track punched tape is one of the more common input media for NC systems. Hence, all data in the
form of symbols, letters, und numbers must be: represent able by eight binary fields. The BCD code has been
devised to satisfy this requirement. In a BCD code, the numerals 0 through 9 are specified using only the first
four tracks, quantities 1,2,4, and 8. Note that the four number: 1.2,4. and 8. added together as needed make all
numbers from 1 to 15. Letters, symbols and spccial instructions are indicated by using tracks 5 through 8 in
combination with the numeral tracks. A complete BCD character set, based on EIA Standard RS244A, is
illustrated in Figure 10.6. Each BCD character must have all odd number of holes. By punching a parity bit along
with all even bit strings, all characters have an odd number of holes. If an even number of holes is detected, it is
by definition an error, and a parity check occurs. This simple method provides some: protection from input errors
resulting in part damage.

. ASCII: ASCII was formulated to standardize punched-tape codes regardless of applications (Pressman and
Williams, 1979). Hence, ASCII is used in computer and telecommunications as well as in NC applications. ASCII
code was devised to support a large character set that includes uppercase and lowercase letters and additional
special symbols not used in NC application Figure 10.6 illustrates the ASCII subset applicable to NC. Many new
control systems now accept both BCD and ASCII codes. It is likely that the move toward ASCII standardization
will progress as older NC equipment is replaced.

10.1.4 Tape Input Formats

The organization of words within blocks is called the tape format (EIA Standard RS274) (Groover, 1980). Four
tape formats are used for NC input (Pressman and Williams, 1979):

1. The fixed sequential format requires that each NC block be the same length and contain the same number of
characters. This restriction enables the block to be divided into substrings corresponding to each of the NC data
types. Because block length is invariant, all values must appear even if some types are not required.
2. The block-address format eliminates the need for specifying redundant illformation in subsequent NC blocks
through the specification of a change code. The change code follows the block sequence number and indicates
which values arc to be changed relative to the preceding blocks. All data must contain a predefined number of
digits in this form t.
3. The tab sequential format derives its name because words are listed in a fixed sequence and separated by
depressing the tab key (TAB) when typing the manuscript on a Flexowriter. Two or more tabs immediately
following one another indicate that the data that -would normally occupy the null locations are redundant and have
been omitted. An example of tab sequential NC code is

TOO1 TO1 TO7500 TO6250 T10000 T612 T718 T T EOB

TO02 T T08725 TO6750 T T T T EOB
TO03 T T T TO5000 T520 T620 TO1 T EOB

(T represents a tab character.)

4. The word-address format places a letter preceding each word and is used to identify the word type and to Address
the data to a particular location in thecontroller. The X prefix identifies an X-coordinate word, 30 S prefix identifies
spindle speed, and so on. The standard sequence of words in 2t block for a three axis NC machine is.

N word G word X word Y word Z word F word S word T word M word and EOB

A word-address NC code is
NOO1 GO1 X07500 Y06250 Z1OOOO F612 5718 EOB NOO2 X08752 Y06750 EOB
NOO3 Z05000F520 S620 MO1 EOB

A block of NC part program consists of several words. A part program written in this data format is called a G-
code program. A G-code program contains the following words:
N. G, X, Y, Z, A, B. C. I, J. K, F, S, T, R. M
Through these words, all NC control functions can be programmed. An EIA standard. RS-273, defines a set of
standard codes. However, it also allows for the customizing of certain codes. Even with this standard, there is still
a wide variation of cod format. A program written for one controller often does not run on another. It is, therefore,

Manufacturing Processes I Page - 16 ME - Laboratory

essential to refer to the programming manual for the target machine before a program is written. In this section,
before the meaning of each word is explained, we will first analyze the requirements of an NC control.

10.1.5.1 Basic requirement of NC machine control.

To control a machine, it is necessary to begin by defining the coordinates of the tool motion. It is necessary to
specify whether the motion is a positioning motion (rapid traverse) or a feed motion (cutting). 'The feed motion
includes linear motion and circular motion. Linear motion requires the destination coordinates. When circular
interpolation is used, the center of the circle must be given in addition to the destination. Before a cutting motion is
called out, the spindle must be turned to the desired rpm and the feed speed must be specified. The spindle can
rotate either clockwise or counterclockwise. Sometimes coolant is required in machining, and the coolant may be
applied in flood or mist form. If an automatic tool changer is present, the next tool number has to be known to the
controller before a tool can be changed to the machine spindle. The sequence to change the tool also needs to be
specified. It is often desirable to aggregate a fixed sequence of operations such as drilling holes into a cycle.
Using cycle codes can drastically reduce programming effort. Additional information is needed for specific cycle
operations. Finally, there are other programming functions, such as units-inch or metric-positioning system-
absolute or incremental, and so on. All of these activities can (and in some cases must) be controlled through the
NC controller and related part program. These control functions and data requirements are summarized in what
follows:

(a) Preparatory functions: the words specify which units, which interpolator, Absolute or incremental
Programming, which circular interpolation plane, cutter compensation, and so on.
(b) Coordinates: define three translational (and three rotational) axes.
(c) Machining parameters: specify feed and speed.
(d) Tool control: specifics tool diameter, next tool number, tool change, and so on.
(e) Cycle functions: specify drill cycle, ream cycle, bore cycle, mill cycle, and clearance plane.
(d) Coolant control: specify the coolant condition, that is, coolant on/off, flood. And mist.
(g) Miscellaneous control: specifies all other control specifics, that is, spindle on/of, tape rewind, spindle rotation
direction, pallet change, clamps control, and so on.
(h) Interpolators: linear, circular interpolation, circle center, and so on.

These control functions are programmed through program words (codes).

1 0.1 5,2 N words

A specific NC function may be programmed using an NC word or a combination of NC words. All functions can be
programmed in one block of a program. Many CNC controllers allow several of the same “word" be present in the
same block. Thus, several functions can be included in one block, this is normally done by using a word-address
format, which is the most popular format used in modern CNC controllers. The sequence of the words within one
block is usually not important, except for the sequence number that must be the first word in the block. In order to
make a program more readable, it is a good practice to follow a fixed sequence. Each word consists of a symbol
and a numeral. The symbol is either N, G, X, V, and so on. Numerals follow as data in a prespecified format. For
example, the format for an X word might he ".3.4:' which means three, digits before the decimal point and four
digits after the decimal are used. The function of each NC word (code) and their applications are discussed in
what follows:

N-code. A part program block usually begins with an “N” word. The N word specifies the sequence number. It is
used to identify the block within the program. It is especially useful for program editing. For example when the
format is “4” a proper sequence number would be
N00I0
It is a good practice to program N values in increments of 10 or greater. This allows additional blocks to be
inserted between two existing blocks.
G-code. The G-code is also called preparatory code or word. It is used to prepare the MCU for control functions.
It indicates that a given control function is requested or that a certain unit or default be taken. There are modal
functions and non modal functions. Modal functions are those that do not change after they have been specified
once, such as unit selection. Non modal functions are active in the block where they are specified. For example,
circular interpolation is a non modal function. Some commonly used G-codes arc listed in the Table 10.1. Some of
these functions are explained in what follows.
G00 is the rapid traverse code that makes the machine move at maximum speed. It is used for positioning
motion. When G01. G02, or G03 are specified, the machine moves at the feed speed. G01 is linear interpolation;
G02 and G03 are for circular interpolation. For circular interpolation, the tool destination and the circle center are
programmed in one block (explained later). G04(dwell) is used to stop the motion for a time specified in the block.
G08 and G09 codes specify acceleration and deceleration, respectively. They are used to increase (decrease) the
speed of motion (feed speed) exponentially to the desired speed. Before an abrupt turn, decelerate the tool.
Rapid acceleration in the new direction may cause a tool to break. The best accuracy can be obtained with
acceleration and deceleration codes on and set to lower values. Most NC controllers interpolate circles on only
Manufacturing Processes I Page - 17 ME - Laboratory
 TABLE 10.1 G CODES
G00 Rapid traverse G40 Cutter compensation cancel
G01 Linear interpolation G41 Cutter compensation left
G02 Circular interpolation CW G42 Cutter compensation right
G03 Circular interpolation CCW G70 Inch format
G04 Dwell G71 Metric format
G08 Acceleration G74 Full-circle programming off
G09 Deceleration G75 Full-circle programming on
G17 X-Y plane G80 Fixed-cycle cancel
G18 Z-X Plane G81-89 Fixed cycles
G19 Y-Z Plane G90 Absolute dimension program
G91 Incremental dimension

XY. YZ, and XZ planes. The interpolation plane can be selected using G 17, G18 or G 19. When a machine is
equipped with thread-cutting capability, (G33-G35), the part program must specify the proper way to cut the
thread. Codes G4O-G43 deal with cutter compensation. They simplify the cutter-center offset calculation. More
details of cutter compensation are discussed later in Section 10.2.2. Most canned cycles are manufacturer-
defined. They include drilling, peck drilling, spot drilling, milling, and profile turning cycles. The machine-tool
manufacturer may assign them to one of the nine G codes reserved for machine manufacturers (GS)-G89). A
user also can program the machine using either absolute (G90) or incremental (G91) coordinates. In the same
program, the coordinate system can be changed. In order to simplify the presentation, most of the examples given
in this chapter use absolute coordinate. Many controllers also allow the user to use either inch units (G70) or
metric units (G71). Because hardwired NC circular interpolators work only in one quadrant and many CNC
systems allow full-circle interpolation, a (G74) code emulates NC circular interpolation for CNC controllers. G75
returns the CNC back to the full-circle circular interpolation mode.
X,Y,Z,A,B and C-Codes. These words provide the coordinate positions of the tool. X, Y and Z define the three
translational (Cartesian) axes of a machine. A. B. C are used for the three rotational axes about the X,Y, and Z
axes. For a three axis there can be only three translational axes. Most applications only require X. Y.and Z codes
in part programs. However, for four-, five-,or six-axis machine tools. A, B, and C are also used. The coordinates
may be specified in decimal number (decimal programming) or integer number (BLU programming). For a
controller with a data format of "3.4", to move the cutter to (1.12,2.275. 1.0). the codes are :

X1.1200 Y2.2750 Z1.OOO

In BLU programming, the programmer also may need to specify leading zero(s), or trailing-zero formats. A
leading-zero format means that zeros must be entered in the space proceeding the numeric value. In this format,
the controller locates the decimal point by counting the digits from the beginning of a number. In trailing-zero
format, it is reversed. The number specified is in the BLU unit. The data format "3.4" implies that a BLU equals
0.0001 in. (fourth decimal place). By using the data from preceding example, the leading-zero program would be
X.0112 Y002275 Z00l

In the trailing-zero format, the program looks like X.11200 Y22750 Z10000

For circular motion, more information is needed. A circular are is defined by the start and end points, the center,
and the direction. Because the start point is always the current tool position, only the end point, the circle center.
And the direction needs to be specified. I, J. and K words are used to specify the center. Usually, circular
interpolation works only on either X- Y, Y-Z. or X-Z planes. When interpolating a circular are on the X- Y plane,
the I word provides the X. coordinate value of the circle center and the J word provides the Y coordinate value. X
and Y words specify the end point. Clockwise or counterclockwise motions me specified by the G-code (G02
versus G03). There are many variations in circular interpolation programming. Each NC controller vendor has its
own form and formal. Also they can depend on the combination of absolute or incremental, full-circle on or off
modes. The following example is based on absolute programming with full circle on for a hypothetical controller.

F-Code. The F-code specifics the feed speed of the tool motion. It is the relative speed between the cutting tool
and the work piece. It is typically specified in in./min (ipm). From a machinability data handbook, feed is given in
in./rev (ipr). A conversion has to be done either by hand or on-hoard the controller. Some Controllers offer a G-
code that specifies the ipr programming mode. When the ipr programming mode is used, the tool diameter and
the number of teeth must he specified by the operator. The F-code must be given before G01, G02 or G03 can be
used. Feed speed can be changed frequently in a program, as needed. When an F-code is present in a block, it
takes effect immediately. To specify a 6.00-ipm feed speed for the cutting motion in Figure 10.7, one would
program .

N0100 G02 X7.000 Y2.000 15.000 .: .O( I ,c,: OIJ

Manufacturing Processes I Page - 18 ME - Laboratory

S-Code. The S-code is the cutting-speed code. Cutting speed is the specification of the relative surface speed of
the cutting edge with respect to the work piece. It is the result of the tool (or workpiece in turning) rotation.
Therefore, it is programmed in rpm. The Machinability Data Handbook (Machinability Data Center, 1980) gives
these values in surface feet per minute (sfpm), and conversion is required before programming is done. When a
controller is equipped with a sfpm programming option, the operator must specify the tool diameter. The S-code is
specified before the spindle is turned on The S-code does not turn on the spindle. The spindle is turned on by an
M-code. To specify a 1000-rpm spindle speed, the . program block is

N0010 S1000

I-code. The I-code is used to specify the tool number. It is used only when an automatic tool changer is present.
It specifies the stot number on the tool magazine in which the next tool is located. Actual tool change does not
occur until a tool-change M-code is specified.
R –Code. The R -code is used for cycle parameter. When a drill cycle is specified, one must give a clearance
height (R plane) (see-Figure 10.8). The R-code is used to specify this clearance height. In Figure 10.8, the drill
cycle consists of five operations:
1. Rapid to location (1.2.2).
2. Rapid down to the R plane.
3. Feed to the x point. the bottom of the hole.
4. Operation at the bottom of the hole, for example, dwelling.
5. Rapid or feed to either the R plane or the initial height.
The cycle may be programmed in one block, such as (cycle programming is vendor-specific)

N0010. G81 X1.000 Y2.000 Z0.000 R 1.300

M-Code. The M-code is called the miscellaneous word and is used 10 control miscellaneous functions of the
machine. Such functions include turn the spindle on/off, start/stop the machine, turn on/off the coolant, change the
tool, and rewind the program (tape) (Table 10.2). M00 and M01 both stops the machine in the middle of a
program. M01 is effective only when the optional stop button on the control panel is depressed. The program can
be resumed through the control panel. M02 marks the end of the program. M03 turns on the spindle (clockwise).
The spindle rpm must be specified in the same line or in a previous line. M04 is Similar to M03, except it turns the
spindle on counterclockwise. M05 turns off the spindle. M06 signals the tool-change operation. On a machine
equipped with an automatic tool changer, it stops the spindle, retracts the spindle to the tool-change position, and
then changes the tool to the one specified in the T -code. M07 and M08 turn on different modes of coolant. MO9
turns off the coolant. M30 marks the end of the tape. It stops the spindle and rewinds the program (tape). On
some controllers, more than one M-code is allowed in the same block.

TABLE 10.2 M-CODES

M00 Program stop M06 Tool change
M01 Optional stop M07 Flood coolant on
M02 End of program M08 Mist coolant on
M03 Spindle CW M09 Coolant off
M04 Spindle CCW M30 End of tape

10.2 MANUAL PART PROGRAMMING

10.2.1 Part Programs

In manual part programming, the machining instructions are recorded on a document, called a part-program
manuscript (see Figure 10.9) by the part programmer. The manuscript is essentially on ordered list of program
blocks. The manuscript is other entered as a computer file or punched on a paper tape. Each symbol on the
numeric or special characters, corresponds to a perforation(s)on the tape (or magnetic bit pattern on a disk) and
is referred to as a character. Each line: of the manuscript is equivalent to a block on the: punched tap and is
followed by an EOB (end-of-block) character. When it is stored in a computer file, a tape-image format is used.
Manufacturing Processes I Page - 19 ME - Laboratory
 Because a part program records a sequence of tool motion and operations to produce the final part
geometry one must prepare a process plan with setups and fixtures before writing the program (see Chapter
13).The work piece location and orientation, features (holes. slots, pockets) to be machined, tools and cutting
parameters used need to be determined. We will use an example to illustrate how a part is programmed.
Example 10.1
The part drawing shown in Figure 10.10 is to he machined from a 4-in. x 4-in.x 2-in, work piece. The work piece
material is low-carbon steel. We will use a hypothetical 3-axis CNC machining center for the process. The
process plan for the part is as follows:
1. Set the lower left bottom corner of the part as the machine zero point (floating-zero programming).
2. Clamp the work piece in a vice.
3. Mill the slot with a ¾-in four flute flat ,end mill made of carbide. Form the machin ability data hand book,
the recommended feed in 0.005 in./tooth/rev and the recommended cutting speed is 620 fpm.
4. Drill two holes with a 0.75-in –diameter twist drill. Use 0.18-ipr feed and 100-rpm speed.

Figure 10.11 shows the setup, fixturing and cutter path. Write a part program for the part.
Solution The cutting parameters need be converted into rpm and ipm.
Milling :
12V 12 X 620 fpm
rpm = ----- = ------------------ = 3157 rpm
πD π x 0.75 in
Vf = nf rpm = 4 tpr x 0.005 iprpt x 3157 rpm = 63 ipm

Drilling:
12V 12 X 100 fpm
rpm = ----- = ------------------ = 509 rpm
πD π x 0.75 in

Vf = f rpm = 0.018 ipr X 509 rpm = 9.16 ipm

For the milling operation, the cutter is smaller than the slot, and two passes are required. The cutter first moves to
p1 (the prime denotes the upper point).There must be clearance between the cutter and the workpiece, so that
the cutter will not touch the workpiece during rapid positioning. We will use 0.1in as the clearance. The cutter then
plunges down to p1, which is on the slot bottom level. Both p2 and p3 are outside the workpiece to ensure the slot
edges are completely cut. The center of the cutter overhangs the edge by 0.1 in. The cutter moves to p4 from p3
to clear the slot. p5 is the beginning of a circular interpolation and p6 is the end. From p6, the cutter moves to p7
to clear the center of the circular area and then moves to p8. After the milling operation, a drill is installed in the
spindle through an automatic tool change. The two holes are drilled using a drilling cycle.

Manufacturing Processes I Page - 20 ME - Laboratory

Combining the information from the process plan and the cutter-location data, a part program can be written. The
program for the example part is shown in Figure 10.12. A step-by-step explanation is presented on the right-hand-
side of the figure. The part program is Verified using a program called Mac CNCS, and the results are in Figure
10.13 the result in figure 10.13 is the same as what is shown in Figure 10.11: Thus the program is correct. A
three-dimensional view can also be found in Figure 10.14.

Part program Explanation

N0010 G70 G90 T08 M06 Set the machine to the inch format and absolute dimension
programming.
N0020 G00 X2.I25 V-0.475 Z4.000 53157 Rapid to p1
N0030 G01 Z1500 F63 M03 Down feed to pl. spindle CW
N0040 G01 Y4.100 Feed to p2
N0050 G01 X2.625 To p3
N0060 G01 Y.1375 To p4.
N0070 G01 X3.000 To p5.
N0080 G03 Y2.625 I 3.000 J2.000 Circular interpolation to p6.
N0090 G01 Y2.000 To p7.
N0100 G01 X2.625 To p8
N0110 G01 Y-0.100 To p9.
N0120 G00 Z4.000 T02 M05 To p9 spindle off, tool sign.2.
N0130 F9.16 S509 M06 Tool change, set new feed and speed.
N0140 G81 X0.750 Y1.000 Z-0.1 R2.100 M03 Drill hole 1.
N0150 G81 X0.750 Y3.000 Z-0.1 R2.100 Drill hole 2.
N0160 G00 X.1.000 Y-1.000 M30 Move to home position, stop the machine.

Figure 10.12 Part program for the part in Figure 10.10

LATHE
Description of G Commands
G00 Positioning (Rapid Traverse)
Format
N…. G00 X(U)….Z(W)….
The slides are traversed at maximum speed to the
Programmed target point
Incremental and absolute commands can be used
at the same time.

Note
• A programmed feed F will be suppressed while
G00
• The maximum feed is defined by the producer of
the machine.
• The feed override switch is limited to 100%

Example
Absolute G90
N50 G00 X40 Z56
Incremental G91
N50 G00 U-30 W-30.5

G01 Linear Interpolation (Feed)

Format
N…. G01 X(U)….Z(W)….F…

Linear slide movements (face, longitudinal, taper turning)

at the programmed federate.

Example

Absolute G90
N50
…
N20 G01 X40 Z20.1 F0.1

Incremental G91
N.. G95 F0.1
…
N20 G01 X20 W-25.9
Manufacturing Processes I Page - 21 ME – Laboratory
 FOR LATHE FOR MILLING
Survey of G commands for command Definition C G commands
G00. ........ Positioning (rapid traverse) G00* Positioning (Rapid Traverse)
G01 ......... Linear interpolation (feed) G01 Linear Interpolation
G02 ......... Circular interpolation clockwise G02 Circular Interpolation Clockwise
G03 ......... Circular interpolation counterclockwise G03 Circular Interpolation Counterclockwise
G04+ ....... Dwell G04# Dwell
G7.1 ........ Cylindrical Interpolation G09# Exact Stop
G10 ......... Data setting G10 Data Setting
G11 ......... Data setting Off G11 Data Setting Off
G12.1 ...... Polar Coordinate Interpolation ON
G15* End Polar Coordinate Interpolation
G13.1 ...... Polar Coordinate Interpolation OFF
G16 Begin Polar Coordinate Interpolation
G17 ......... Plane selection)0(
G17* Plane Selection XY
G18 ......... Plane selection ZX
G19 ......... Plane selection YZ G18 Plane Selection ZX
G20 ......... Longitudinal turning cycle G19 Plane Selection YZ
G21 ......... Thread cutting cycle G20 Measuring in Inches
G24 ......... Face turning cycle G21 Measuring in Millimeter
G28+ ....... Return to reference point G28# Approach Reference Point
G33 ......... Thread cutting G40* Cancel Cutter Radius Compensation
G40 ......... Cancel cutter radius compensation G41 Cutter Radius Compensation left
G41 ......... Cutter radius compensation left G42 Cutter Radius Compensation right
G42 ......... Cutter radius compensation right G43 Tool Length Compensation positive
G70 ......... Inch data Input G44 Tool Length Compensation negative
G71 ......... Metric data Input G49* Cancel Tool Length Compensation
G72+ ....... Finishing cycle G50* Cancel Scale Factor
G73+ Stock removal in turning G51 Scale Factor
G74+ Stock removal in facing G52# Local Coordinate System
G75+ Pattern repeating G53# Machine Coordinate System
G76+ Deep hole drilling, cut-in cycle in Z G54* Zero Offset 1
G77+ Cut-in cycle in X G55 Zero Offset 2
G78+ Multiple threading cycle G56 Zero Offset 3
G80 ......... Cancel cycles (G83 up to G85) G57 Zero Offset 4
G83 ......... Drilling cycle' G58 Zero Offset 5
G84 ......... Tapping cycle
G59 Zero Offset 6
G85 ......... Reaming cycle
G61 Exact Stop Mode
G90. ........ Absolute programming
G91 Incremental programming G62 Automatic Corner Override
G92+ ....... Coordinate system setting, spindle speed l it G63 Thread Cutting Mode On
G94 ......... Feed per minute G64* Cutting mode
G95. ........ Feed per revolution G68 Coordinate System Rotation ON
G96 Constant cutting speed G69 Coordinate System Rotation OFF
G97. ........ Direct spindle speed programming G73 Chip Break Drilling Cycle
G98. ........ Return to initial plane G74 Left Tapping Cycle
G99 ......... Return to withdrawal plane G76 Fine Drilling Cycle
G80* Cancel Drilling Cycles (G83 bis G85)
1. ............. Initial status G81 Drilling Cycle
+ .............. Blockwise effective G82 Drilling Cycle with Dwell
G83 Withdrawal Drilling Cycle
G84 Tapping Cycle
Survey of M commands G85 Reaming Cycle
M00 Programmed stop G86 Drilling Cycle with Spindle Stop
M01 Programmed stop, conditional G87 Back Pocket Drilling Cycle
M02 Program End G88 Drilling Cycle with Program Stop
M03 Main spindle on CW M04 Main spindle on CCW G89 Reaming Cycle with Dwell
M05* Main spindle off M06 Tool change G90* Absolute Programming
M08 Coolant ON M09* Coolant OFF G91 Incremental Programming
G92# Coordinate System Setting
M10 Lock dividing head M11 Unlock dividing head
G94* Feed per Minute
M19 Oriented spindle Stop
G95 Feed per Revolution
M25 Release Clamping Device M26 Close Clamping Device G97* Revolutions per Minute
M30 Program End G98* Retraction to Starting Plane (Drilling Cycles)
M71 Puff blowing ON M72* Puff blowing OFF G99 Retraction to Withdrawal Plane
M98 Sub program Call M99 Sub program End
1 Einschaltzustand
* Initial status 2 Nur satzweise wirksam

Manufacturing Processes I Page - 22 ME – Laboratory

 UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES

New machining methods have been developed mainly because of the difficulties in machining hard, high-
strength, and temperature-sensitive materials. These processes have been used for removing excess materials
from the work piece to obtain the desired shape and size and have come to be known as unconventional
machining processes. Table 1 lists these processes and indicates the types of energies and methods of material
removal.
Table 1 Unconventional machining processes

Mechanics
Energy type of material Energy source Process
removal
Conventional
Mechanical Machining
Plastic shear motion of tool/job
Abrasive jet
Mechanical
machining (AJM)
Erosion Mechanical/
fluid motion Ultrasonic
machining (USM)
Electrochemical
Electrochemical Ion displacement Electric current
machining (ECM)
Mechanical Plastic shear Electric current
Electrochemical
and electro- and ion dis- and mechanical
grinding (ECG)
chemical placement motion
Chemical
Corrosive agent machining (CHM)
Corrosive
Reaction
electric spark Electric discharge
Chemical
machining (EDM)
Fusion and
High speed
vaporization
electrons Electron beam
machining (EBM)
Laser beam
machining (LBM)
Powerful radiation
Ion beam
Thermal
machining (IBM)
Ionized substance
Plasma arc
machining (PAM).

ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING (ECM)

Electrochemical machining (ECM) refers to the process of metal removal in which electrolytic action is utilized to
dissolve the work piece metal. It is, in effect, the reverse of electroplating with some modifications.

Fig3 Electrochemical machining

Manufacturing Processes I Page - 25 ME – TA 202 Lab

The electrochemical machining process is illustrated in Fig.3. The workpiece (Which must be a conductor of
electricity) is placed in a tank on the machine table and connected to the positive terminal of a dc supply. The tool
electrode, shaped to form the required cavity in the workpiece, is mounted in the tool holder and connected to the
negative terminal of the supply. An electrolyte flows through the gap between the tool and the work piece and is
then pumped back to the working zone; either through the tool or externally, depending on the application.

The action of the current flowing through the electrolyte is to dissolve the metal at the anode, i.e., the workpiece.
The electrical resistance is lowest (and hence the current is highest) in the region where the tool and workpiece
are closest. Since the metal is dissolved from the workpiece most rapidly in this region, the form of the tool will be
reproduced on the workpiece.

There is no mechanical contact between the workpiece and the tool, and any tendency of the workpiece metal to
be plated on the tool is counteracted by the flow of the electrolyte, which removes the dissolved metal from the
working zone. Hence there is neither tool wear nor plating of the workpiece material on the tool so that one tool
can produce a large number of components during its life. The voltage and current are constant in the
electrochemical machining process.

SUMMARY OF ECM CHARACTERISTICS

Mechanics of material removal Electrolysis

Medium Conducting Iectrolyte

Tool Materials Cu, brass, steel

Material removal ratet Tool wear rate ∞

Gap 50-300 µm
3 3
Maximum material removal rate 15x 10 mm /min
3
Specific power consumption (typical) 7 W/mm /min

Critical parameters Voltage, current, feed rate, electrolyte, and electrolyte

conductivity

Material application All conducting metals and alloys

Shape application Blind complex cavities, curved surfaces, through cutting, large
through cavities.

Limitations High specific energy consumption (about 150 times that required
for conventional processes), not applicable with electrically non-
conducting materials and for jobs with very small dimensions,
expensive machine

ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM)

Dielectric fluid return

Fig. 4 Electric discharge machining

Manufacturing Processes I Page - 26 ME – TA 202 Lab

Electric-discharge machining (EDM), or spark machining, as it is also called, is based on the eroding effect of an
electric spark on both the electrodes used to produce it. It has been found from observation that if both electrodes
are made of the same material, greater erosion occurs on the positive electrode. Hence, to obtain maximum metal
removal with minimum wear on the tool' electrode; the work is made the positive and the tool the negative
electrode. The principle of the electric-discharge machining process is illustrated by the simplified diagram in Fig.
4. The tool is mounted on the chuck attached to the machine spindle whose vertical feed is controlled by the
servomotor through a reduction gearbox; The workpiece is placed in a tank filled with a dielectric fluid; a depth of
at least 50mm over the work surface is maintained to eliminate the risk of fire: The tool and work piece are
connected to a dc relaxation circuit fed either from a dc generator, or more commonly, a mercury-arc or selenium-
type rectifier. Dielectric fluid is circulated under pressure by a pump, usually through a hole (or holes) in the tool
electrode. A spark gap of about 10-125 µm is maintained by the servomotor.

When the power supply is switched on, the condenser voltage Vc begins to increase exponentially toward the
supply voltage Vs and no current flows. As the voltage Vc builds, it reaches the gap breakdown voltage Vg
(determined by the gap width and the dielectric fluid); a spark is produced across the gap, the dielectric fluid
ionizes and the condenser is discharged. The surrounding dielectric then deionizes so that it again becomes an
effective insulator, and the cycle is repeated. In this way a rapid succession of sparks is obtained, the interval
between successive sparks being of the order of 100µs.

Each spark generates a localized high temperature of the order of 12000oC in its immediate vicinity. This heat
causes part of the surrounding dielectric fluid to evaporate; it "also melts and vaporizes the metal to form a small
crater on the work surface. Since the spark always occurs between the points of the tool and work that are close
together, the high spots of the work are gradually eroded, and the form of the tool is reproduced on the work. The
condensed metal globules, formed during the process, are carried away by the flowing dielectric fluid. As the
metal is eroded, the tool is fed in by a servo controlled feed mechanism.

SUMMARY OF EDM CHARACTERISTICS

Mechanics of material removal Melting and evaporation aided by cavitations

Medium Dielectric fluid

Tool Materials Cu, brass, Cu-W alloy, graphite

Material removal rate! Tool wear rate 0.1-10

Gap 10-125 Jlm

Maximum material removal rate 5x103 mm3/min

Specific power consumption (typical) 1.8 W/mm3/min

Critical parameters Voltage, capacitance, spark gap, di-electric circulation, melting

temperature.

Material application All conducting metals and alloys

Shape application Blind complex cavities, micro holes for nozzles, through cutting
of noncircular holes, narrow slots.
Limitations High specific energy consumption (about 150 times that in
conventional machining); when forced circulation of dielectric is
not possible, removal rate is quite low; surfa::;e tends to be
rough for larger removal rates; not applicable to nonconducting
materials.

Manufacturing Processes I Page - 27 ME – TA 202 Lab

 INTRODUCTION TO UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES

OBJECTIVE : To study the characteristic features of ECM and EDM processes.

OUTLINE OF PROCEDURE

Learn the name of the major parts of each machine. Understand the process of material removing in each case
and identify the variable that affect the material removal rate and dimensional accuracy.

OBSERVATIONS

(i) List the important variables (input parameters) for the processes and indicate their available
range.

(ii) Make general comments on the dimensional accuracy achievable from each these processes.

EXERCISE NO: IV(b)

OBJECTIVE

Demonstration of NC machine tools.

Demonstration of Injection Molding.

Demonstration of RP.

Question Bank for laboratory quizzes (ME Lab.)

All answers must be brief and to the point. Sketches must be neat and self-explanatory.

LATHE

1 What are the units of cutting speed and feed on machine tools?
2 What is the use of back gear arrangement in a lathe headstock?(in belt drive machine)
3 How is the rotation imparted to a part, which is to be turned between centers?
4 What are the different ways of mounting the work on a lathe?
5 What is the use of Center drilling?
6 What is the function of chasing dial?
7 What is the difference between the lead and the pitch of a MUL TISTART thread?
8 Calculate the gear ratio between the spindle and the lead screw for cutting a screw with X
threads per mm. the lead screw pitch is mm.
9 Why is the main spindle of a lathe hollow?
10 List the type of surfaces produced by turning.
11 Sketch the plan/top view of different types of cutting tools you have used during the lathe
exercise and indicate their respective names
12 What are the instruments for measuring the diameters of turned shafts?
13 What is the instrument normally used for-measuring lengths of various parts?
14 Explain how you can determine the taper angle of a taper pin.
15 Calculate the time required for single pass straight turning of a cylindrical bar (diameter D1
length L) at a spindle speed of N rpm and feed f in appropriate units.
16. Main scale of a Vernier has 10 divisions/cm and the least count of the instrument is 0.01mm.
What should be the length of each division on the Vernier scale?
17. How are the spindle speeds changed?
18. What is the relation between spindle speed and cutting speed?
19. What is the relation between feed rate (mm/rev.) and spindle speed?
20. Are the back gears used to get lower or higher spindle speeds?
21. Draw figures of left hand and right hand turning tools.
22. How is the size of lathe specified?
23. Why are follow-rest and steady-test used?
24. What is Live Center and Dead center of the lathe?

Manufacturing Processes I Page - 28 ME – TA 202 Lab

 MILLING

1. How is a milling cutter mounted?

2 What is the main difference between a horizontal and a vertical milling machine?
3. Explain what is meant by a universal milling machine.
4. Why are helical tooth milling cutters usually preferred over straight tooth cutters for slab milling?
5. Why is down milling generally avoided?
6. What are the advantages of up milling?
7. What" special - attachment is needed in the milling machine to perform down milling?
8. In what respect does a slitting saw differ from a narrow milling cutter? .
9. How are milling cutters generally classified?
10. What is the difference between a plain milling cutter and a side-milling cutter?
11. How does a universal dividing head differ from a plain dividing head?
12. When does a universal indexing become essential?

SHAPING

1. What is the driving mechanism on the shaping machine?

2. Why is quick return effect important?
3. What happens to the quick return ratio when the stroke length is reduced?
4. How is feeding done on a shaping machine?
5. Why is clapper box provided on a shaper?

DRILLING AND FITTING

1. To which elements (tool and work) the speeds and feeds are provided on
2. Lathe (ii) Milling machine (m) Shaper and (iv) Drilling machine.
3. What type of speed variation mechanism is provided in the drilling machines you have studies?
4. What material is generally selected for the machine tool structure?
5. What types of guides are used for the main sideways of the basic machine tools?
6. How are the sizes of various basic machine tools specified?
7. Why are square threads used on driving screws of machine tools?
9. Which of the following process are intermittent? (a) Milling (b) Drilling (c) Shaping (d) Turning
10. What makes the simultaneous rotation of the spindle and the feed motion possible on drilling
machines?
11. What are the functions of flutes on a twist drill?
12. Explain how power is transmitted from the drill spindle the drill shank?
13. Why are drilled holes generally slightly larger than drill diameter?
14. What is the primary purpose of reaming?
15. Sketch a twist drill and name its principle pats.
16. Name the principal kinds of reamer.
17. How is the diameter of a drilled hole measured?
18. What is the approximate order of magnitude by which hole diameter increases after reaming?
19. What will happen when the drilling is done with dull drill?
20. What are the types tapes in a hand operated tap set?
21. What is a course file used for soft work materials?
22. Describe very briefly the important features of files?
23. Why the number of flutes on a reamer always even?
24. How is the drill held in spindle?
25. Why is the cutting fluid generally not used during drilling cast iron?
26. How are the files classified?
27. Distinguish between second cut and double cut files.
28. What is a scraper?
29. Does a saw blade cut on a return stroke?
30. What operation other than hole drilling can be performed on drilling machine?

Manufacturing Processes I Page - 29 ME – TA 202 Lab

 CNC
1. What is NC machine?
2. What are the advantages of using NC machine over traditional machine tools?
3. What is "part program" used in CNC machine?
4. What is punched tape? What are the disadvantages of using "punched tapes" used in earlier generation of NC
machine tools? .
5. What is CNC (computer numerical control), dNC (direct numerical control), DNC (distributed numerical
control)? Specify the advantages of each over other.
6. What are the different components of NC machine tool?
7. What is MCU in NC and write down its function?
8. Clearly explain with figure point-to-point motion control and continuous path mo ion control used in NC
machines? Which is control system is generally used to perform machining on the workpieces ?
9. What is closed loop control system and open loop control system used in NC machine? What are the
differences between them? What are the motors used for each type?
10. What is adaptive control system?
11. Write down the differences between incremental positioning and absolute positioning system used in NC
machine?
12. Which system of co-ordinate system is used in NC machine? Write down the directions of positive X,Y,Z
axis in case of lathe.
13. Briefly explain about the different types of tape format
a) Fixed sequential format '
b) Block-address format
c) Tab-sequential format,
d) Word address format
14. What is ATC in CNC machine?
15. Write down the functions of few G codes like G01, 002 003,004 etc.
16. N0100 G02 X9.000 Y8.000 I5.000 J2.000 F6.000

Explain each .term for this block of part program.

17. What is BLU programming used in NC part programming?
18. Explain the terms “tool length compensation" and "cutter diameter compensation".
19. What is liner interpolation and what is circular interpolation?
20. What is canned cycle used in NC part program?
21. What is fixed zero system and floating zero system?
22. What is rapid traverse, fine feed and creep feed?
23. What are the different types of tool used in NC machine?

UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING

1. What lead to the development of unconventional machining processes?

2. How material removal takes place in AJM?
3. Show graphically how material removal rate varies with' nozzle tip distance in AJM?
4. How material removal takes place in USM?
5. What are the typical grain sizes used in USM?
6. Why is USM tool made of ductile metal?
7. What will happen if USM is carried out at low frequency?
8. How material removal takes place in ECM?
9. What are the common tool materials for ECM?
10. What kind of material cannot by ECM?
11. How material removal takes places in EDM?
12. Why is work piece connected to the positive terminal in EDM?
13 What the most commonly used dielectric fluid in EDM?
14. Can EDM be used for machining non-conducting materials?
15. Which unconventional machining process uses fusion and vaporization on material removal?

Manufacturing Processes I Page - 30 ME – Laboratory