ASB 232- Aircraft Propulsion 1

HITS, AEROSPACE

White Paper
By Purushothaman
[email protected]

January 31, 2019

Contents
1 SYLLABUS 4

SYLLABUS 4

2 Unit 1 5

Unit 1 5
2.1 Introduction to propulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Operational Envelopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3 Inventors of Turbojet Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.4 Types of Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.4.1 Turbojet Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.4.2 Turboprop and Turboshaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4.3 Ramjet Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.5 Performance Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.5.1 Thrust Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.5.2 Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption (TSFC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.5.3 Thermal Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.5.4 Propulsive Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.5.5 Overall Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.5.6 Specific thrust and Fuel Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

3 UNIT-2 14

UNIT-2 14
3.1 Fundamental Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2 Equations of state and conservation of mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2.1 Conservation of mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

4 UNIT 4 and UNIT 5 17

UNIT 4 and UNIT 5 17

4.1 ROCKET PROPULSION -INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.1.1 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.1.2 Method of Propulsion: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.2 Performance Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.2.1 Thrust Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.2.2 Effective exhaust velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

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 4.2.3 Exhaust Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.2.4 Characteristic velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.2.5 Thrust coefficient(CF ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.2.6 Specific Impulse (ISP ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.2.7 Specific Propellant Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.2.8 Mass ratio (MR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.2.9 Propellant Mass fraction (ζ ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.3 Efficiencies: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.3.1 Thermal Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.4 Chemical Rocket Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.4.1 Solid Rocket Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.4.2 Liquid-Propellant Rocket Engines (LREs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.4.3 Liquid Propellants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.4.4 Hybrid Propulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

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 Section 1 SYLLABUS
UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT PROPULSION 11
Introduction to propulsion, Basic thermodynamics, Fundamental equations, Types of
aircraft engines, Performance parameters, thrust equation, factors affecting thrust and
efficiencies.
UNIT II STEADY ONE DIMENSIONAL FLOW 11
One dimensional flow of a perfect gas, isentropic flow, non-isentropic flow, frictionless
constant area flow, constant area flow with friction, without friction, normal shock and
oblique shocks
UNIT III FUNDAMENTALS OF GAS TURBINE ENGINES 13
Working principle of gas turbine engine, gas turbine cycle, and turboprop, turbofan
and turbojet engines -Thrust and efficiency - Methods of thrust augmentation – Engine
Performance characteristics.
UNIT IV FUNDAMENTALS OF ROCKET PROPULSION 12
History of rocket propulsion, types of rocket, Basic configurations and application
-Types of missiles and their structure, Heat transfer and cooling system in rocket , clas-
sification of Chemical rocket propulsion system.
UNIT V PERFORMANCE OF AEROSPACE VEHICLES 13
Static performance, vehicle acceleration, performance characteristics, nozzle, solid,
liquid and hybrid rocket and their propellants.

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 Section 2 Unit 1
2.1 Introduction to propulsion
Propulsion is ”the act of propelling, the state of being propelled, a propelling force or im-
pulse” and defines the verb propel as ”to drive, or cause to move, forward or onward.”
Propulsion involves an object to be propelled plus one or more additional bodies, called
propellant.

2.2 Operational Envelopes

Each aircraft engine operates at certain altitudes and Mach number (Velocities). These
limitations are complimenting the airframe limitations too. These operational regimes
are bounded by lift limit, aerodynamic force limit and temperature limit as shown in
Figure 1,Figure 2.

Figure 1: Operational Corridors

2.3 Inventors of Turbojet Engines

Sir. Frank Whittle (1907-1996)
Whittle is considered by many to be the father of jet engine. In January 1930, Frank
Whittle submitted his patent application for a jet aircraft engine. The patent was granted

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 Figure 2: Engine Operation Limits

Figure 3: Sir. Frank Whittle’s Engine

in 1932. However, he received very little encouragement from the Air Ministry or industry.
After receiving support from investment bankers, Power Jets were established in 1936 and
Whittle was assigned to the company to work on the design and development of his first
jet engine. The first run of the experimental engine was in April 1937. This engine had a
centrifugal compressor and axial-flow turbine. Many problems were encountered. Some
were solved during the next year, and the experimental engine was reconstructed several
times. The resulting engine with 10 combustion chambers performed well. In June 1939,
the Air Ministry was finally convinced of the merits of Whittle’s invention and decided to
have a flight engine. Thus, the first Whittle flight engine was built and was called the
Power Jet W.1. The W.1 turbojet engine was designed to produce 1240 lb at 17,750 rpm.
The Air Ministry also decided to have the Gloster Aircraft Company build an experimental

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airplane called the E28/39. The aircraft was completed in March 1941 and the engine in
May 1941. On May 15, 1941, the Gloster E28/39 powered with the W.1 Whittle engine
took off from Cranwell at 7.40 PM, flying for 17 min and reaching a maximum speed of
around 545 km/h (340 mph). Within days, it was reaching 600 km/h (370 mph) at 7600
m.
Discussion: Know about the Works and contributions of Dr. Hans von Ohain
Gas generator
This gas generator comprises compressor, combustion chamber and a turbine which
altogether work to generate the gas. This is considered as the heart of the gas turbine
engines as most of the GTEs possess this GG.

Figure 4: Gas Generator Schematic

2.4 Types of Engines

2.4.1 Turbojet Engines
A simple turbojet engine can be constructed by adding the inlet and nozzle to GG.
The thrust of a turbojet is developed by compressing air in the inlet and compressor,
mixing the air with fuel and burning in the combustor, and expanding the gas stream
through the turbine and nozzle. The expansion of gas through the turbine supplies the
power to turn the compressor. The net thrust delivered by the engine is the result of
converting internal energy to kinetic energy.

The pressure, temperature, and velocity variations through a T/J engine are shown

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 Figure 5: Simple TurboJet engine

Figure 6: Thermophysical Property variations in axial direction

inFigure 6 . In the compressor section, the pressure and temperature increase as a

result of work being done on the air. The temperature of the gas is further increased by
burning fuel in the combustor. In the turbine section, energy is being removed from the
gas stream and converted to shaft power to turn the compressor. The energy is removed
by an expansion process that results in a decrease of temperature and pressure. In the
nozzle, the gas stream is further expanded to produce a high exit kinetic energy. All the
sections of the engine must operate in such a way as to efficiently produce the greatest

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amount of thrust for a minimum of weight.
Thrust augmentation or the afterburner.This is a second combustion chamber fitted
between the last (low-pressure) turbine and the nozzle. This combustion chamber utilizes
the remaining oxygen in the air to burn more unburnt fuel to a much higher temperature
than that in the original combustion chamber. This provides some 50% or even greater
increase in the thrust force generated by the original engine’s configuration.

Figure 7: A schematic of a Turbojet engine with afterburner

2.4.2 Turboprop and Turboshaft

A gas generator that drives a propeller is a turboprop engine. The expansion
of gas through the turbine supplies the energy required to turn the propeller.
The turboshaft engine is similar to the turboprop except that power is supplied to a shaft
rather than a propeller. The turboshaft engine is used quite extensively for supplying
power for helicopters. The turboprop engine may find application in vertical takeoff and
landing (VTOL) transporters.
The limitations and advantages of the turboprop are those of the propeller. For low-
speed flight and short-field takeoff, the propeller has a performance advantage. At speeds
approaching the speed of sound, compressibility effects set in and the propeller loses its
aerodynamic efficiency. Because of the rotation of the propeller, the propeller tip will
approach the speed of sound before the vehicle approaches the speed of sound. This
compressibility effect when one approaches the speed of sound limits the design of he-
licopter rotors and propellers. At high subsonic speeds, the turbofan engine will have a
better aerodynamic performance than the turboprop since the turbofan is essentially a
ducted turboprop. Putting a duct or shroud around a propeller increases its aerodynamic
performance.
Discussion: Understand the working principles of other engine types too

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 Figure 8: Schematic of a Turboprop Engine

2.4.3 Ramjet Engine

Figure 9: A subsonic Ramjet Schematic

Figure 10: Supersonic configuration of a Ramjet Engine

Ramjet Engine consists of an inlet, a combustion regime (combustion zone) and an

exit nozzle. A schematic of a subsonic and supersonic ramjet configuration is given in

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Figures 9 and 10.
Air enters the inlet at supersonic condition is compressed and enters into CC. The
hot burned gases expelled through the nozzle, developing thrust. Thus, the inlet entry
condition is essential in the Ramjet operation. This high velocity air inlet is responsible
for the tremendous pressure rise inside the combustion chamber. Hence, higher the inlet
velocity , higher the combustion probability. This is why, at supersonic conditions, ramjet
is inefficient. In simple terms, it is difficult to start the ramjet engine when the flying Mach
number is subsonic.
In detail, The combustion process in an ordinary ramjet takes place at low subsonic
velocities. At high supersonic flight velocities, a very large pressure rise is developed
that is more than sufficient to support operation of the ramjet. Also, if the inlet has
to decelerate a supersonic high velocity airstream to a subsonic velocity, large pressure
losses can result. The deceleration process also produces a temperature rise, and at some
limiting flight speed, the temperature will approach the limit set by the wall materials and
cooling methods. Thus when the temperature increase due to deceleration reaches the
limit, it may not be possible to burn fuel in the airstream.
Discussion: Know about the SCRAMJET working principles

2.5 Performance Parameters

We have several parameters that affect the performances of the aircraft. However, for
air breathing engines, thrust is the first performance parameter. In equality terms, for
sustained flight (thrust= drag), accelerated flight (Thrust > drag), decelerated flight (thrust
< drag).

2.5.1 Thrust Equation

For the air breathing engines that consist of only ‘gas generators’ we have uninstalled
thrust defined as follows
F = (ṁ0 + ṁf )Ve − ṁ0 V0 + (Pe − P0 )Ae
where ṁ0 , ṁf = Air and fuel mass flow rates
(1.1)
V0 , Ve = Inlet and exit velocities
P0 , Pe = Inlet and exit pressures

If we expand the exit i.e., exhaust jet to the ambient, then the (1.1) becomes

F = (ṁ0 + ṁf )Ve − ṁ0 V0

(1.2)
where Pe = P0

If we consider the additional components, then we have the installed thrust which is give
as ”T ”. Relation between installed and uninstalled thrust is given as

T = F − Dinlet − Dnozzle (1.3)

Non-dimensionalise (1.3) and considering the inlet loss coefficient and nozzle loss coeffi-
cient yields the relation between ’T and F’ as T = F ( 1 − φinlet − φnozzle )

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2.5.2 Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption (TSFC)
TSFC is the second performance parameter which is defined as the rate of fuel use by the
propulsion system per unit thrust produced. Thus the relation between uninstalled (S) and
installed fuel consumption (TSFC) can be related as
ṁf ṁf
S= , T SF C = (1.4)
F T
Thus, the S and TSFC can be related in equation form as

S = T SF C (1 − φinlet − φnozzle ) (1.5)

Key Points:

1. F decreases with altitude and the fuel consumption S also decreases

2. S increases with Mach number.

Class time discussion:

Performance curves and their characteristics.

2.5.3 Thermal Efficiency

This is the second performance parameter of an air breathing engine. It is defined as the
ratio of the total organized energy (shaft power or kinetic energy) out of the engine to the
rate of thermal energy available from the fuel in the engine

Ẇout
ηT = (1.6)
Q̇in

Ẇout is equal to the shaft power for the engines with shaft power output. For engines
with no shaft power such as turbojet engine, the net work output is equal to the single jet
exhaust energy i.e., the fluid’s kinetic energy rate change and it is given as
1
(ṁ0 + ṁf )Ve2 − ṁ0 V 20

Ẇout = (1.7)
2

2.5.4 Propulsive Efficiency

This is a measure of determining the efficiency of Ẇout which is used to propel or thrust
the aircraft. It is the ratio of the aircraft power to the power out of the engine.

T V0
ηprop = (1.8)
Ẇout
Class work:
Find the propulsive efficiency for the Turbojet engine and show the condition for max-
imum propulsive efficiency.
Ref: Below Reference

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 Figure 11: Propulsive Efficiency vs. Velocity ratio curve

2.5.5 Overall Efficiency

Overall efficiency is denoted by η0 and is given by the product of thermal and propulsive
efficiency. It gives the ratio of the aircraft power to the rate of thermal energy released.

TV0
η0 = (1.9)
Q̇in

Class work Discussion

Try to find out the relation between overall efficiency and TSFC. Hint: Q̇in = ṁ? hpr

2.5.6 Specific thrust and Fuel Consumption

Conditions for Specific Thrust

• Single jet exhaust

• Exit Pressure equals the ambient

• Mass flow rate of air is higher than mass flow rate of fuel

• Less installation losses

 
F
= Ve − V0 (1.10)
ṁ0

Discussions
Relate Specific thrust and propulsive efficiency
Interesting fact: TSFC= S, then the relation appears as
Think as a propulsion engineer/ manufacturer and lists out the desiring conditions.

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 Section 3 UNIT-2
3.1 Fundamental Concepts
Four basic laws that can be readily applied in the pesent chapter are as follows:

Law of conservation of mass

ρAv = cons tan t

N ewton0 s second law of motion

1
ρ dP + vdv = 0

F irst law of T hermodynamics

v2
h+ 2 = cons tan t
Second law of T hermodynamics
T ds = dh − vdP

3.2 Equations of state and conservation of mass

A function relating one dependent and two independent thermodynamic properties of a
simple system of unit mass is called an equation of state.

f (P, ν, T ) = 0 (3.1)

The above equation is called equation of state.

h = u + Pν → (3.2)

∂u

∂h

Cp
Cv = ∂T ν , CP = ∂T P , γ= Cv

 
∂P
a2 = ∂ρ → (3.3)
s

3.2.1 Conservation of mass

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 Figure 12: Control volume for a steady flow

Figure 13: One-dimensional flow through a converging duct. unifrom flow is considered.

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 Figure 14: Steady flow through control volume

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 Section 4 UNIT 4 and
UNIT 5
4.1 ROCKET PROPULSION -INTRODUCTION
A rocket is a propulsive device that produces a thrust force F on a vehicle by ejecting mass
a high relative velocity. Rockets can be classified into chemical and nonchemical rockets.
Chemical rockets can be further categorized into many types. The most famous of them
are liquid, solid, and hybrid types. Nonchemical rockets are also classified into several
types including electrical, thermal, solar, and nuclear rockets. Some flight vehicles use a
dual-mode engine, which has an air-breathing mode (either ramjet, turbojet, or turbofan
engine) and a non-air-breathing or rocket mode. One of the latest applications is SABRE.

4.1.1 Classification

Chart 1: Classification chart

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4.1.2 Method of Propulsion:
Rockets can be classified based on propulsion methods using one of the following methods

• Chemical (solid, liquid, and hybrid)..

• Electrical (electrostatic, electrothermal, and electromagnetic).

• Solar (solar sail rocket, solar-heated rocket).

• Nuclear (nuclear fission rocket, nuclear fusion rocket, photon rocket)..

• Combination of rocket engine and air-breathing engine (like ramjet, turbojet, or

turbofan engines).

4.2 Performance Parameters

4.2.1 Thrust Force
The thrust force for an air-breathing engine was derived earlier and expressed asT =
ṁe ue − ṁa u + (Pe − Pa )Ae

Figure 15: Forces acting on the rocket geometry

Figure 15 illustrates the forces acting on the control volume.

The following assumptions are followed for analyzing the flow in an ideal
rocket:

1. Steady flow of gases within rocket engine; thus mass flow rate through the whole
rocket .

2. All the species of the working fluid are gaseous. Any condensed phases (liquid or
solid) in the nozzle flow have negligible volume.

3. There is no heat transfer across the rocket walls; therefore, the flow is adiabatic.

For non-air-breathing engine, no inlet air is ingested into the engine; thus the
inlet momentum term vanishes. The thrust equation is reduced to the
relation T = ṁue + (Pe − Pa ) Ae

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 The thrust force is independent of vehicle speed. It depends on the atmospheric pres-
sure (Pa) as well as the exhaust parameters: mass flow rate (m), speed (ue ), and pressure
(Pe ).
In the vacuum of space (Pa=0), the thrust is expressed asT = ṁue + Pe Ae
For a given design of nozzle, the value of exit pressure is fixed. Thus, during flight through
the atmosphere, the ambient pressure decreases continuously. As a result, the thrust in-
creases with altitude. However, beyond a certain altitude, the variation is negligible and
the thrust is nearly constant as illustrated in Figure 16.

Figure 16: THRUST VS. ALTITUDE

4.2.2 Effective exhaust velocity

The thrust force and the effective exhaust velocity can be related as T = ṁue +(Pe − Pa ) Ae =
ṁVef f
Considering mass flow rate ṁ = ρe ue Ae and the final relation can be obtained as
h  i
Vef f = ue 1 + ρPeeu12 1 − PPae
e

h  i
1 Pa
Vef f = ue 1 + γ Me2 1− Pe

When Exit pressure equals the ambient pressure, we get effective velocity equals exhaust
velocity.
PS: There is some tricky aspect could be asked with simple arithmetic operations.

comment on the nozzle operations for the problem given in the class room
class room problems

4.2.3 Exhaust Velocity

The propellants enter the combustion chamber, mix, and are ignited. The gas produced
is heated by chemical energy released during combustion and expands through nozzle.

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Applying the first law of thermodynamics, the change in enthalpy of exhaust gases is
equal to its kinetic energy. The temperature of gases in combustion chamber (Tc) will be
equal to the total temperature of gases exhausting the nozzle (Tc = Toe ). The change in
specific enthalpy is:

Cp (T0e − Te )

On the other hand, the gain in Kinetic energy per unit mass is equated with enthalpy
change and it yields
r  
Te
ue = 2Cp T0e 1 − T0e

γ−1
Assuming isentropic ; T P γ = cons tan t

s    γ−1
γ

γ Pe
ue = 2 γ−1 RT0e 1 − P0e

Find the relation for Maximum exhaust velocity

Taking the mass continuity; ṁ = ρe ue Ae , Find the final relation

4.2.4 Characteristic velocity

P0e A∗
C∗ = ṁ

Derive the characteristic velocity in terms of R, γ, Total temperature.

4.2.5 Thrust coefficient(CF )

It is given by

T
CF = P0e A∗
From the earlier relations and combining, we get
s
 2  γ+1 
 γ−1   γ−1   
γ
2γ 2 Pe Pe −Pa Ae
CF = γ−1 γ+1 1 − P0e + P0e A∗

The first is the effect of exhaust velocity whereas the second term is the contribution of
exit pressure. For an optimum expansion nozzle, Find the optimum thrust coefficient
value. The thrust variation vs Pressure ratio and Area ratio is shown in Figure 17 .

Note: What is the significance of this CF ? What is the optimum value of

CF reveals thermodynamically ?
Hint: Think of Thermal Efficiency

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 Figure 17: CF variation

4.2.6 Specific Impulse (ISP )

For a constant and , the specific impulse is given as,

T
Isp = ṁg

However,

Vef f
Isp = g (How ?)

Find the correlation of CF . C* and Isp

4.2.7 Specific Propellant Consumption

It is the inverse of the specific impulse.

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4.2.8 Mass ratio (MR)
Mass ratio is defined as the final mass (mf ) after rocket operation (or after propellants
were consumed) divided by the initial mass (m0 ) before rocket operation:
mf
MR =
m0

4.2.9 Propellant Mass fraction (ζ )

It is the ratio of propellant mass to the initial mass.
mp m0 − mf mp
ζ= = =
m0 m0 mp + mf

4.3 Efficiencies:
In rockets, efficiency terms are not as commonly employed as we do in aircraft. How-
ever, rocket engines possess both internal efficiency ( Thermal) and external efficiency (
Propulsive). The product of both is overall efficiency.
Energy losses are accounted due to the heat dissipation, geometrical effects and the
incomplete combustion process.

4.3.1 Thermal Efficiency

The maximum energy available per unit mass of chemical propellant is the heat of the
combustion (QR ).
Power input, Pchem = ṁQR
The actual power of combustion is obtained by multiplying the combustion efficiency
by the power input. Generally, the combustion efficiency is 94-99 %.
In rockets, Thermal efficiency indicates the conversion of chemical power input into
engine output power.
Eng. output power= Propulsion power (Thrust)+ Power losses in Exhaust gases
ef f ṁ(V −u)2
Eng. Output P ower = T u + 2
2 2
ṁ(Vef f +u )
Eng. Output P ower = 2
Engine output power
ηth = Available Chemical power
2
T u+
(
ṁ Vef f −u )
ηth = 2
ηc Pchem
2 2
(Vef f +u )
ηth = 2ηc QR

4.3.1.1 Propulsive Efficiency

P ropulsion power
ηp = Eng. Output
! P ower
u
2
Vef f
ηp = u 2
!
1+
Vef f

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Discuss the ideal cases for maximum efficiency cases.

• Propulsive efficiency can reach 100 % in rockets which is never attained in air-
breathing engines.

• Rockets can operate with exhaust speed less than the flight speed (u=Vef f > 1:0)
on the contrary all air-breathing engines operate with flight speed less than exhaust
speed (u=Veff < 1:0)

4.3.1.2 Overall efficiency (η 0 )

Vef f × u
η0 =
QR

4.4 Chemical Rocket Engines

4.4.1 Solid Rocket Motor
Solid-propellant rockets are the oldest type of rocket and date back to ancient China.
They are relatively simple in construction as shown in The term motor is used for solid
rocket, while the term engine is used for liquid rocket. Solid rocket motors are used on
air-to-air and air-to ground missiles and on model rockets and as boosters for satellite
launchers. A simple solid rocket motor consists of a casing, propellant charge (identified
as grain), igniter, and nozzle. This grain contains both of the solid fuel and solid oxidizer
components combined within a cylindrical combustion chamber or case. The propellant
is casted into the rocket shell having a central cavity of different shapes including star
shaped that serves as combustion chamber . Thrust-burning time profile depends on this
cavity. A liner provided between the case and the propellant protects the case from high
temperatures developing inside the propellant layers.
An electrical signal is sent to the igniter which creates hot gases that ignite the main
propellant grain. Once the flame front is established, combustion is selfsustaining.
The rate of burning is proportional to the exposed surface area. As the propellant
burns, a “flame front” is produced which moves into the propellant until all the propel-
lant is burned. The hot exhaust gases produced in combustion are used to propel the
rocket.

Solid propellant must have the following features:

1. High chemical energy to generate maximum thrust and specific impulse

2. High density to enable packing a large quantity of propellant in a small volume

3. Low molecular weight thus the exhaust gases achieve high acceleration

4. Easy to ignite

5. Burns steadily at predictive rate

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 Figure 18: Schematic of SRM

6. Easy to fabricate

7. Smoke-free and nontoxic

Advantages Disadvanatages
Compact and Smaller in size Once ignited cannot be shut
off
Donot require feedig system Restricted to single usage
High thrust-to-weight ratio
Require little maintenance
Safe and reliable and can be stored well before he
launching
High energy density

4.4.1.1 Composition of Solid Propellant

4.4.1.1.1 Homogenous or colloidal propellants

• Fuel and oxidizer are contained in the same molecule which decomposes during
combustion. Typical examples are nitroglycerine (NG) and nitrocellulose (NC).

• Most propellants are double based (few single-based and triple-based propellants
are found). Double-based propellants are combinations of nitroglycerine (NG) and
nitrocellulose (NC), with small quantity of additives.

• It has nontoxic and smokeless exhausts.

4.4.1.1.2 Composite or Heterogenous propellants

• These are mixtures of oxidizing crystals and a powered fuel (usually aluminum) held
together in a binder (synthetic rubber or plastic).

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 • Sometimes light metal powders are added to increase the energy of the combustion
process and fuel density.

• They are more stable than homogeneous and preferred in long term stored rockets.
.

• However, addition of light metals makes their exhaust toxic and smoky.

4.4.1.1.3 Composite modified double-based propellants They are a heterogeneous com-

bination of the double-based homogeneous (colloidal) propellants and composite propel-
lants.

Figure 19: Thrust Profile

Figure 20: Grain Cross sections

4.4.1.2 Basic Grain configurations and definitions

1. Cylindrical grain: A grain in which the internal cross section is constant along the
axis regardless of perforation shape.

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 2. Perforation: The central cavity port or flow passage of a propellant grain; its cross
section may be cylindrical, tubular, rod, star shape, etc. All have a circular outer
boundary due to rocket casing shape.

3. End-burning (or cigarette burning) grain is the most common and is used.

4. Neutral burning: Motor burn time during which thrust, pressure, and burning sur-
face area remain approximately constant, typically within about +15 %.

5. Progressive burning: Burn time during which thrust, pressure, and burning surface
area increase.

6. Regressive burning: Burn time during which thrust, pressure, and burning surface
area decrease.

7. Stoichiometric mixture of fuel and oxidizer is the correct proportions for complete-
combustion. Thus the fuel is identified as oxygen balanced. If the propellant con-
tains insufficient oxygen for complete burning, it is called underoxidized, and if it
contains much oxygen, it is called over oxidized.

8. Sliver: Unburned propellant remaining (or lost, that is, expelled through the nozzle)
at the time of web.

4.4.1.3 Burning Rate Burning rate in a full-scale motor depends on :

1. Propellant composition
2. Combustion chamber pressure
3. Initial temperature of the solid propellant prior to start
4. Combustion gas temperature
5. Velocity of the gas flow parallel to the burning surface
6. Motor motion (acceleration and spin-induced grain stress)
Burning rate is defined as the recession of the propellant surface in a direction per-
pendicular to this burning surface per unit time. At any given initial temperature, the
empirical relationship between pressure and burning rate known as Vielle’s law may be
written as

ṙ = aPcn

Significance of ’n’:

1. 0<n<1 indicates the stable operation

2. General values are between 0.2 and 0.6

3. N=0 indicates that burn rate is constant

4. n~0 indiactes the unstable and extinguishing condition

5. n<0 is the requirement for intermittent start/stop operations

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 Figure 21: Regression rate schematic

4.4.2 Liquid-Propellant Rocket Engines (LREs)

4.4.2.1 Introduction A liquid-propellant rocket engine (LRE) is a reaction engine using
the liquid propellants (fuel and oxidizer) stored on a flight vehicle board. Since propellant
mass flow rates are extremely large for high-thrust engines, liquids are desirable as they
have high density; thus, the volume of the propellant tanks is relatively low. After com-
bustion, the liquid rocket propellant (LRP) is converted into gaseous state and discharges
from the engine and creates thrust:

• High-pressure tanks (one or more)

• Pumps

• Turbines

• Gears

• Bearings

• Feeding lines (plumbing or piping)

• Regulators, valves, and control devices

• Thrust chamber or thruster (one or more combustion chambers)

• Nozzle

A liquid-propellant rocket propulsion system consists of one or more tanks to store the
propellants, one or more thrust (combustion) chambers, a feed mechanism to force the
propellants from the tanks into the thrust chamber (propellant pumps, turbines, pres-
surizing device), power source to furnish the energy for the feed mechanism, suitable
plumbing or piping system to transfer the liquids, a structure to transmit the thrust
force, and control devices to initiate and regulate the propellant flow and thus the thrust
and nozzles. Liquid-propellant rockets can be throttled, be control of mixture ratio, shut
down, and be restarted. Some commonly used liquid fuels are liquid hydrogen, UDMH,
hydrazine, alcohol, etc.
Some common oxidizers are liquid oxygen, red fuming nitric acid (RFNA), liquid fluo-
rine, WFNA, etc. Most of the liquid propellants are toxic and require very high combus-
tion temperature which demands special materials for handling system and cooling of the
walls of chamber and exhaust nozzle. For better mixing and efficient combustion, the fuel
and the oxidizer are atomized into small droplets through the injectors and then mixed,

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evaporated, and ignited. Ignition is achieved by chemical, pyrotechnical, and electrical
means. The propellant can often be hypergolic. The ignited propellants burn under high
pressure, sometimes greater than MPa.
Upon combustion high-temperature gaseous combustion products (CPs) are formed
and discharged through the nozzle. Temperature of CP continuously decreases, while its
velocity increases to sonic speed at the nozzle throat and supersonic speeds (2700–4500
m/s) at nozzle exit.

4.4.2.2 Propellant feed system The propellant feed system of a liquid rocket engine
determines how the propellants are delivered from the tanks to the thrust chamber. The
functions of the propellant feed system in both types are:
1. Raising the pressure of the propellants
2. Feeding the propellant to the thrust chambers
LREs are generally classified based on the propellant feed system as either pressure
fed or pump fed. Pressure fed is performed using gas pressurization, while pump fed
relies upon pumps. These two systems are
(A) Pressure-fed rocket engines
A high-pressure gas like helium or nitrogen stored in a high-pressure tank at a very high
pressure (say 35 MPa) is used to force the propellants to the thrust chamber. Pressuriza-
tion gas is warmed by heat exchanger to avoid its cooling down.

Figure 22: Pressure fed system

The advantages of this system are its simplicity, reliability, and avoidance of turboma-

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chinery. Moreover, procedure for engine cutoff and restart are very simple. However, its
great disadvantage is their large and heavy tanks.
Due to the above advantages, this type of system is typically used for space propulsion
applications and auxiliary propulsion applications requiring low system pressures and
small quantities of propellants. Maneuvering and attitude control thrusters of satellites
and space probes are mostly pressure fed since they are restarted thousands of times.
Other famous applications are all engines of Apollo CSM and Apollo LM.

(B) Pump-fed rocket engines

The pump-fed system is used for high-pressure, high-performance applications.
Several thousand horsepower engines are needed to drive feeding pumps. The selection
of a particular feed system and its components is governed primarily by the application
of the rocket, duration, number or type of thrust chambers, mission, and general re-
quirements of simplicity of design, ease of manufacture, low cost, and minimum inert
mass.

4.4.3 Liquid Propellants

4.4.3.1 Monopropellant Monopropellant contains an oxidizing agent and combustible
matter in a single substance. It maybe a mixture of several compounds, or it may be
a homogeneous material, such as hydrogen peroxide H2O2; ethylene oxide; hydrazine.
Monopropellants are stable at ordinary atmospheric conditions but decompose and yield
hot combustion gases when heated or catalyzed. It has the following features:

• Monopropellant is passed through a catalyst.

• Catalyst causes a reaction, which generates heat.

• The heated products of this reaction are expelled through a nozzle.

1
• Exhaust speed 4 2.3 km/s.

• Usually used for altitude control of spacecraft.

Some monopropellants are called hypergolic if the propellants ignite smoothly on
contact with each other. An example is hydrazine.

4.4.3.2 Advantages and disadvantages of monopropellant.

4.4.3.3 Bipropellant The bipropellant rocket unit has two separate liquid propellants:
an oxidizer and a fuel. They are stored separately and are not mixed outside the com-
bustion chamber . The majority of liquid-propellant rockets have been manufactured for
bipropellant applications. It has the following features:

• The fuel and oxidizer are pumped into the combustion chamber.

• Often use turbopumps.

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 Advantages Disadvantages
Simple and robust design Most fuels are toxic
Reliable Catalyst lifetime
issues
Less feed line complexities Low thrust
Possibility of Intermittent / extinguishing of combustion Low exhaust speed
proces
Low specific impulse

• Power tapped off of maincombustion.

• Injectors mix propellant to provide stable and thorough combustion.

• Heat is generated from combustion.

• Heated products are expelled out the nozzle.

Also some bipropellants are called cryogenic if it has to be kept at a low temperature to
remain in a liquid state in propellant tanks. Examples are liquid hydrogen (LH2), liquid
oxygen (LOX), liquid methane, and liquid fluorine. Some bipropellants are also hypergolic
like nitrogen tetroxide.

Pros Cons
More efficient than solid and hybrid More complex than solid and hybrid
High exhaust Velocity Cryogenic systems often needed
Throttling capability
Storage is difficult
Multiple on/off opeartions

4.4.3.4 Fundamental Relations The propellant mixture ratio for a bipropellant is the
ratio at which the oxidizer and fuel are mixed and react to give hot gases.
ṁo
r=
ṁf

4.4.3.5 Pump Fed systems The main element in pump-fed system is the turbopumps.
A turbopump is a gas turbine that comprises basically two main components: a rotody-
namic pump that delivers fuel or oxidizer to the thrust chamber and a driving turbine,
usually both mounted on the same shaft or sometimes geared together. The purpose of a
turbopump is to produce a high-pressure fluid for feeding a combustion chamber where
propellants react and produce high temperature gases.
The main challenges in the design of turbopumps are to deliver very high power in a
small machine, which implies high pressure (up to 55 MPa), large mass flow rate (some
2500 kg/s), and small weight turbomachinery.

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 A turbopump can comprise either a single/multistage centrifugal pump or multistage
axial flow pump. Pumps should rotate at tens of thousands revolutions per minute. Tur-
bopumps may also include booster pumps. Pumps are driven by a gas turbine to form
together turbopumps. These pumps raise the pressure of cryogenic fluid to higher than
the combustion chamber pressure. The gas driving the turbine may be a generator in a
gas generator by pre-burning some amount of the propellant, by burning separate propel-
lant (like hydrogen peroxide in the RD-107/108 engines on the Soyuz), or by gasification
of some propellant in the cooling jacket of the thrust chamber and the nozzle.
Advantages of turbopumps:

• High specific impulse due to its high pressure in thrust chamber

• Compact and light weight compared to pressure-fed engines

• More efficient thus spend less propellant

Disadvantages of turbopumps:

• Complexity in design and implementation

• More expensive compared to pressure fed

• Less reliable compared to pressure fed

Figure 23: Gas Generator, Staged Combustion, Expander Cycle

4.4.3.5.1 Gas Generator Cycle

• A part of the fuel and oxidizer is burnt in a separate combustion chamber identified
as preburner.

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 • The products of combustion of this small chamber are used to drive the turbine
before exhausted to ambient pressure. For this reason it is identified as open cycle.

• The gas turbine has a high-pressure ratio. To minimize weight, a small number of
stages are employed; thus, a moderate turbine efficiency is attained

4.4.3.5.2 Staged Combustion

• The turbine exhaust gases are not dumped but fed into the main combustion cham-
ber. So all propellant and all heat pass through the thrust chamber and nothing are
wasted.

• The fuel–oxidizer ratio in main engine need not be the same as in the pre-burner.

• The turbine pressure ratio is less than that of the gas generator case. Since the
turbine driving gas is not efficiently changed into a thrust like the gas generator
cycle, high engine performance is not obtained.

• High chamber pressure is achieved compared with the previous gas generator, here
more than 40 MPa.

4.4.3.5.3 Expander Cycle

• makes use of all propellant and not requiring a separate gas turbine.

• The gas employed in driving the turbine is produced from the fuel vaporized in the
cooling jacket of the thrust chamber and nozzle. The cycle may be opened or closed

4.4.3.5.4 Comparison 1. The gas generator cycle is the easiest to control and least sen-
sitive since it works against atmospheric or low pressure. The turbine is a low-flow high-
pressure ratio machine. The discharge pressure of the pump is slightly above chamber
pressure.
2. In the expander cycle, the heat source is the nozzle cooling. All the flow that passes
through the turbine is injected into the chamber. Chamber pressure depends on how
much pumping power can be delivered given the heat input. This makes it sensitive to
the turbine efficiency. Turbine discharge pressure is higher than the chamber pressure.
3. A staged combustion cycle allows for extremely high chamber pressures. As a
consequence the discharge pressure from the pumps has to be extremely high.

4.4.4 Hybrid Propulsion

Hybrid-propellant engines represent an intermediate group between solid- and liquid-
propellant engines. One of the substances is solid, usually the fuel, while the other,
usually the oxidizer, is liquid, although reverse hybrids such as liquid hydrogen burning
with solid oxygen have been studied. Such engines have performance similar to that of
solid propellants, but the combustion can be moderated, stopped, or even restarted. It
has better specific impulse than solid rocket ones.

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 The liquid oxidizer is injected onto the solid, whose fuel case also serves as the combus-
tion chamber. An igniter starts the combustion process, which develops heat to vaporize
the surface layer of solid fuel. The expanding hot fuel gas expands away from the solid
surface and meets the spray of liquid oxidizer.
Combustion process continues in a self-sustaining manner. Typically the fuel is a poly-
meric hydrocarbon solid such as HTPB (which stands for hydroxyl terminated polybuta-
diene), and the oxidizer can be any of the oxidizers used with liquid-bipropellant engines
(hydrogen peroxide H2O2. HTPB has slow burning rates; thus, a number of holes, or
ports, exposing more surface area of the fuel for burning are added. Unfortunately, so
many holes make the solid fuel structurally weak and subject to dangerous breakup as
the combustion chamber builds up pressure and gas flow.

Figure 24: Schematic of Hyrbid Rocket Engine

Figure 25: Combustion and flow phenomenon inside HRM

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