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Equivalent Circuit of Armature Controlled DC Motor

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 EX.NO: TRANSFER FUNCTION OF ARMATURE CONTROLLED DC MOTOR
DATE:

AIM:
To derive the transfer function of armature controlled DC motor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S. No Name of the Apparatus Range Type Quantity

(0 – 2) Amps MC 1
1 Ammeter
(0 – 10) Amps MC 1
2 Voltmeter (0 – 300) Volts MC 1
3 Rheostat 50,5A Wire Wound 2
4 Rheostat 360,1.4A Wire Wound 1
5 Tachometer - Digital 1
6 Connecting wires - - few

THEORY:
In armature controlled DC motor, the desired speed is obtained by varying armature
voltage and keeping field current is constant.

We know that,
Eb = PZN / 60*A
From above equation DC motor speed is directly proportional to the armature voltage.
Let,
Ra= Armature Resistance
La= Armature Inductance
Eb= Back emf
Ia =Armature current
T=Torque developed in the motor
J =Moment of inertia
B=Dashpot
=Angular Displacement
Kt=Torque constant
Kb=Back emf constant
From equivalent circuit,
Differential equation of equivalent circuit can be written as
Ra ia +La dia/dt + eb = Va ……………………………………... 1
Differential equation of mechanical system can be written as
J d2 /dt2 + B d/dt = T………………………………… 2
Torque is directly proportional to the armature current
T  Ia , T  Ia
T = Kt Ia……………………………. 3

Motor back emf is directly proportional to the speed (Angular velocity)

Eb = Kb d / dt ………………….. ……………………... 4

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 TABULATION:
(I) To find Eb:
Armature Armature
Speed Eb =Va - IaRa  =2N/60
S. No Current Voltage
(N) (Volts) (Radians/Sec)
( Ia) ( Va)

(II) To find Ta:

Radius = 0.075 m
Armature Armature Torque
S1 S2 S1-S2
Sl.No Current Voltage (Ta)=9.81*(S1-S2)* r
(Kg) (Kg) (Kg)
( Ia) ( Va) (N-M)

MODEL GRAPH:
(i) Measurement of Back Emf(kb):

Eb
Eb



(radians/sec)

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 Taking Laplace transform for equation (1), (2) & (3)
RaIa(s) + LasIa(s) + Eb(s) = Va(s) …………………….. 5
Js2(s) + Bs(s) = T(s)…………………………………. 6
T(s) = KtsIa(s)…………………………………………… 7
Eb(s) = Kbs(s)…………………………………... ……… 8
Equating equation (6) & (7)
KtsIa(s) = Js2(s) + Bs(s)
Ia(s) = Js2(s) + Bs(s) / Kts ………………. 9
Equation 8 & 9 values substitute in equation 5
( Ra + sLa)Ia(s) + Eb(s) = Va(s)
( Ra + sLa) Js2(s) + Bs(s) / sKt+ Kbs(s) = Va(s)
(s )( Ra + sLa) Js2) + Bs + Kbs  / Kts = Va(s)
(s ) sKt
 = 
Va(s) ( Ra + sLa) Js2) + (B + Kbs

Procedure For Calculating Back Emf (Eb):

1. Initially keep all switches in off position.
2. Initially keep voltage adjustment POT (variac) in minimum position.
3. Initially keep armature and field voltage adjustment POT (variac) in minimum position.
4. Connect the kit armature output A and AA to motor armature terminal A and AA
respectively.
5. Connect the kit field output F and FF to motor field terminal F and FF respectively.
6. Switch on the power switch and SPST switch S1 and S2.
7. Set the field voltage at rated value. Adjust the Va and note down Ia and Speed for various
Va.Plot the graph.
Procedure For Calculating Armature Torque constant:
1. Apply the Va till the motor run at rated speed and apply load by tightening.
2. Note down the Va, Ia and spring balance reading and plot the graph and calculate torque
constant from the graph.

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 (ii)Torque Vs Armature current(Ia):

T
(Nm) T

 Ia

Ia

MODEL CALCULATION:

Kb = Eb / 
Kt = T/ Ia
m =Jm/Bm
a =La/Ra

DC Motor Specifications:

DC motor: 0.5HP/ 180V / 1500 rpm with loading arrangement

Armature Resistance, Ra = 18 Ω
Armature Inductance, La =135mH
Moment of Inertia, Jm = 0.024 kg-m2
Coefficient of viscous Friction, B = 0.8 N-m/(rad/sec)

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 BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION:

Km 1

SBm(1+mS)
Va(S) Ra(1+Sa) m(S)

sKb

RESULT:

Thus the transfer function of armature controlled DC motor is obtained.

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 Circuit Diagram

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 EX.NO: TRANSFER FUNCTION OF FIELD CONTROLLED DC MOTOR
DATE:

AIM:
To derive the transfer function of field controlled DC motor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Name of the
S. No Range Type Quantity
Apparatus
(0 – 2) Amps MC 1
1 Ammeter
(0 – 10) Amps MC 1
2 Voltmeter (0 – 300) Volts MC 1
3 Rheostat 50,5A Wire Wound 2
4 Rheostat 360,1.4A Wire Wound 1
5 Tachometer - Digital 1
6 Connecting wires - - few

THEORY:
In Field controlled DC motor, the desired speed is obtained by varying field current and
keeping armature is constant.
We know that,
Eb = PZN / 60*A
From above equation DC motor speed is inversely proportional to the field current.
Let,
Rf = Field Resistance
Lf = Field Inductance
Ra = Armature Resistance
La = Armature Inductance
If = Field current
T = Torque developed in the motor
J = Moment of inertia
B = Dashpot
 = Angular Displacement
Kt = Torque constant
Kb = Back emf constant
From equivalent circuit,
Differential equation of equivalent circuit can be written as
Rf ia +La dia/dt +Eb = Vf …………………………………….. 1
Differential equation of mechanical system can be written as
J d2 /dt2 + B d / dt = T……………………….. 2
Torque is directly propotional to the armature current
T  Ia ,
T  Ia, T = Kt Ia……………………. 3
Taking laplace transform for equation 1, 2 & 3
RaIa(s) + LsIa(s) = Va(s) ………………. ………. 4

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 TABULATION:
( I) To find Eb:

Field Field
Speed Eb =Vf – IfRf  =2N/60
S. No Current Voltage
(N) (Volts) (Radians/Sec)
( If) ( Vf)

II) To find Tf:

Radius = 0.075 m
Field Field Torque
S1 S2 S1-S2
S. No Current Voltage (Tf)=9.81*(S1-S2)* r
(Kg) (Kg) (Kg)
( If) ( Vf) (N-M)

MODEL GRAPH:

(i) Measurement of Back Emf (Eb):

Eb
Eb



(radians/sec)

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 Js2(s) + Bs(s) = T(s)………………………… 5
T(s) = KtsIa(s)……………………………………. 6
Equating equation (6) & (7)
KtsIa(s) = Js2(s) + Bs(s)
Ia(s) = Js2(s) + Bs(s) / Kts ………………. 7
Equation (7) values substitute in equation (4)
(Ra+ Ls)If(s) + Eb(s) = Va(s)
(Ra+ Ls) Js2(s) + Bs(s) / Kts) = Va(s)
(s)( Ra + Ls) Js2) + Bs  / Kts = Va(s)
(s) Kt s
 = 
Va(s) ( Rf + Ls) ( Js2 + Bs) 

Procedure for Calculating Back Emf (Eb):

1. Initially keep all switches in off position.
2. Initially keep voltage adjustment POT (variac) in minimum position.
3. Initially keep armature and field voltage adjustment POT (variac) in minimum position.
4. Connect the kit armature output A and AA to motor armature terminal A and AA
respectively.
5. Connect the kit field output F and FF to motor field terminal F and FF respectively.
6. Switch on the power switch and SPST switch S1 and S2.
7. Set the field voltage at rated value. Adjust the Vf and note down If and Speed for various
Vf., Plot the graph.

Procedure for Calculating Field Torque constant:

1. Apply the Vf till the motor run 50 % at rated speed and apply load by tightening.
2. Note down the Vf, If and spring balance reading and plot the graph and calculate torque
constant from the graph.

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 (ii)Torque Vs Field current(If):

T
(Nm) T

 If

If
MODEL CALCULATION:

Kb = Eb / 
Kt = Tf/ If
m =Jm/Bm
f =Lf/Rf

DC Motor Specifications

DC motor: 0.5HP/ 180V / 1500 rpm with loading arrangement

Armature Resistance, Ra = 18 Ω
Armature Inductance, La =135mH
Moment of Inertia, Jm = 0.024 kg-m2
Coefficient of viscous Friction, B = 0.8 N-m/(rad/sec)

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 BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION:

Km 1

SBm(1+mS)
Vf(S) Rf(1+Sf) m(S)

SKb

RESULT:

Thus the transfer function of field controlled DC motor was obtained.

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 S2

S1
R1
S2
R1 R2
S3
R2

S1 S3

SYNCHRO TRANSMITTERR

S2

Vo

S3 S1

SYNCHRO CONTROL TRANSFORMER

S S
2 2

1Ø Eθ α sin (θXT -
SUPPLY θCT)

S S S S
3 1 3 1

θX θC
T T
SYNCHRO ERROR DETECTOR

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 EXP. NO.:
DATE: STUDY OF SYNCHROS

AIM:

(i) To measure the stator output voltage with respect to rotor position & plot the
variation of stator output voltage with respect to rotor position
(ii) To study synchros as AC position control system.

THEORY:
The term synchro is a generic name for a family of inductive devices which work on the
principle of a rotating transformer. The trade names for synchros are selsyn, autosyn and telesyn.
Basically they are electro mechanical devices or electromagnetic transducers which produce an
output voltage depending upon angular position of the rotor.

A synchro system is formed by interconnection of the device called synchro transmitter

& synchro control transformer. It is also called synchro pair. The synchro pair measures and
compares two angular displacements and its output voltage is approximately linear with angular
difference at the axes of both the shafts. They can be used in the following two ways.

1. To control the angular position of the load from a remote place/long distance.
2. For automatic correction of changes due to disturbances in the angular position of theload.

SYNCHRO TRANSMITTER:
Two major parts of synchro transmitter are stator and rotor. The stator is identical to the stator of
a three phase alternator. It is made of laminated silicon steel and slotted on the inner periphery to
accommodate a balanced three phase winding. The stator winding is star connected with winding
axes of the three coils electrically 120 degrees apart.
The rotor is of dumb bell construction with single winding. The ends of the rotor
windings are terminated on two slip rings. A single phase AC excitation voltage is applied to the
rotor through the slip rings.

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 SYNCHRO CONTROL TRANSFORMER:
Stator winding consists of many turns of fine wire. Its impedance is higher compared to
that of synchro transmitter stator. This is due to the fact synchro control transformer should not
load synchro transmitter.
Rotor of control transformer is cylindrically shaped so that air gap flux is uniformly
distributed around the rotor.
Synchro control transformer is never used alone. It is used in conjunction with synchro
transmitter. Synchro control transformer and Synchro transmitter are used as error detector.

S2 S2

T T
X R
1Ø
1Ø
SUPPLY
SUPPLY

S3 S1 S3 S1

θR θC

SYNCHRO POSITION SYSTEM

S1 S1
S1

1 phase S2 S2 S2
supply
S3

S3 S3

TX1 TDR TX2

DIFFERENTIAL SYNCHROS

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 Vo = VXT – VCT
This is the error voltage available across rotor of control transformer. This output voltage
is amplitude modulated to a suppressed carrier signal.

Synchro Error Detector:

Zeroing of both synchros is done. Rotor of Control transformer is turned through 90º and
this position is taken as its electrical zero position.

Synchro Position System:

Zeroing of synchro transmitter and synchro receiver rotor is made. Connections are made
as shown in diagram. Both rotors are supplied from same single-phase supply. If rotor of XT is
turned clockwise through vº, rotor of XR will also rotate clockwise through same vº; usually rotor
of XR drives the pointer.
If two rotor positions are identical, voltages that are induced in both stators are identical
and there is no circulating current between two stators. But if two rotor positions are different,
circulating current flows in stator winding. This produces torque on rotor of XR and it is rotated
such that rotor of XT is equal to rotor position of XR. This system is electrical gearing because
asvx changes, vR also changes. There is no mechanical coupling between two shafts. Still it is
possible to acheive this gearing electrically.

Differential Synchros:
They have three phase stator winding and three phase rotor winding.
Types:
a) Differential Synchro Transmitter TDX
b) Differential Synchro Receiver TDR
TDX is used where correction must be inserted in angular information being transmitted
or sum or difference between two angles must be transmitted.
If rotor of TX is turned clockwise through Aº and if rotor of TDX is turned clockwise
through Bº, then rotor of TR will rotate through (A-B)º. Differential synchro receiver indicates to
remote point, sum or difference of two shaft positions of synchro transmitters. If rotor of TX1 is
rotated clockwise through Aº and if rotor of TX2 is rotated clockwise through Bº, either rotor of
TDR will rotate through (A-B)º.

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 TABULATION:

S.NO. TRANSMITTER POSITION RECEIVER POSITION

(Degrees) (Degrees)

Rotor Voltage = V

S.NO. ROTOR STATOR OUTPUT VOLTAGE (V)

POSITION VS1S2(V) VS2S3(V) VS3S1(V)
(Degrees)

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 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF SYNCHROS:
When the rotor is excited by AC voltage, the rotor current flows and a magnetic field is
produced. The rotor magnetic field induces an emf in the stator coil by transformer action. The
effective voltage induced in any stator coil depends upon the angular position of the coil axis
with respect to rotor axis.
The generated emf of the synchro transmitter is applied as input to the stator coils of
control transformer. The rotor shaft is connected to the desired angular value. Depending on the
current position of the rotor and the applied emf on the stator, an emf is induced on the rotor
winding. This emf can be measured and used to drive a motor so that the position of the load is
corrected.
Let an ac voltage Vr(t) = Vrsin wct be supplied to the rotor of synchro transmitter. This
voltage causes a flow of magnetic current in the rotor coil, which produces a sinusoidal time
varying flux directed along its axis and distributed nearly sinusoidally in the air gap along stator
periphery. Because of transformer action, voltages are induced in each of the stator coils. As the
air gap flux is sinusoidally distributed, the flux linking any stator coil is proportional to the
cosine of angle between rotor and stator coil axes and so is the voltage induced in each stator coil
The stator coil voltages are of course in time phase with each other. Thus, it is seen that
the synchro transmitter acts like a single-phase transformer in which the rotor coil is the primary
and the stator coils form the three secondaries. Let VS1N, VS2N and VS3N respectively be the
voltage induced in the stator coils S1, S2, S3 with respect to the neutral. Then, for the rotor
position of the synchro transmitter where rotor axis makes an angle θ with axis of stator coil S2,
VS1N = KVr sin wct cos(θ+120o)
VS2N = KVr sin wct cosθ
VS3N = KVr sin wct cos (θ +240o)
The three terminal voltages of stator are,
VS1S2 = VS1N – VS2N
= 3 KVr sin (θ + 240o) sin wct

VS2S3 = VS2N –VS3N = 3 KVr sin (θ +120o) sin wct

VS3S1 = VS3N – VS1 = 3 KVr sin θ sin wct

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 When θ =0o, it is seen that maximum voltage is induced in the stator coil S2 while it follows that
the terminal voltage VS3S1 is zero. This position of rotor is defined as electrical zero of the
transmitter and is used as the reference for specifying angular position of the rotor.
Thus it is seen that the synchro transmitter is the angular position of its rotor shaft and the
output is a set of three single-phase voltages. The magnitudes of these voltages are functions of
the shaft position.

PROCEDURE:
Initial adjustments:
1. Digital voltmeter terminals are connected to S1 and S2 of stator coils.
2. Transmitter coil terminals S1, S2, S3 are connected to receiver coil terminals S11, S21, S31.
3. Power supply to the synchro kit is switched on and SPDT switch is closed.
4. Output voltage is checked for 0V at 0 degrees. If it is not 0V, then the pointer of both the
transmitter and receiver are adjusted to read 0V at 0 degrees.
To measure stator voltage with respect to rotor position:
1. After performing the initial adjustments, stator coil connections are disconnected.
2. Power supply to the synchro kit is switched on and SPDT switch is closed.
3. Digital voltmeter terminals are connected to S1 and S2 of stator coils.
4. Rotor position is adjusted and the corresponding stator output voltage is noted.
5. The same procedure is repeated for measurement of voltages across stator coils S1S3 and
S2S3 also.
To study the operation of Synchro pair:
1. Transmitter coil terminals S1, S2, S3 are connected to receiver coil terminals S11, S21, S31.
2. Power supply to the synchro kit is switched on and SPDT switch is closed.
3. Transmitter position is varied and corresponding receiver position is noted.

RESULT:
(i) Stator output voltage with respect to the rotor position was measured and the variation of
stator output voltage with respect to rotor position was plotted.
(ii) Synchro was studied as AC position control system.

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 Source coding for Step Response of a first order system:

num=[1];
den=[1 0.1];
t=tf(num,den);
step(t);

Step Response of a first order system

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 EXP. NO.: DIGITAL SIMULATION OF FIRST ORDER SYSTEM
DATE:

AIM:
To write a MATLAB program to obtain the impulse and step response characteristics of
the given first order system.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. PC with 2.93 GHz clock speed, 2 GB of RAM
2. MATLAB software

THEORY:

INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB & SIMULINK

MATLAB® is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates

computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems and
solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses include
 Math and computation
 Algorithm development
 Data acquisition
 Modeling, simulation, and prototyping
 Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
 Scientific and engineering graphics
 Application development, including graphical user interface building
MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not
require dimensioning. This allows you to solve many technical computing problems, especially
those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it would take to write a
program in a scalar no interactive language such as C or FORTRAN. The name MATLAB
stands for matrix laboratory. MATLAB was originally written to provide easy access to matrix
software developed by the LINPACK and EISPACK projects. Today, MATLAB engines
incorporate the LAPACK and BLAS libraries, embedding the state of the art in software for
matrix computation.
MATLAB has evolved over a period of years with input from many users. In university
environments, it is the standard instructional tool for introductory and advanced courses in

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 Source coding for Impulse Response of a first order system:

num=[1];
den=[1 0.1];
t=tf(num,den);
impulse(t);

Impulse Response of a first order system

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 PROCEDURE:
1. Enter the command window of MATLAB.
2. Create a New M-File by selecting File New M-File.
3. Type and save the program.
4. Execute the program by pressing F5
5. View the results.
6. Analyze the Results.

FORMULA USED:
For step input,
−𝑡
𝐶 𝑡 = 𝐴 1−𝑒 𝑇 ; 𝑡≥0
For impulse input,
𝐾 −𝑡
𝐶 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝜏 ;𝑡 ≥ 0
𝜏

RESULT:
Thus the MATLAB program was written to obtain the time response characteristics for
impulse and step input of the given first order system.

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 Source coding for Step Response of a second order system:

num1=[0.1];
den1=[1 0.1];
t1=tf(num1,den1);
num2=[0.2];
den2=[1 0.2];
t2=tf(num2,den2);
step(t1,t2);

MODEL CALCULATION:

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 EXP. NO.: DIGITAL SIMULATION OF SECOND ORDER SYSTEM
DATE:

AIM:
To write a MATLAB program to obtain the impulse and step response characteristics of
the given first order system.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. PC with 2.93 GHz clock speed, 2 GB of RAM
2. MATLAB software

PROCEDURE:
1. Enter the command window of MATLAB.
2. Create a New M-File by selecting File New M-File.
3. Type and save the program.
4. Execute the program by pressing F5
5. View the results.
6. Analyze the Results.
FORMULA USED:

𝜋−𝜃
𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑟 =
𝜔𝑑
𝜋
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑝 =
𝜔𝑑

4
𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑠 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
𝜀𝜔𝑛

3
𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑠 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 5% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
𝜀𝜔𝑛
−𝜀 𝜋

% 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑕𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑀𝑝 = 𝑒 1−𝜀 2

1 − 𝜀2
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
𝜀

𝜔𝑑= 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜀 2

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 Source coding for Impulse Response of a Second order system:

num1=[0.1];
den1=[1 0.1];
t1=tf(num1,den1);
num2=[0.2];
den2=[1 0.2];
t2=tf(num2,den2);
impulse(t1,t2);

TABULATION:

S. No. Parameters Theoretical Values Practical Values

1. Rise time

2. Peak time

3. Peak overshoot

4. Settling time

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 RESULT:
Thus the MATLAB program was written to obtain the time response characteristics for
step input of the given second order system.

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 EXP. NO.:
STABILITY ANALYSIS OF LINEAR SYSTEM
DATE:

AIM:
To write a program (or using SIMULINK) to analyze the stability of linear system using
Bode plot and Root locus.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. PC with 2.93 GHz clock speed, 2GB RAM
2. MATLAB Software.

PROCEDURE:
DESIGN PROCEDURE OF BODE PLOT:
For magnitude plot,
1. Convert the open loop transfer function into bode form or time constant form. The bode
form of the transfer function is

Replace s by jω

2. List the corner frequencies in the increasing order and prepare a table as shown in below.
Term Corner frequency(𝝎)in Slope in Change in slope
rad/sec db/dec in db/dec

3. Choose an arbitrary frequency 𝜔𝑙 which is less than the lowest corner frequency and 𝜔𝑕 is
greater than highest corner frequency
4. Find Magnitude at all corner frequency
At 𝜔𝑐𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔𝑐1 Gain A =20 log [G(jω)]

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 TRANSFER FUNCTION

G(S) = 25 / (S2+ 4S + 25)

Source Code

% Bode Plot
% Enter the Numerator and Denominator
num=[0 25];
den=[1 4 25];
ω=logspace(-2,3,100);
sys=tf(num,den);
[mag,phase,ω]=bode(sys, ω);
bode(sys,ω);
margin(mag,phase,ω);
xlabel(„frequency‟);
ylabel(„phase(deg);magnitude(db)‟);
title(„bode plot‟);

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 5. Find the change in slope at every corner frequency
𝜔 𝑐2
Gain at 𝜔𝑐2 = [𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔𝑐1 𝑡𝑜 𝜔𝑐2 × log 𝜔 𝑐1
+ 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑐1 ]

6. In a semi log graph sheet mark the required the range of frequency in x-axis and range of
db in y-axis after choosing proper scale.
7. Mark all the points on the graph sheet and join the points by straight line.

For phase plot,

1. Convert the open loop transfer function into bode form or time constant form. The bode
form of the transfer function is

Replace s by jω

2. Find the phase angle of G(jω) for various values of ω and tabulate it.
Ф in deg = tan-1(img/real)

ω in rad/sec Ф in deg

3. In a semi-log graph sheet mark the required the range of frequency in x-axis and range of
degree in y-axis after choosing proper scale.
4. Mark all the points on the graph sheet and join the points.

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 TRANSFER FUNCTION:
G(S) H(S) = k(S + 1) / S(S + 2)(S + 3)
This transfer function can be rewritten as
G(S) H(S) = kS + k / (S3 + 5S2 + 6S + 10)
Assuming k = 1
Source Code
% Root locus
num=[0 0 1 1]
den=[1 5 6 0]
subplot(2,1,1)
title(„Root locus‟)
rlocus(num,den)
xlabel(„Real axis‟)
ylabel(„Imaginary axis‟)
subplot(2,1,2)
title(„Root locus‟)
r = rlocus(num,den)
plot(r,„o‟)
v = [-6 6 -6 6]
axis (v)
xlabel(„Real axis‟)
ylabel(„Imaginary axis‟)

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 Determination Gain margin and phase margin,

1. Find gain cross over frequency(ωgc) from magnitude plot (plot crossing at 0 db line)
2. Find the phase cross over frequency(ωpc) from phase plot (plot crossing at -1800 line)
3. The gain margin in db is measured by negative of db of G(jω) at the phase cross-over
frequency(ωpc)
4. The phase margin in degree is given by γ=1800+Фgc
Where Фgc is the phase angle of G(jω) at gain cross over frequency (ωgc)

DESIGN PROCEDURE OF ROOT LOCUS:

1. The root locus is symmetrical about the real axis and the number of branches is equal to
the order of the characteristic polynomial (No. of poles of the OLTF)
2. All branches of root locus at open loop poles (when K=0) and ends at either open loop
zero or infinity (K=∞). The number of branches terminating at infinity equals to the
difference between the number of poles and number of zeros of G(s) H(s).
3. A point on the real axis lies on the root locus if the sum of the poles and zeros on the real
axis to the right of the point is an odd number
4. The (n-m) root locus branches that proceed to infinity do so along the asymptotes with
angles
(2𝑞+1)
∅𝐴 = ± 180° ; q=0,1,2…..n-m-1.
(𝑛−𝑚 )

5. The centroid of intersection of the asymptotes with real axis at 𝜎𝐴 is given by

𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 − 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠

𝜎𝐴 =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 − 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠
𝑑𝑘
6. The breakaway points of the root locus are the solution of 𝑑𝑠
=0

7. The angle of departure from a complex open loop pole is given by

∅𝑃 = ±180° 2𝑞 + 1 + ∅ q=0, 1, 2……
Where Ф is net angle contribution to this pole by all other open loop poles and zeros.
Similarly the angle of arrival at open loop zero is given by
∅𝑍 = ±180° 2𝑞 + 1 − ∅ q=0,1,2……
Where Ф is net angle contribution to the zero under consideration by all other open loop poles
and zeros.

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SVSCE/EEE/EE8511 Control and Instrumentation Laboratory Page 36
 Note: For a complex pole
Angle of departure=180◦ - sum of angle of vector to the + sum of angle of vector to the
complex pole from other poles complex pole from other zeros
Note: For a complex zero
Angle of departure=180◦ - sum of angle of vector to the + sum of angle of vector to the
complex zero from other zeros complex zero from other poles
8. The intersection of root locus with imaginary axis can be determined using the Routh
criterion
9. The open loop gain K at any point S=S0 on the root locus is given by

𝑛
𝑖=1 |(𝑆0 + 𝑝𝑖 )|
𝐾= 𝑛
𝑖=1 |(𝑆0 + 𝑍𝑖 )|
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑕𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑕𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑆𝑜 𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑘=
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑕𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑕𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑆𝑜 𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠

RESULT

Thus the stability of linear systems using bode plot and root locus were analyzed.

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 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF AC POSITION CONTROL SYSTEM

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 EXP. NO.:
STUDY OF AC POSITION CONTROL SYSTEM
DATE:

AIM:
To control the position of loading system using AC servomotor.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S. No. APPARATUS SPECIFICATION QUANTITY
1. AC Position / Speed Control Trainer Kit - 1
2. Two phase AC motor 12 V, 90 RPM 1
3 Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO) - 1
4 Patch cords - As required

AC SERVOMOTOR POSITION CONTROL:

It is attempted to position the shaft of a AC Motor‟s (Receiver) shaft at any angle in the
range of 100 to 3500 as set by the Transmitter‟s angular position transducer (potentiometer), in
the range of 100 to 3500. This trainer is intended to study angular position between two
mechanical components (potentiometers), a Transmitter Pot and Receiver pot. The relation
between these two parameters must be studied.
Any servo system has three blocks namely Command, Control and Monitor.
(a) The command is responsible for determining what angular position is desired. This is
corresponds to a Transmitter‟s angular position (Set Point- Sp) set by a potentiometer.
(b) The Control (servo) is an action, in accordance with the command issued and a control is
initiated (Control Variable -Cv) which causes a change in the Motor‟s angular position. This
corresponds to the receiver‟s angular position using a mechanically ganged potentiometer.
(c) Monitor is to identify whether the intended controlled action is executed properly or not. This
is similar to feedback. This corresponds to Process Variable Pv. All the three actions together
form a closed loop system.

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 TABULATION:

Set Angle in degrees Measured angle in

S. No Error in degrees(Өs- Өm)
( Өs) degrees(Өm)

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 FORMULA USED:
Error in degree =θs - θm
Error in percentage = ((θs - θm) / θs)* 100

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are patched for AC position control system in the trainer kit.
2. Set and actual positions of the motor are noted.
3. Proportional Gain KP, derivative time Td and integral time Ti are set using the
respective potentiometers.
4. AC supply is switched on. DSO is used to observe the transient response of the actual
position of the system once the motor starts to rotate. Two phase AC motor stops at a
particular position.
5. Error between actual and set positions is noted. Steps 3, 4 and 5 are repeated for
different values of KP, Td and Ti.
6. When Proportional Control action is maximum, the system responds quickly to reach
the steady state (i.e. Actual position reaches the desired position very quickly). When
Proportional Control action is minimum, the system responds slowly to reach the
steady state (i.e. Actual position reaches the desired position very quickly).
7. When Integral Control action is maximum, the system response is more oscillatory.
When Integral Control action is minimum, the system response is less oscillatory.
8. When Derivative Control action is maximum, the system response settles down and
reaches the set position with less overshoot. When derivative Control action is
minimum, the system response settles down and reaches the set position with more
overshoot.

RESULT:
Thus the DC Position control system is studied and effect of Proportional and Integral
Control actions on the system response is studied.

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 MATLAB OUTPUT:

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 EXP. NO.: DESIGN OF LAG, LEAD & LEAD-LAG COMPENSATOR BY
DATE: MATLAB SIMULATION

AIM:
To design a lag, lead & lead-lag compensator for a unity feedback system (whose open
loop transfer function is specified) in order to meet the desired specifications.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. PC with 2.93 GHz clock speed, 2GB RAM
2. MATLAB Software.

THEORY:
The nature of compensation depends upon the given plant, the compensator may be an
electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic or other type of devices are network usually an
electric network serves as compensator in many control systems. The compensator transfer
function may be placed in cascade with the plant transfer function (cascade or series
compensation) or in the feedback path (feed back or parallel compensation). The compensators
are of three types
a) Lead compensator: The compensator having transfer function of the form given below is
known as lead compensator. GC (s)= (s+zc)/(s+pc) = (s+ 1/W)/(s+1/DW); D= zc/pc0 D< 1
ensures that the pole is located to the left of the zero. Lead compensator speeds up the transient
response and increases the margin of stability of a system. It also helps to increase the system
error constant though to limited extent.

b) Lag Compensator: The Compensator having transfer function of the form given below is
known as lag compensator. GC (s)= (s+zc)/(s+pc) = (s+ 1/W)/(s+1/EW); E = zc/pc>1, D>0 E>1
ensures that pole is to the right of Zero, that is nearer the origin than Zero. Lag compensator
improves the steady state behaving a system, while nearly preserving its transient response.

c) Lag – Lead Compensator: When both the transient and steady state response require
improvement a Lag –Lead compensator is required. This is basically a Lag and Lead
compensator connected in series.

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 Lag compensator

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 PROCEDURE:
1. Open the MATLAB software and create a blank Model file.
2. Develop the block diagrams for lag, lead and lead-lag compensator using the simulink
function.
3. Simulate the MATLAB model and obtain the phase angle Vs frequency and gain Vs
Frequency for lag, lead and lag – lead networks.

RESULT:
Thus a lag, lead & lead-lag compensator for the unity feedback system is designed and
the improvement in the output response after compensation is studied.

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 Source coding of P controller
kp=300;
num=[kp];
den=[1 10 20+kp];
t=0:0.01:2;
step(num,den,t);
Source coding of PI controller
kp=300;
ki=10
num=[ki kp];
den=[1 10+ki 20+kp];
108
t=0:0.01:2;
step(num,den,t);
Source coding of PID controller
kp=350;
ki=300
kd=50;
num=[kd kp ki];
den=[1 10+kd 20+kp ki];
t=0:0.01:2;
step(num,den,t);

MODEL GRAPH:

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 EXP. NO.: STUDY THE EFFECT OF P, PI, PID CONTROLLERS
DATE: USING MATLAB

AIM:
To study the effect of Proportional, Proportional –Integral, Proportional –Integral-
Derivative controller using MATLAB

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. PC with 2.93 GHz clock speed, 2GB RAM
2. MATLAB Software.

THEORY:
In order to get a good output response from an existing closed-loop system (plant), a
controller can be introduced. The controller can be a proportional controller (P), proportional
plus integral controller (PI), or proportional plus integral plus derivative controller (PID). The
type of controller required for the system is chosen based on its open-loop response or closed
loop response from which the performance parameters can be known. In order to improve the
overall response, it is required to choose a PID controller.
The input to the plant consists of three components: 1. KpE, which is proportional to
error. This component increases the loop gain of the system, thereby reducing its sensitivity to
plant parameter variations. 2. KiE/s, which is proportional to the integral of the error. This
component increases the order of the system and reduces the steady state error of the system by
adding a pole at the origin in the s plane. 3. KdsE, which is proportional to the derivative of the
error. This component tends to stabilize the system by introducing the derivative of the error.

P CONTROLLER:
P controller is mostly used in first order processes with single energy storage to stabilize
the unstable process. The main usage of the P controller is to decrease the steady state error of
the system. As the proportional gain factor K increases, the steady state error of the
system decreases. However, despite the reduction, P control can never manage to eliminate the
steady state error of the system. As we increase the proportional gain, it provides smaller
amplitude and phase margin, faster dynamics satisfying wider frequency band and larger
sensitivity to the noise. We can use this controller only when our system is tolerable to a
constant steady state error. In addition, it can be easily concluded that applying P controller

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 decreases the rise time and after a certain value of reduction on the steady state error, increasing
K only leads to overshoot of the system response. P control also causes oscillation if sufficiently
aggressive in the presence of lags and/or dead time. The more lags (higher order), the more
problem it leads. Plus, it directly amplifies process noise.

P-I CONTROLLER:
P-I controller is mainly used to eliminate the steady state error resulting from P
controller. However, in terms of the speed of the response and overall stability of the system, it
has a negative impact. This controller is mostly used in areas where speed of the system is not
an issue. Since P-I controller has no ability to predict the future errors of the system it cannot
decrease the rise time and eliminate the oscillations. If applied, any amount of I guarantees set
point overshoot.

P-I-D CONTROLLER:
P-I-D controller has the optimum control dynamics including zero steady state error,
fast response (short rise time), no oscillations and higher stability. The necessity of using a
derivative gain component in addition to the PI controller is to eliminate the overshoot and the
oscillations occurring in the output response of the system. One of the main advantages of the P-
I-D controller is that it can be used with higher order processes including more than single
energy storage.

PROCEDURE:
1. Open the MATLAB software and create a blank M- file.
2. Write the Program for P, PI and PID Controller in MATLAB.
3. Simulate the MATLAB program and obtain the response of the transfer function of higher
order system.

RESULT:

Thus the response of P, PI and PID controller were studied and verified using MATLAB.

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 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PANEL DIAGRAM

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 EX. NO.:
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
DATE:

AIM:
To determine the value of unknown medium resistance using Wheatstone bridge.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S. No Apparatus Quantity
1 Wheat stone bridge trainer kit 1
2 Digital Multi-meter 1
3 Unknown resistor specimen 5
4 (or) unknown
Patch Cords resistances As Required

THEORY:
DC bridges are used to measure the resistance of any resistive element. Wheatstone
bridge is used to measure the medium resistance (1 to 10k). The Wheatstone bridge is an
accurate and reliable instrument, which is extensively used in industries. The Wheatstone bridge
is an instrument for making comparison measurement and operates upon a null indication
principle. This means that the indication is independent of the calibration of the null indicating
instrument or any of the characteristics. For this reason, very high degree of accuracy can be
achieved using Wheatstone bridge.
The Wheatstone bridge has four resistive arms consisting of resistances R1, R2, R3 and Rx
together with a source of an emf and a null detector, usually a galvanometer or any other sensitive
current meter. The current through the galvanometer depends on the potential difference between
points „C‟ and „D‟. The bridge is said to be balanced when there is no current through the
galvanometer or when the potential difference across the galvanometer is zero. This occurs when
the voltage from point „A‟ to point „C‟ equals the voltage from point „ A „ to point „ D „ and vice
versa. At balance,

Rx R2  R1 R3

R3
Rx  R1 (1)
R2
Where, Rx - Unknown resistance
R1, R2, R3 – Variable resistors

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 TABULATION:

Multiplier Unknown
Sl. Actual resistance Variable resistance resistance, resistance,
No R2 ()
RM (or) R3() Rx ()

MODEL CALCULATION:

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 PROCEDURE

1. The connections are made as per circuit diagram shown.

2. The unknown resistance is connected across at Rx terminals.

3. The trainer kit is switched ON.

4. R2 is varied to get exact point of balance.

5. The Kit is switched off and patching at R2is removed.

6. The resistance across R2 is measured using multi-meter.

7. The readings are tabulated and the value of unknown resistance is estimated.

RESULT:

Thus the unknown medium resistance value was estimated using Wheatstone bridge.

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 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PANEL DIAGRAM

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 EX. NO.: KELVIN’S DOUBLE BRIDGE
DATE:

AIM:

To estimate the value of unknown low resistance using Kelvin‟s Double Bridge.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S. No Apparatus Quantity
1 Kelvin‟s double bridge trainer kit 1
2 Digital Multi-meter 1
3 Unknown Resistor specimen As Required
(or)
4 Patchunknown
Cords resistances As Required

FORMULA USED:

The unknown resistance Rx = (P / Q)* S

Where,

P, Q – Ratio arm resistances

S – Variable Resistance

THEORY:

Kelvin‟s Double Bridge is a modification of Whetstone‟s bridge. It provides increased

accuracy in the measurement of low resistance. It incorporates two sets of ratio arms ‟P‟ & ‟Q‟
and „p‟ & „q‟. A Galvanometer is connected between the mid points of two ratio arms. The ratio
P/Q is made equal to the ratio p/q. Under balanced condition, no current flows through the
galvanometer i.e. the deflection in galvanometer is zero. This implies that the voltage drop across
the two ratio arms is zero.

The unknown resistance Rx is connected at one end of the arm and the decade resistance box is
connected at the other. The decade resistance box is used for balancing the unknown resistance.

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 TABULATION

Rx (Ω) Rx (Ω)
S. No P (Ω) Q (Ω) S (Ω) Actual Observed

MODEL CALCULATION

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 PROCEDURE

1. Connections are made as per the connection diagram.

2. The unknown resistance is connected at Rx terminal.

.
3. The unit is switched ON.

4. The range selection switch is selected at the point where the multi-meter reads least possible
value of voltage.

5. The potentiometer (P1) is varied to obtain null balance.

6. The unit is switched off and the resistance is estimated using multi-meter across P1.

RESULT:

Thus the unknown low resistance value was estimated using Kelvin double bridge.

SVSCE/EEE/EE8511 Control and Instrumentation Laboratory Page 57

 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

C3 = Unknown Capacitance,

C3 = R1*C2/R2

PANEL DIAGRAM

C1 =0.001µF, C2 =0.1 µF, R2 = RM (Multiplier Resistance)

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 EXP. NO.:
SCHERING BRIDGE
DATE:

AIM:
To estimate the unknown value of capacitance using Schering Bridge.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S. No Apparatus Quantity
1 Schering Bridge trainer kit 1
2 Decade Capacitance Box 1
3 Digital Multi-meter 1
4 CRO 1
5 Patch cords As required

FORMULA USED:

Unknown capacitance, Cx = R1*C2/R2

Unknown resistance, R3 = C1*R2/C2

THEORY:

The Schering Bridge is basically a four-arm AC bridge circuit and its measurement idea
is based on balancing the loads on its arms. The figure below shows a circuit diagram of the
Schering Bridge. In this figure, R1 and R2 are known, while R3 (Series resistance of the test
capacitor) is unknown. C1 and C2 are also known, while C3 is the value being measured. To
measure R3 and C3, the values of C2 and R2 are fixed, while the values of R1 and C1 are
adjusted until the current through the ammeter between points A and B becomes zero. This
happens when the voltages at points A and B are equal, in which case the bridge is said to be
"balanced". In this state, the followings hold:
R3 = C1*R2/C2 and C3 = R1*C2/R2.
Note that the balancing of a Schering Bridge is frequency-independent. Because of the
inductance of the resistances, we forced to put a capacitance in parallel with the resistances to
compensate their inherent inductances. Also, for accurate measurement in high voltage tests,
shielding of the circuit components is of crucial importance.

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 TABULATION:

S. No. Variable resistance Multiplier resistance, Cx

Cx(Practical)
R1 (Ω) RM (or) R2 (Ω) (Theoretical)

1 0.01 μF

2 0.1 μF
3 0.22 μF
4 0.47 μF

5 10 μF

MODEL CALCULATION:

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 PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. The power supply is switched ON.
3. The unknown capacitance CX is connected.
4. Connect a digital multi-meter across the socket marked “To detector”
5. The bridge is balanced by varying the values of R1 and connect the suitable multiplier
resistance(RM).
5. The power supply is switched off and the resistances R1 and RM are measured by using multi-
meter.
6. The value of unknown capacitance CX is calculated by using the given formula and tabulated.
7. The steps 2 to 6 are repeated for different values of capacitances.

RESULT:

Thus the unknown capacitance value was estimated using Schering bridge kit.

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 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PANEL DIAGRAM

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 EXP. NO.: MAXWELL’S INDUCTANCE CAPACITANCE BRIDGE
DATE:

AIM:
To estimate the value of unknown inductance using Maxwell‟s inductance capacitance bridge.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S. No Apparatus Qty
1 Maxwell Inductance Bridge kit 1

2 Unknown Inductance specimen 1

3 Digital Multi-meter 1

4 Patch Cords As required

5 Headphone/CRO 1

FORMULA USED:
Unknown Inductance, Lx = R2RM C1
Quality Factor, Q = ω R1 C1

THEORY
Maxwell‟s Inductance – Capacitance Bridge is used to measure unknown inductance in
terms of calibrated resistance and capacitance. Calibration-grade inductors are more difficult to
manufacture than capacitors of similar precision, and so the use of a simple "symmetrical"
inductance bridge is not always practical. Because the phase shifts of inductors and capacitors
are exactly opposite to each other, capacitive impedance can balance out inductive impedance if
they are located in opposite legs of a bridge.
Another advantage of using a Maxwell bridge to measure inductance rather than a
symmetrical inductance bridge is the elimination of measurement error due to mutual inductance
between two inductors. Magnetic fields can be difficult to shield, and even a small amount of
coupling between coils in a bridge can introduce substantial errors in certain conditions. With no
second inductor to react with in the Maxwell Bridge, this problem is eliminated.

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 TABULATION:

Variable Variable Multiplier Calculated Actual Value

S. No. resistance, R1 resistance, R2 Resistance, Value, Lx(mH) Q Factor
(Ω) (Ω) RM(Ω) Lx (mH)

MODEL CALCULATION:

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 PROCEDURE:
i) Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
ii) The unknown inductance is connected at the Lx (unknown) point.
iii) The power supply is switched ON.
iv) By selecting the multiplier resistance to successive higher or lower values for
minimum unbalance, vary the resistance R2 to obtain the final balance point.
v) Further balancing is done by varying the Resistance R1, till the unbalance drops close to
zero.
vi) Using Digital Multi-meter, measure variable resistance(R1 and R2 )

vii) Patching is removed; the readings are noted and the value of unknown inductance is
calculated using the formula.

RESULT:

Thus the unknown inductance value was estimated using Maxwell‟s inductance capacitance
bridge.

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 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PANEL DIAGRAM:

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 EX. NO.: TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
DATE:

AIM:
To obtain the temperature - resistance characteristics of the given thermistor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S. No APPARATUS RANGE QUANTITY

1. Temperature measurement trainer kit - 1

2. Multi-meter - 1
3. Thermistor sensor 2 Wire NTC (5K) 1
4. Thermometer (0-110) °C 1
5. Water bath 1.8 litre 1

PRECAUTION:

1. Water level in the water bath should be maintained above the heating filament.
Otherwise, heater will be spoiled.
2. Thermistor and thermometer should not touch the body of the heater.
PROCEDURE:
1. The thermistor is connected across T1 and T2 & the ITB-06A unit is switched ON.
2. For resistance measurement, SW1 should be kept in resistance mode.
3. The multi-meter (in resistance mode) is connected across T3 & T4.
4. During zero calibration, SW2 should be in EXT mode.
5. The offset potentiometer is adjusted to 5V. Because, thermistor is NTC type.
6. Before conducting the experiment, SW2 should be in INT mode.
7. Thermometer is inserted into the water bath and the water bath is switched ON.
8. The temperature in thermometer is noted and corresponding resistance output of the
thermistor is measured.

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 TABULATION:

Thermometer Temperature °C Resistance (Ω)

Model Graph:

Resistance

Temperature 0C

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 THEORY:
Thermistors are semi-conductor type resistance thermometers. Thermistor is the short
form for „Thermal Resistor‟. Thermistors are composed of sintered mixture of metallic oxides
such as manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron and uranium. Thermistor may be in the form of
beads, probes, rods and discs. The device consists of the bulk semiconductor device that acts as a
resistor with a high and negative temperature co-efficient of resistance, sometimes as high as –
6% per degree Celsius rise in temperature. Due to this property of high sensitivity thermistor is
mainly applicable in precision temperature measurement, temperature control and temperature
compensation, especially in a lower temperature range of -1000 C to +3000 C. A typical
thermistor has a base resistance of about 16.3 kΩ at 00, decreasing to about 340Ω at 1000 C

RESULT:

Thus the temperature - resistance characteristics of the thermistor was obtained.

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 TRAINER SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM:

CONSTRUCTION DIAGRAM

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 EXP. NO.:
STUDY OF PRESSURE TRANSDUCER
DATE:

AIM:

To obtain the characteristic curve for the given bourdon tube pressure transducer.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S. No Equipment Quantity

1 Bourdon pressure transducer kit 1 No

2 Foot pump 1 No
3 Multi-meter 1 No
4 Power Cord As required

FORMULA USED:

Applied pressure – Displayed pressure

% Error = ------------------------------------------------------------ x 100
Displayed pressure

THEORY
Pressure measuring devices use elastic members for sensing pressure at the primary
stage. These elastic members convert pressure into mechanical displacement which is later
converted into an electrical form using a secondary member.

The commonly used pressure sensitive device is Bourdon tube. The Bourdon tubes are
made out of an elliptically flattened tube bent in such a way as to produce C type shape. One end
of the tube is sealed and the other end is open for the fluid or air to enter. When the fluid or air
whose pressure is measured enters the tube, the tube tends to straighten out on account of the
pressure applied.

The displacement of the free end is used to move a pointer on a scale calibrated in terms
of pressure or may be applied to an electrical displacement transducer whose output may be
calibrated in terms of the pressure applied. Bourdon tube has several advantages which includes
simple construction, low cost, high pressure range, and good accuracy except at low pressures.

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 TABULATION

Applied Pressure, Displayed Pressure,

S. No. Error (%)
Pa (PSI) Pd (PSI)

MODEL GRAPH:

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 PROCEDURE

1. The air inside the cylinder is released by opening the valve and the power supply is
switched ON.
2. The opened air release valve is closed and it is to be checked that the pressure gauge
indicates „0‟ position.
3. The air is gradually pumped into the cylinder so that the pressure increases.
4. The bridge output and the displayed pressure are noted.
5. The above steps are repeated for different values of pressures.
6. The readings are tabulated and the following curves are plotted.
i) Applied pressure Vs displayed pressure

RESULT:

Thus the characteristic curves for a given Bourdon tube were obtained.

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 Circuit Diagram

Trainer Schematic Diagram

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 EXP. NO.:
STUDY OF DISPLACEMENT TRANSDUCER – LVDT
DATE:

AIM:

To study LVDT and obtain its characteristic curve.

APPARATUSREQUIRED:

S. No Equipment Quantity
1 LVDT Trainer kit 1
2 Digital multi-meter 1
3 3Patch cords As required

FORMULA USED:
Actual displacement – Displayed displacement
% Error = ----------------------------------------------------------- x100
Displayed displacement

THEORY:
Differential transformers, based on a variable inductance principle are also used to
measure displacement. The most popular variable inductance transducer for measurement of
linear displacement is the Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT). The transformer
consists of a single primary winding and two secondary windings wound on a cylindrical former.
The secondary windings have equal number of turns and are identically placed on either side of
the primary winding. The primary winding is connected to an alternating current source. A
movable soft iron core is placed inside the former. The displacement to be measured is applied to
the arm attached to the soft iron core. This magnetic core provides a path for magnetic flux
linkage between the coils. The position of the magnetic core controls the mutual inductance
between the centre of primary coil and two secondary coils.

When the core is centered between, the two secondary coils are equal but out of phase by
o
180 . The voltage in the two coils cancels and the output voltage will be zero. When the core is
moved from the center position, an imbalance in mutual inductance between the primary coil and
secondary coil occurs and an output voltage develops. The output voltage of an LVDT is a linear
function of the core displacement.

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 TABULATION

Positive Displacement

Screw Gauge Digital output

S. No Setting (mm) % Error

Negative Displacement

Screw Gauge Digital output

S. No Setting (mm) % Error

Model Graph:

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 LVDTs have a very high range for measurement of displacement. It is a frictionless
device and can tolerate high degree of shock and vibrations. It shows low hysteresis and
consumes less power. These advantages make LVDTs most popular for measurement of
displacement.

PROCEDURE:

1. The LVDT kit is switched ON.

2. The Screw gauge is rotated till it reads 10.0. mm.
3. The ZERO potentiometer is adjusted at the front panel so that the display reads 0.0 mm.
4. The core of micrometer is rotated till the micrometer‟s display reads “10.0 mm”.
Otherwise the gain knob is adjusted until the display reads “10.0 mm”.
5. The instrument is calibrated for +/-10.0 mm range. As the core of LVDT moves, the
display reads the displacement in mm.
6. The core of the micrometer is rotated in steps of 1 mm and the readings are tabulated.
The micrometer will show the exact displacement given to the LVDT core and the
display will read the displacement sensed by the LVDT.
7. The readings are tabulated and the graph of displacement Vs output voltage is plotted.
8. The characteristic curve between actual displacement and displayed displacement is
plotted.

RESULT:

Thus the residual voltage was determined and the characteristic curve for a given LVDT
was obtained.

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 PANEL DIAGRAM:

SYMBOL:

Light Dependent Resistor Photodiode Phototransistor

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 EXP. NO.:
OPTICAL SENSOR
DATE:

AIM:
To study the voltage characteristics of Light Dependent Resistor (LDR), Photodiode,
Phototransistor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. LDR/Photo Diode/Photo Transistor Characteristics Trainer
2. Multi-meter
3. Patch cords
4. Power cords

PROCEDURE:
1. The pointer at 0 light intensity level on the scale is positioned, when the bulb is away
from the sensors.
2. The supply to the unit is switched ON.
3. The 1V across T1, T2 terminals is set by adjusting the (0-12) V DC potentiometer.
4. The voltage output across T5, T6 terminals is measured at that time when the switch is in
V position.
5. The bulb is moved towards the sensor in steps of 5th light intensity level distance and the
corresponding voltage is noted.
6. The steps 4 and 5 are repeated for 10V and 12V adjustments.
7. The readings are tabulated and the graph between distance and voltage is plotted.

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 TABULATION:

Light Intensity Level Sensor Output Voltage ( V )

(cm) LDR Photo Diode Photo Transistor

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 THEORY:
This system consists of a variable voltage source, LDR, Photo diode and a photo
transistor. The intensity of the bulb can be increased or decreased by varying the voltage source.
When the light emitted by the bulb falls on the LDR, the resistance changes and a current flows
through the circuit. The current flowing through the circuit can be measured at T2 and T3. The
voltage drop across the load R1 can be measured at T4, T5.
The working of photo diode is similar to LDR circuit. When light falls on photodiode,
current flows through the circuit. The current flowing through the circuit can be measured at T7,
T8. The voltage drop across the load R2 can be measured at T9, T10. When the light falls on the
photo transistor, current flows through the circuit. The voltage drop across the load R4 can be
measured at T12, T13.

RESULT:
Thus the voltage characteristics of Light Dependent Resistor (LDR), Photodiode, and
Phototransistor were studied.

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 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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 EXP. NO.:
STRAIN MEASUREMENT
DATE:

AIM:
To study the characteristics between strain applied to the cantilever beam strain sensor
and the bridge voltage.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. ITB-17-CE Trainer kit
2. Multi-meter (mV)
3. Cantilever beam strain sensor setup
4. Weights (100 gram x 10 No‟s)
5. Power cord

FORMULA:
Theoretical strain= 6PL / (Bt2Y)
Where,
P=Applied load to the beam in kg
t=Thickness of the beam in cm = 0.25 cm
B=Breath of the beam in cm = 3 cm
L=Length of the beam in cm = 18.7 cm
Y=Young's modulus of the beam = 2 x 106 Kg /cm2
THEORY:
Strain gauges are sensing devices used in a variety of physical test and measurement
applications. They change resistance at their output terminals when stretched or compressed.
Because of this characteristic, the gages are typically bonded to the surface of a solid material
and measure its minute dimensional changes when put in compression or tension. Strain gages
and strain gage principles are often used in devices for measuring acceleration, pressure, tension,
and force. Strain is a dimensionless unit, defined as a change in length per unit length. For
example, if a 1-m long bar stretches to 1.000002 m, the strain is defined as 2 micro-strains.
Strain gauges have a characteristic gage factor, defined as the fractional change in resistance
divided by the strain.

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 TABULATION:

Applied Load(gram) Theoretical strain(mm) Bridge voltage (mV)

MODEL GRAPH:

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 To make an accurate strain measurement, extremely small resistance changes must be
measured. The Wheatstone bridge circuit is widely used to convert the gauge‟s micro-strain into
a voltage change that can be fed to the input of the ADC. When all four resistors in the bridge are
absolutely equal, the bridge is perfectly balanced and Vout = 0. But when any one or more of the
resistors change value by only a fractional amount, the bridge produces a significant, measurable
voltage. When used with an instrument, a strain gauge replaces one or more of the resistors in the
bridge, and as the strain gage undergoes dimensional changes (because it is bonded to a test
specimen), it unbalances the bridge and produces an output voltage proportional to the strain.

PROCEDURE:
1. The cantilever strain sensor setup is installed and the 9 pin D connector is interfaced with
ITB-17-CE kit.
2. The multi-meter is connected in milli-volts mode across T2 and T3 for bridge voltage
measurement and the module is switched ON.
3. Initially, the beam is unloaded and the bridge voltage is nullified by using zero
adjustment POT.
4. The load is applied to the beam; the strain will develop on the beam and the bridge
voltage (mV) is measured across T2 and T3.
5. The load is gradually increased on the beam, the applied load and the bridge voltage
(mV) are noted.
6. The values of applied load, theoretical stain and the bridge voltage (mV) are tabulated.
7. The graph between theoretical strain versus bridge voltage (mV) is plotted.

RESULT:
Thus the characteristic of cantilever beam strain sensor was plotted and the bridge
voltage was studied.

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 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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 EXP. NO.:
DATE: MEASUREMENT OF POWER AND ENERGY

AIM:
To measure the power and energy in single phase AC supply.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S. No Name of the Equipment Range Type Quantity

1. Ammeter (0-10A) MI 1
2. Voltmeter 0-300V MI 1
3. Energy meter Single phase Analog 1
4. Stopwatch - Analog 1
5. Connecting wires - - As Required
6 Wattmeter 300V, 10A UPF 1

FORMULA USED:

Power = Voltage in Volts * Current in Amps

True Energy = Number of revolutions / Energy meter constant
Actual Energy = [(Power * Time taken for „n‟ revolutions) / (3600 *1000)]
% of Absolute error = (True Energy – Actual Energy / True Energy) *100
THEORY:
The energy meter is an integrated type instrument where the speed of rotation of
aluminium disc is directly proportional to the amount of power consumed by the load and the no
of revs/min is proportional to the amount of energy consumed by the load. In energy meter the
angular displacement offered by the driving system is connected to the gearing arrangement to
provide the rotation of energy meter visually. The ratings associated with an energy meter are
1. Voltage Rating. 2. Current Rating. 3. Frequency Rating
4. Meter Constants.
Based on the amount of energy consumption, the driving system provides rotational torque for
the moving system which in turn activates the energy registering system for reading the real
energy consumption. The energy meter is operated based on induction principle in which the
eddy current produced by the induction of eddy emf in the portion of the aluminium disc which
creates the driving torque by the interaction of 2 eddy current fluxes.

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 TABULATION:

S. Voltage Current Power Time No. of Actual True %

No. energy Error
(V) (A) (W) (sec) Revolutions Energy
kWh
kWh

MODEL CALCULATION:

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 PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.

2. Single phase AC supply is switched ON by closing the SPSTS.
3. By increasing the load in steps, the voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter readings are noted. Also
the time taken for the energy meter disc to rotate for „n‟ revolutions is noted down.
4. Using the formula energy is measured; the percentage error is calculated for each set of
readings.

RESULT:

Thus the power and energy were measured in single phase supply and the absolute error
was calculated.

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 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

R1 = 10K
R2 = 47K
R3 = 10K
R4 = 1K or 10K or 100K ohms

Formula:
Gain = R4 / R3 (1+ (2R2/R1))
Output Voltage = = R4 / R3 [(1+ (2R2/R1)).(V2-V1)]

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 EXP. NO.: INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER
DATE:

AIM:
To measure the output voltage of an instrumentation amplifier for various input voltages.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S. No Name of the Equipment Range Quantity

1. Trainer Kit - 1
2. Multi-meter - 1
3 Patch Cords - As required

THEORY:

Instrumentation amplifiers are used in monitoring and controlling of the physical

quantities in the industrial processes for measurement and control of temperature, humidity and
light intensity. These physical quantities are usually measured with the help of transducers. The
output of transducer has to be amplified so that it can drive the indicator or display system. The
major function of instrumentation amplifier is precise amplification of low level output signal of
the transducer, and it is widely used in applications where low noise, low thermal drifts, high
input impedance and accurate closed-loop gains are required. Important features of
instrumentation amplifier includes: high gain accuracy, high CMRR, high gain stability, low dc
offset.

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 TABULATION:

Input voltage Differential input

Output voltage,
S. No voltage (V1-V2) Gain
Vo(V)
V1 mV V2 mV mV

MODEL GRAPH:

SVSCE/EEE/EE8511 Control and Instrumentation Laboratory Page 92

 PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.

2. The input voltage from 0-1200mV is applied from the signal generator.
3. The output voltage (Vo) was measured using multi-meter.
4. The gain (Vo/Vin) is calculated and verified with theoretical value.

RESULT:

Thus the output voltage of an instrumentation amplifier for various input voltages was
measured.

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 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULATION:
S. No Analog Input Digital Output

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 EXP. NO.:
ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER
DATE:

AIM:

To study the working of an Analog to Digital converter.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S. No Name of the Equipment Range Quantity

1. A/D converter trainer kit - 1
2. Digital Multi-meter - 1
3. Patch Cords - As required

THEORY

Most of the real world physical quantities such as voltage, current, temperature, pressure
and time etc. are available in analog form. Therefore, for processing, transmission and storage
purposes, it is often convenient to express these variables in digital form. Analog to digital
converter (ADC) is a device that converts analog information into digital form. Successive
approximation type is an ADC which completes an n-bit conversion in n-clock periods. The
converter uses a digital control register with gated binary inputs of 1 and 0, a D/A converter with
a reference voltage supply, a comparison circuit, a control timing loop, and a distribution
register. The distribution register is a ring counter. At the start of conversion cycle, both the
control register and the distribution register are set with a 1 in the MSB and a 0 in all bits of less
significance. It causes an output voltage at the D/A converter and it is compared with the
comparator analog input. Depending on the comparator output, the MSB remains in the state 1 or
it is reset to 0. The procedure repeats itself until the final approximation has been corrected and
the distribution register indicates the end of the conversion.

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 PROCEDURE:

1. The ADC trainer kit is switched ON.

2. Reset the counter by pressing RESET push switch to read digital outputs of 0 0 0 0.
3. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
4. Enable the clock pulse into the counter by bringing the toggle switch to low level.
5. The start of conversion (SOC) button(SERIAL INPUT) is pressed once to start the
conversion from analog signal to digital signal form.(QA LED will glow)
6. The digital output for the corresponding analog input is displayed on the LEDs viz. D0
through D7
7. The potentiometer is varied for different values of analog inputs and the corresponding
digital output is noted down

RESULT:

Thus the working of an 8-bit analog to digital converter was studied.

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 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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 EXP. NO.:
DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTER
DATE:

AIM:

To study the working of Digital to Analog converter.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S. No Name of the Equipment Range Quantity

1. D/A converter trainer kit - 1
2. Digital Multi-meter - 1
3. Patch Cords - As required

THEORY:

Weighted resistor type DAC uses a summing amplifier with a binary weighted resistor
network. It has n-electronic switches d1, d2, d3 …… dn, controlled by binary input word. If the
binary input to a particular switch is 1, it connects the resistance to the reference voltage (VR).
and if the input bit is 0, the switch connects the resistor to the ground. The output voltage is
given by
Output Voltage = Total Current * Feedback Resistance
Total current = (V/R)* Multiplication factor
Where,
Input voltage, V= 5V
Resistance, R= 1KΩ
Feedback resistance, Rf=540Ω
Multiplying factor = (d3/1)+(d2/2)+(d1/4)+(d0/8)

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 TABULATION:
S. No Digital Input Analog Output Theoretical output

MODELGRAPH:

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 PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. The digital input data is set and the output voltage is measured.
3. The graph of binary input Vs output voltage is plotted.
4. The theoretical output is also calculated.

RESULT:
Thus the working of digital to analog converter was studied.

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SVSCE/EEE/EE8511 Control and Instrumentation Laboratory Page 102
 EXP. NO.: ANALOG SIMULATION OF TYPE-0 & TYPE-1 SYSTEM
DATE:

AIM:
To study the time response of first and second order type –0 and type- 1 systems.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Linear system simulator kit
2. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
3. Patch Cords

FORMULAE USED:

The type number of the system is obtained from the number of poles located at origin in a given
system. Type – 0 system means there is no pole at origin. Type – 1 system means there is one pole
located at the origin. The order of the system is obtained from the highest power of s in the
denominator of closed loop transfer function of the system. The first order system is characterized by
one pole or a zero. Examples of first order systems are a pure integrator and a single time constant
having transfer function of the form K/s and K/(sT+1). The second order system is characterized by
two poles and up to two zeros. The standard form of a second order system is G(s) = ωn / (s2 + 2ζ
2

ωns + ωn ) where ζ is damping ratio and ωn is undamped natural frequency.

2

Damping ratio, ζ= √ (ln MP)2 / (π2 +(ln MP)2)

Where, MP is peak percent overshoot obtained from the time response graph
Undamped natural frequency, ωn = π /[tp√(1 - ζ2)]
Where, tp is the peak time obtained from the time response graph

Closed loop transfer function of the type – 0 second order system is

C(s)/R(s) = G(s) / [1 + G(s) H(s)]
Where,
H(s) = 1
G(s) = K K2 K3 / (1+sT1) (1 + sT2)
Where K is the gain

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 K2 is the gain of the time constant – 1 block =10
K3 is the gain of the time constant – 2 block =10
T1 is the time constant of time constant – 1 block = 1 ms
T2 is the time constant of time constant – 2 block = 1 ms
PROCEDURE:
To find the steady state error of type – 0 first order system
1. Connections are made in the simulator kit as shown in the block diagram.
2. The input square wave is set to 2 Vpp in the CRO and this is applied to the REF terminal of error
detector block. The input is also connected to the X- channel of CRO.
3. The output from the simulator kit is connected to the Y- channel of CRO.
4. The CRO is kept in X-Y mode and the steady state error is obtained as the vertical displacement
between the two curves.
5. The gain K is varied and different values of steady state errors are noted.
To find the steady state error of type – 1 first order system
1. The blocks are connected using the patch chords in the simulator kit.
2. The input triangular wave is set to 2 Vpp in the CRO and this applied o the REF terminal of error
detector block. The input is also connected to the X- channel of CRO.
3. The output from the system is connected to the Y- channel of CRO.
4. The experiment should be conducted at the lowest frequency to allow enough time for the step
response to reach near steady state.
5. The CRO is kept in X-Y mode and the steady state error is obtained as the vertical displacement
between the two curves.
6. The gain K is varied and different values of steady state errors are noted.
7. The steady state error is also calculated theoretically and the two values are compared.
3. To find the closed loop response of type– 0 and type- 1 second order system
1. The blocks are connected using the patch chords in the simulator kit.
2. The input square wave is set to 2 Vpp in the CRO and this applied to the REF terminal of error
detector block. The input is also connected to the X- channel of CRO.
3. The output from the system is connected to the Y- channel of CRO.
4. The output waveform is obtained in the CRO and it is traced on a graph sheet. From the waveform
the peak percent overshoot, settling time, rise time, peak time are measured. Using these values ωn
and ξ are calculated.
5. The above procedure is repeated for different values of gain K and the values are compared with
the theoretical values.

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 Time Response of first order system

A first order system whose input -output relationship is given by

C(s) 1
----- = --------
R(s) (1+sT)

Here we are analyzing the output of the system for a step input, R(s) = 1 / s
1
Therefore, C(s) = -------- R(s)
1+sT

Taking inverse Laplace transform of C(s), we get

c(t) = 1 - e-t/T for t >= 0.

RESULT:

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