Journal of Computers

Low-Cost Computing Using Raspberry Pi 2 Model B

Ar Kar Kyaw1, 2*, Hong Phat Truong3, Justin Joseph2

1 Digital Forensic Research Labs, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.
2 Whitireia Community Polytechnic, 450 Queen Street, Auckland, New Zealand.
3 Super Shuttle, Auckland, New Zealand.

* Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]

Manuscript submitted March 1, 2017; accepted June 21, 2017.
doi: 10.17706/jcp.13.3.287-299

Abstract: A low-cost computing environment using Raspberry Pi based systems is very efficient to use as a
proposed computing system in libraries and classrooms of schools in the developing countries such as
Argentina, Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, Kiribati, Myanmar, Tuvalu, Vietnam and Zimbabwe where money is
always a constraint. This paper presents the results of an experimental set up of the low-cost computing
environment using Raspberry Pi 2 (Model B), a cost-benefit analysis and a discussion of findings in addition
to a literature review about Raspberry Pi and a methodology that is applied.

Key words: Low-cost computing, LCC, raspberry Pi 2 model B, cost-benefit analysis.

1. Introduction
To improve the educational levels of learners in developing countries, it is important to implement a
computing environment that is affordable and durable. Raspberry Pi is a multi-purpose low-cost Advanced
Reduced-Instruction-Set-Computer (ARM) processor-based miniature device that has been utilised as a
standalone machine in schools to improve the education provision in rural areas [1]-[3]. A network-based
low-cost computing (LCC) environment is designed and implemented by using Raspberry Pi 2 Model B
devices in this research project. Usability testing of the implemented system is conducted by participants
before collecting data using an online questionnaire. Subsequently, the collected data is analysed and a
cost-benefit analysis is discussed. With this implemented prototype system, students from schools where the
computing budget is a constraint (especially in developing countries) can have the opportunity to access to
educational resources.
This paper outlines the results of research into the test-bed setup of low-cost computing environment
using Raspberry Pi 2. Section 2 contains a review of literature, including related previous work. Section 3
outlines the methodology including the research questions. Section 4 contains the findings – analysis of
collected data from a pilot test and a Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) of the provisioning of LCC environments.
Section 5 presents a discussion that is followed by conclusion and future work (Section 6).

2. Literature Review
A review of the literature provided in this section includes a brief overview of Raspberry Pi, a review of
previously published articles and contributions of our research.

2.1. Raspberry Pi
Raspberry Pi is a card-sized minicomputer that can either operate on mains or battery power. Raspbian is

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a provided operating system (OS), but there are various other ARM-Linux OS variants that can run on it. This
miniature device can be used for robotics, arcade machines, and temperature probing devices. It can also be
used for MATLAB applications, among others, and comes in a variety of models with different interfaces for
different requirements. Raspberry Pi 2 Model B (the latest version of the hardware as of November 2015)
has 1 gigabyte (GB) of random access memory (RAM), a 900MHz quad-core ARM processor, four universal
serial bus (USB) interfaces, an Ethernet port, a mini USB for power supply and high-definition multimedia
interface (HDMI) for display. The OS is flashed onto a micro Secure Digital (SD) card [4]. The running device
can either be accessed directly using a USB keyboard, mouse and display or via a LAN port by creating a
secure shell (SSH) session remotely.

2.2. Previous Related Work

Table 1. Review of Previous Published Articles

Author(s) Contributions
Agrawal & Singhal [5]  Researchers discussed a smart drip irrigation system using Raspberry Pi including a proposed
design for a home automation system, energy efficient devices, including Raspberry Pi, Arduino
microcontrollers, XBee modules and relay boards.
 These energy efficient devices were used due to low cost.
Danymol, Ajitha &  Researchers explained about real time communication systems and the use of Raspberry Pi
Gandhiraj [6] because it is cheap and small.

Lynn [1]  Lynn discussed about two researchers, Bock and Jalia from Cambridge University, who
conducted “a pilot project exploring possibilities of providing computing access and education
in rural schools in India (p. 1)” by using Raspberry Pi.
 The main idea of using Raspberry Pi was getting students engaged in computing and learning to
program.
 However, Raspberry Pi was used as a standalone computer to compose music, drawings and
build robots.
Slaven [2]  Slaven explained about the “development of an offline server, named ‘RACHEL”, which was not
connected to the internet.
 Raspberry Pi was used as a means of improving education provision in rural areas.
 25 Raspberry Pi’s were installed in schools to be used in Cameroon to the power generator to
give possibilities to their students and teachers to learn spreadsheet and word processing.
 Slaven also discussed that two researchers, Bock and Jalia, from Cambridge University who
introduced Raspberry Pi in Ecuador as “part of their long-term plan to ensure the sustainability
of using Raspberry Pi based education content”.
Severance &  Researchers discussed the history of Raspberry Pi’s development and potential applications of
Fontichiaro [3] Pi in classrooms for engaging students in programming.
Kyuchukova, Hristov,  Researchers discussed the possibility of using Raspberry Pi as a console server for remote
Zahariev, & Borisov [7] access to devices in Virtual Learning Environments (VLE).
 They also outlined the designing, planning and creation of a virtual laboratory.
Srinivasan, Anand,  Researchers explained about the combinations of technologies to facilitate education in rural
Antony Venus, Victor, India by using Raspberry Pi devices.
Narayanan, Sree
Rakshaa [8]
Soetedjo, Ashari,  Researchers discussed the application of Raspberry Pi for detecting laser spot using the
Mahmudi, Nakhoda [9] OpenCV library.
Byrne, Fisher &  Researchers explained about Raspberry Pi in the 21st-century learning environment and
Tangney [10] adaption of a Bridge21 model for Raspberry Pi.
 Raspberry Pi was used to introduce basic code compilation.
Fung, White, Jouet,  Researchers discussed Glasgow Raspberry Pi cloud and Pi cloud for resource management in
Singer & Pezaros [11] cloud computing.
Kaup, Gottschling &  Researchers explained about a power consumption model for the Raspberry Pi, which was
Hausheer [12] used as a substitute to conventional home gateways to derive the impact of typical hardware
components on the energy consumption.

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Author(s) Contributions
 Raspberry Pi was used because of low power consumption.

According to previous literature, researchers utilized Raspberry Pi in different ways and their
contributions are summarised in the following table.

2.3. Our Contributions

Our main contribution in this research was to utilize and demonstrate the usage of Raspberry Pi 2 Model B
devices as client computers in a proposed internet-connected LCC environment. It is envisaged that this LCC
environment can be deployed in libraries or classroom environments in developing countries.

3. Methodology
A literature review was conducted to identify previous work in the general and experimental usage of
Raspberry Pi and similar low-cost devices. After conducting a literature review, a suitable mixed-method of
experimental and survey methodology was crafted to fit the aims of this project – to create and test a
test-bed LCC environment. The experimental method was used to design and implement the low-cost
computing [13], [14] and then the survey methodology was used for conducting a pilot test with participants,
who had hands-on experience using the LCC environment prior to completing an online questionnaire
survey [15]. A total of 87 participants were invited to take part in the pilot testing, 22 students and 65 staff,
but only 38 out of 87 invitees participated in the pilot testing of the low-cost computing.

3.1. Research Question

The LCC research project was attempting to find answers to three key questions. The questions were:
Q1. What software and hardware are required to set up low-cost computing (LCC) for libraries and
classrooms?
Q2. Is a Raspberry Pi based client a suitable replacement for the computer in the libraries and classrooms
in developing countries?
Q3. What are the benefits of the proposed LCC system?

3.2. Final Research Phases

Fig. 1. Research phases.

To answer these research questions (Section 3.1) it was necessary to follow a pre-defined methodology,
with distinct phases (Fig. 1), in order to setup and evaluate the test-bed environment (as the LCC prototype)
consisting of computer servers and multiple Raspberry Pi devices as client (end-user) computers.

3.3. Experimental Setup

The LCC network architecture (Fig. 2) includes three virtual local area networks (VLANs), three physical
servers, four virtualized servers, two Raspberry Pi clients and one pfSense gateway computer that are
connected to a Cisco Catalyst 2950 switch.

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The test-bed prototype implementation design has three VLANs - VLAN1 for servers, VLAN20 for
production network (classrooms & office) and VLAN 30 for the library. VLANs are used to create network
segments using managed switches to isolate network users and devices – as an added security measure.
Using VLANs in a network does require managed switches, but cost more than unmanaged switches and add
network management overhead. VLANs can be omitted from the design resulting in a non-complex,
non-hierarchical design if the expertise does not exist to manage the network.

Fig. 2. System architecture for the experiment.

The three physical computer servers are Backup server (utilizing Bacula network backup software),
Virtualization server (utilizing Microsoft Hyper-V) and Web server (utilizing XAMPP web application hosting
software). The four virtualized servers provision core network services: directory (authentication), DNS,
DHCP, file sharing, printing and network monitoring. The client and server OSes, application and network
services software are presented in Tables 6, 7, 8 and 9 (see Appendix).

3.4. Data Collection

The pilot testing and survey method were used for data collection [4]. The following questions were used
in an online survey as part of the data collection process.
 How often do you use computers in the library?
 What is the main purpose of using computers in the library?
 How familiar are you with computers?
 How was your web browsing experience on Raspberry Pi-based system?
 How was your experience using LibreOffice application on Raspberry Pi-based system?
 How was your experience using file sharing and printing services on Raspberry Pi-based system?
 Is the Raspberry Pi-based computer a suitable replacement for computers in the libraries?
 Can you suggest ways to improve Raspberry Pi-based LCC system?
Before inviting Whitireia New Zealand students and staff (academic and administration) from different
faculties and departments to take part in pilot testing and completing an online survey on their experience as

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an end-user, a trial test was conducted with three student participants. The survey questions were refined
from the provided feedback. Thereafter, final pilot testing and online survey were conducted. The collected
data was processed, analysed and presented in tables and charts (refer to Section 4).
To electronically collect data, a questionnaire was uploaded to a free online survey engine – Google Forms.
The staff were invited by email, while students were randomly approached on campus to take part in this
research.

4. Findings and CBA

This section presents the collated findings of the survey completed by the participants who tested the
proposed LCC environment and then presents a Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) of implementing it.

4.1. Data Collection

A total of 38 participants (22 students and 65 staff were invited) took part in the pilot testing and
afterwards completed the online survey. The major findings are depicted in the following figures (Fig. 3, 4, 5,
6, 7 and 8).

Fig. 3. Frequency of using computers in library.

Fig. 4. Purpose of using computers in library.

Over 34% of participants had not used the computers in the library at all, but 26% used it on a daily basis
(Fig. 3). Approximately 35% of participants use library computer for web browsing whereas 49% use it for
emails and using Office productivity software for doing assignments, etc., (Fig. 4).
Similarly, 55% of participants were expert to very familiar with web browsing while 32% were fairly
familiar to familiar in using Google Chrome and Mozilla Firefox (Fig. 5). Both these browsers were installed
on the LCC Raspberry Pi 2 client computer.

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Fig. 5. Participants’ experience in using web browsing.

Likewise, 44% of participants were expert to very familiar while 36% were fairly familiar to familiar in
using LibreOffice Suite on the LCC Raspberry Pi 2 client computer (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Participants’ experience in using the open source LibreOffice Suite on Raspberry Pi 2.

Fig. 7. Participants’ experience in using file sharing and printing on Raspberry Pi 2.

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In using file sharing and printing services available on the LCC Raspberry Pi 2 client computer, 41% of
participants were expert to very familiar while 46% were fairly familiar to familiar (Fig. 7). That Raspberry
Pi 2 based LCC system was a suitable replacement for PCs in libraries, 87% of participants agreed while 13%
disagreed (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8. Participants’ answers to whether or not Raspberry Pi 2 based clients are suitable replacements for PCs
in libraries.

Based on the results of this pilot testing and survey, the participants also suggested that user training could
be a way of improving the user’s knowledge of using this system. The results of this research also highlighted
that the majority of participants had their own computers for their own personal needs.

4.2. Cost-Benefit Analysis

The purpose of the cost-benefit analysis (CBA) is to determine whether the proposed LCC environment is
a viable option for libraries and classrooms in developing countries.
CBA has two purposes, which are:
 Determining if the proposed LCC environment is a feasible investment or decision (i.e., a justification of
feasibility or advantage), and
 Comparing the total expected cost of each alternative against the total benefits.
Calculating a cost-benefit analysis does provide the cost and benefits that will be helpful in analysing and
evaluating the three alternative system approaches.
There are three alternative approaches in the CBA calculations:
 Existing system refers to the existing computing environment in the library of Whitireia (Auckland
Campus).
 Proposed refers to the proposed low-cost computing environment for libraries and classrooms for
developing countries.
 Assumed system refers to a computing environment that can be set up by using second-hand personal
computers (PCs) where an organisation or a school cannot afford to buy new PCs.
The costings of all three systems were considered as alternatives in determining a viable LCC solution.
The CBA takes into consideration the expected costs in setting up a LCC environment for school libraries
that include twenty PCs (including both one-time and recurring costs). The calculation of expected costs is
based on the formula provided by the researchers [16]. Cost elements such as operational costs, human
resource cost, power consumption, individual system (client PC and server) and software costs are factored
into the CBA calculations [17].

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Table 2 presents the total cost of the setup of each system (server and client). The cost of each factor
includes hardware, software, human resources and power consumption for all three alternatives of the
existing, proposed and assumed systems including server and client [16]-[18].
Table 3 presents the individual cost of hardware and software required for setting up a client and server
environment. It also displays the total costs of hardware and software for the client as well as hardware and
software for server systems.

Table 2. Hardware and Software Costs for Server and Client [17]-[19]

Table 3. Hardware and Software Costs for 2 Servers and 20 Clients [17]-[19]

Table 4. Operational Cost [20]

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Table 4 displays the total of the calculated operating cost for all systems. This is how much the schools
would spend in order to have system administrators maintain the LCC environment. The total of these costs
are the total operating costs for that period [21], [22].
Table 5 outlines the total cost for 20 client systems and 2 servers of existing systems, assumed systems
and proposed systems. This total amount represents approximate costs associated with human resources,
power consumption, hardware and software. For a one-off implementation cost of the Raspberry Pi 2-based
LCC system, there is a cost savings of 88.7% (against Existing System) and 71% approximately (against the
Assumed System); however, the difference in operational cost is not significant across the three system
implementations.

Table 5. Total Cost

5. Discussion
The purpose of this section is to discuss the results of analysed data from the pilot test of the implemented
LCC environment for libraries and classrooms in developing countries.

5.1. Discussion of Findings from Survey

Gender and age: Gender and age data were collected while conducting the pilot survey. According to the
results, there were 51.4% females and 48.6% males participants. Most of the female participants were
impressed with the way the system worked and were keen to perform more activities on the Raspberry Pi 2
client computer.
Regarding the analysis of the findings the purpose of using computers in libraries such as web browsing,
office applications (for assignments), emails, 35.11% of the respondents used computers for web browsing
whereas 24.47% used it for checking their emails and 24.47% of participant used computers for doing
assignments (office applications). Only a small percentage of the participants stated that they used
computers to listen to music and play games and other personal activities. It is doubtful that the majority of
the respondents did not give the correct information in this part of the questionnaire survey.
While conducting the pilot testing and online survey, some participants were very impressed with how the
system (LCC systems) worked. Most of the participants taking part in the survey were females. The majority
of student participants used computers in the library for several reasons such as checking personal emails,
work on academic assessments, researching and surfing the Internet. Only a few stated they do not use the
computers in the library.
The results of the survey provided an insight into how the participants used the LibreOffice Suite, file
sharing and printing services as well as web browsing on Raspberry Pi 2- based computers. 87% of
participants agreed that the proposed system could be a suitable replacement for computers in the libraries
and classrooms in developing countries due to different reasons such as low cost, efficiency, suitable budget.
13% of participants disagreed because the LCC system appeared too complicated for them. In fact, these
participants were already familiar with Microsoft Windows operating systems but the LCC system utilised a

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different operating system (Linux). The majority of the participants suggested that the responsiveness of the
Raspberry Pi 2 client system needed to improve. This is attributed to lack of processing power for intensive
computing tasks and limited system memory on Raspberry Pi 2 devices. [Note: This pilot testing and survey
was conducted in 2015, before the release of Raspberry Pi 3].

5.2. Limitations
The survey was limited to selected staff and randomly invited students who had agreed to participate in
the survey. The results of the survey do not distinguish between data collected from staff and students, i.e. data
not grouped. Since there could be a difference in computing skill levels and computer usage patterns
between staff and students, some of the results from survey could be skewed.

6. Conclusion and Future Work

In this research, a LCC test-bed environment for school libraries in developing countries was designed and
implemented. To answer the research questions, data was collected using an online survey questionnaire
after usability testing was performed by each participant. The collected data was analyzed and a CBA was
conducted using the existing library computing environment (as a reference), assumed computing
environment and proposed LCC environment. After data analysis and CBA were completed, research
questions were answered and the benefits of the proposed LCC system were compared with the existing and
assumed systems. To sum up, implementing the proposed LCC system could have potential benefits in saving
power, human resources, hardware and software costs.
In the future, an Intrusion Detection or Intrusion Prevention system (IDS/IPS such as Security Onion,
BroIDS, Snort IDS etc.) and a Virtual Private Network (VPN) solution will be integrated into the LCC system
for added security. An additional domain controller will be implemented for redundancy purposes. Similarly,
additional network services such Zimbra for enterprise email and cloud storage services such as PiCloud or
OwnCloud will be integrated into the LCC environment.
Microsoft Hyper-V service was used on Microsoft Windows Server 2012 R2 for operating system
virtualization in the LCC system. This is to be replaced with an open source (no cost) virtualization bundled
solution (such as Proxmox VE, Xen, Citrix XenServer or oVirt). Raspberry Pi 2 to be replaced with Raspberry
Pi 3, Odroid-C2 or similar alternatives.

Appendix
Client Software
Table 6. Client Operating System for LCC System
Client Operating System

Operating System Version Open Source Costs

Ubuntu MATE 15.04 yes $0

Table 7. Client Software for LCC System

Client Software

Software Name Version Purpose Open Source Costs

LibreOffice Suite 5.0.3 Office yes $0

Mozilla Firefox 42.0.2 Web browser yes $0

Google Chrome 45 Web browser yes $0

VideoLAN VLC Media Player 2.2.1 Video player yes $0

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Client Hardware: Mouse, Keyboard, Monitor, Raspberry Pi 2 Model B (with a 16GB microSDHC for storage).
Server Software:

Table 8. Server Operating System for LCC System

Server Operating System

Operating System Version Open Source Costs

Ubuntu Linux 14.04.2 LTS yes $0

Turnkey Linux 13.0 yes $0

Table 9. Server Software for LCC System

Server Software
Software Name Version Purpose Open Source Costs
ISC DHCPd 4.2.4 DHCP Server yes $0
BIND 9.9.5 DNS Server yes $0
Webmin 1.760 Server Configuration yes $0
NTP 4.2.6.p5 NTP (Time) Server yes $0
PHP OpenLDAP 1.2.3 Domain Controller Server yes $0
Samba 4.1.6 File Share Server & Print Server yes $0
CUPS 1.7 Print Server Management yes $0
MySQL 5.5.44 Database Server yes $0
Bacula 5.2.6 Backup Server yes $0
OMD 1.20 Network Monitoring Server yes $0
XAMPP 5.6.12 Web Server yes $0

Hardware: Mouse, Keyboard, Monitor, Dell PowerEdge R730xd Server.

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Ar Kar Kyaw is an ICT lecturer at Whitireia Polytechnic's Auckland campus. His research
interests include computer security, information security, wireless networks, medical
informatics, digital forensics, internet of things (IoT) and cloud computing.

Hong Phat Truong is a system engineer at Super Shuttle, New Zealand. His research
interests include computer networks and security.

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Justin Joseph is an ICT lecturer at Whitireia Polytechnic's Auckland campus. His research
interests include computer security, wireless sensor networks (WSN), internet of things
(IoT) and cloud computing.

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