R. W.

Erickson
Department of Electrical, Computer, and Energy Engineering
University of Colorado, Boulder
 Inductor current waveform
during turn-on transient

iL(t)

Vg – v(t)
L
iL(nTs) iL((n + 1)Ts)
– v(t)
iL(Ts) L
iL(0) = 0
0 DTs Ts 2Ts nTs (n + 1)Ts t

When the converter operates in equilibrium:

iL((n + 1)Ts) = iL(nTs)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 14 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Inductor volt-second balance:
Buck converter example

vL(t)
Vg – V Total area
Inductor voltage waveform,
previously derived:
DTs t

–V
Integral of voltage waveform is area of rectangles:
Ts
= vL(t) dt = (Vg – V)(DTs) + ( – V)(D'Ts)
0

Average voltage is
vL = = D(Vg – V) + D'( – V)
Ts
Equate to zero and solve for V:
0 = DVg – (D + D')V = DVg – V V = DVg

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 16 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 The principle of capacitor charge balance:
Derivation

Capacitor defining relation:

dv (t)
iC(t) = C C
dt
Integrate over one complete switching period:
Ts
vC(Ts) – vC(0) = 1 iC(t) dt
C 0

In periodic steady state, the net change in capacitor voltage is zero:

Ts
0= 1 iC(t) dt = iC
Ts 0

Hence, the total area (or charge) under the capacitor current
waveform is zero whenever the converter operates in steady state.
The average capacitor current is then zero.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 17 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 2.3 Boost converter example

L 2

iL(t) + vL(t) – +
iC(t)
Boost converter 1
Vg + C R v
with ideal switch –

L D1

iL(t) + vL(t) – +
Realization using iC(t)
power MOSFET Q1
and diode Vg + C R v
– +
DTs Ts
–
–

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 18 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Boost converter analysis

L 2

iL(t) + vL(t) – +
iC(t)
1
original Vg + C R v
–
converter
–

switch in position 1 switch in position 2

L L

iL(t) + vL(t) – + iL(t) + vL(t) – +

iC(t) iC(t)

Vg + C R v Vg + C R v
– –

– –

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 19 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Subinterval 1: switch in position 1

Inductor voltage and capacitor current

vL = Vg
L
iC = – v / R
iL(t) + vL(t) – +
iC(t)

Vg + C R v
Small ripple approximation: –

vL = Vg –
iC = – V / R

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 20 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Subinterval 2: switch in position 2

Inductor voltage and capacitor current

vL = Vg – v L
iC = iL – v / R iL(t) + vL(t) – +
iC(t)

Vg + C R v
Small ripple approximation: –

–
vL = Vg – V
iC = I – V / R

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 21 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Inductor voltage and capacitor current waveforms

vL(t)
Vg

DTs D'Ts
t

Vg – V

iC(t) I – V/R

DTs D'Ts
t
– V/R

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 22 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Inductor volt-second balance

vL(t)
Net volt-seconds applied to inductor Vg
over one switching period: DTs D'Ts
Ts t
vL(t) dt = (Vg) DTs + (Vg – V) D'Ts
0
Vg – V

Equate to zero and collect terms:

Vg (D + D') – V D' = 0

Solve for V:
Vg
V =
D'
The voltage conversion ratio is therefore
M(D) = V = 1 = 1
Vg D' 1 – D

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 23 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Conversion ratio M(D) of the boost converter

5
M(D) = 1 = 1
4 D' 1 – D

3
M(D)

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
D

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 24 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Determination of inductor current dc component

iC(t) I – V/R

Capacitor charge balance: DTs D'Ts

t
Ts
iC(t) dt = ( – V ) DTs + (I – V ) D'Ts
– V/R
0 R R

Collect terms and equate to zero: I

Vg/R
– V (D + D') + I D' = 0 8
R
6
Solve for I:
4
I= V
D' R 2

Eliminate V to express in terms of Vg: 0

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Vg D
I= 2
D' R

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 25 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Determination of inductor current ripple

Inductor current slope during iL(t)

subinterval 1: iL
I
diL(t) vL(t) Vg Vg Vg – V
= =
dt L L
L L
Inductor current slope during
subinterval 2: 0 DTs Ts t
diL(t) vL(t) Vg – V
= =
dt L L
Change in inductor current during subinterval 1 is (slope) (length of subinterval):
Vg
2 iL = DTs
L
Solve for peak ripple:
Vg • Choose L such that desired ripple magnitude
iL = DTs
2L is obtained
Fundamentals of Power Electronics 26 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis
 Determination of capacitor voltage ripple

Capacitor voltage slope during v(t)

subinterval 1:
dvC(t) iC(t) – V V v
= = –V I – V
dt C RC
RC C RC
Capacitor voltage slope during
subinterval 2: 0 DTs Ts t
dvC(t) iC(t) I
= = – V
dt C C RC

Change in capacitor voltage during subinterval 1 is (slope) (length of subinterval):

– 2 v = – V DTs
RC
Solve for peak ripple: • Choose C such that desired voltage ripple
magnitude is obtained
v = V DTs • In practice, capacitor equivalent series
2RC
resistance (esr) leads to increased voltage ripple
Fundamentals of Power Electronics 27 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis
 2.4 Cuk converter example

L1 C1 L2
Cuk converter, i1 i2 +
with ideal switch + v1 –
1 2
Vg + C2 v2 R
–

L1 C1 L2
Cuk converter:
practical realization i1 i2 +
+ v1 –
using MOSFET and
diode Vg + Q1 D1 C2 v2 R
–

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 28 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Analysis strategy

L1 C1 L2
This converter has two
inductor currents and two i1 i2 +
+ v1 –
capacitor voltages, that 1
+ 2
can be expressed as Vg
–
C2 v2 R

i 1(t) = I 1 + i 1 -ripple(t) –
i 2(t) = I 2 + i 2 -ripple(t)
Strategy:
v1(t) = V1 + v1 -ripple(t)
• Apply volt-second balance to each
v2(t) = V2 + v2 -ripple(t)
inductor voltage
To solve the converter in • Apply charge balance to each capacitor
steady state, we want to current
find the dc components I1, • Simplify using the small ripple
I2, V1, and V2, when the approximation
ripples are small.
• Solve the resulting four equations for the
four unknowns I1, I2, V1, and V2.
Fundamentals of Power Electronics 29 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis
 Cuk converter circuit
with switch in positions 1 and 2

L1 L2
Switch in position 1: i2
MOSFET conducts i1 + vL1 – +
– iC1 + vL2 – iC2
Capacitor C1 releases Vg + v1 C1 C2 v2 R
–
energy to output
+ –

i1 L1 L2 i2
iC1
Switch in position 2: + vL1 – + vL2 – +
+ iC2
diode conducts
Vg + C1 v1 C2 v2 R
–
Capacitor C1 is
charged from input – –

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 30 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Waveforms during subinterval 1
MOSFET conduction interval

Inductor voltages and L1 L2 i2

capacitor currents: +
i1 + vL1 – – iC1 + vL2 –
iC2
vL1 = Vg +
Vg v1 C1 C2 v2 R
–
vL2 = – v1 – v2
+ –
i C1 = i 2
v
i C2 = i 2 – 2
R
Small ripple approximation for subinterval 1:
vL1 = Vg
vL2 = – V1 – V2
i C1 = I 2
V
i C2 = I 2 – 2
R

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 31 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Waveforms during subinterval 2
Diode conduction interval

Inductor voltages and L1 L2

i1 i2
capacitor currents: iC1
+
+ vL1 – + vL2 –
+ iC2
vL1 = Vg – v1 +
Vg C1 v1 C2 v2 R
–
vL2 = – v2
– –
i C1 = i 1
v
i C2 = i 2 – 2
R

Small ripple approximation for subinterval 2:

vL1 = Vg – V1
vL2 = – V2
i C1 = I 1
V
i C2 = I 2 – 2
R

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 32 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Equate average values to zero

The principles of inductor volt-second and capacitor charge balance

state that the average values of the periodic inductor voltage and
capacitor current waveforms are zero, when the converter operates in
steady state. Hence, to determine the steady-state conditions in the
converter, let us sketch the inductor voltage and capacitor current
waveforms, and equate their average values to zero.
Waveforms:

Inductor voltage vL1(t)

vL1(t) Volt-second balance on L1:
Vg

DTs D'Ts vL1 = DVg + D'(Vg – V1) = 0

t

Vg – V1

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 33 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Equate average values to zero

Inductor L2 voltage
vL2(t) – V2

DTs D'Ts
– V1 – V2 t Average the waveforms:

vL2 = D( – V1 – V2) + D'( – V2) = 0

Capacitor C1 current
i C1 = DI 2 + D'I 1 = 0
iC1(t)
I1

DTs D'Ts
I2 t

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 34 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Equate average values to zero

Capacitor current iC2(t) waveform

iC2(t)

I2 – V2 / R (= 0) V2
i C2 = I 2 – =0
DTs D'Ts t R

Note: during both subintervals, the

capacitor current iC2 is equal to the
difference between the inductor current
i2 and the load current V2/R. When
ripple is neglected, iC2 is constant and
equal to zero.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 35 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Solve for steady-state inductor currents
and capacitor voltages

The four equations obtained from Solve for the dc capacitor

volt-sec and charge balance: voltages and inductor currents,
and express in terms of the
vL1 = DVg + D' Vg – V1 = 0 known Vg, D, and R:
vL2 = D – V1 – V2 + D' – V2 = 0 Vg
V1 =
i C1 = DI 2 + D'I 1 = 0 D'
V V2 = – D Vg
i C2 = I 2 – 2 = 0 D'
R 2 Vg
I1 = – D I2 = D
D' D' R
V Vg
I2 = 2 = – D
R D' R

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 36 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Cuk converter conversion ratio M = V/Vg

D
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0

-1
-2
M(D)

V2
-3 M(D) = =– D
Vg 1–D
-4
-5

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 37 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Inductor current waveforms

Interval 1 slopes, using small i1(t)

ripple approximation:
i1
I1
di 1(t) vL1(t) Vg Vg Vg – V1
= =
dt L1 L1 L1 L1
di 2(t) vL2(t) – V1 – V2
= = DTs Ts t
dt L2 L2

DTs Ts t
Interval 2 slopes:
– V1 – V2 – V2
di 1(t) vL1(t) Vg – V1 L2 L2
= = I2
dt L1 L1 i2
di 2(t) vL2(t) – V2
= = i2(t)
dt L2 L2

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 38 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Capacitor C1 waveform

Subinterval 1:
v1(t)
dv1(t) i C1(t) I 2 v1
= =
dt C1 C1 V1
I2 I1
C1 C1
Subinterval 2:
DTs Ts t
dv1(t) i C1(t) I 1
= =
dt C1 C1

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 39 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Ripple magnitudes

Analysis results Use dc converter solution to simplify:

VgDTs VgDTs
i1 = i1 =
2L 1 2L 1
V + V2 VgDTs
i2 = 1 DTs i2 =
2L 2 2L 2
– I DT VgD 2Ts
v1 = 2 s
2C 1 v1 =
2D'RC 1

Q: How large is the output voltage ripple?

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 40 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 2.5 Estimating ripple in converters
containing two-pole low-pass filters

Buck converter example: Determine output voltage ripple

L
1
iL(t) +
iC(t) iR(t)
2
Vg + C vC(t) R
–

iL(t)
Inductor current iL(DTs)
I iL
waveform. iL(0) Vg – V –V
What is the L L
capacitor current?
0 DTs Ts t

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 41 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Capacitor current and voltage, buck example

iC(t)
Total charge
Must not q
neglect iL t
inductor Ts /2
current ripple!
DTs D'Ts

If the capacitor
voltage ripple is
vC(t)
small, then
essentially all of v
the ac component V
v
of inductor current
flows through the
t
capacitor.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 42 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Estimating capacitor voltage ripple v

iC(t)
Current iC(t) is positive for half
Total charge of the switching period. This
q
iL
positive current causes the
t
capacitor voltage vC(t) to
Ts /2
increase between its minimum
DTs D'Ts and maximum extrema.
During this time, the total
charge q is deposited on the
vC(t) capacitor plates, where
v q = C (2 v)
V
v
(change in charge) =
t C (change in voltage)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 43 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Estimating capacitor voltage ripple v

iC(t)
The total charge q is the area
Total charge of the triangle, as shown:
q
iL t Ts
1
q= 2 iL
Ts /2 2
DTs D'Ts
Eliminate q and solve for v:

i L Ts
vC(t) v=
8C
v
V
v Note: in practice, capacitor
equivalent series resistance
t
(esr) further increases v.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 44 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Inductor current ripple in two-pole filters

L1 iT Q1 L2
Example: + +
i1 i2
problem 2.9
Vg + C1 vC1 D1 C2 R v
–

– –
vL(t)
Total
flux linkage

v t
Ts /2
DTs D'Ts
can use similar arguments, with
= L (2 i)
iL(t)
= inductor flux linkages
i
I
i = inductor volt-seconds
t

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 45 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 2.6 Summary of Key Points

1. The dc component of a converter waveform is given by its average

value, or the integral over one switching period, divided by the
switching period. Solution of a dc-dc converter to find its dc, or steady-
state, voltages and currents therefore involves averaging the
waveforms.
2. The linear ripple approximation greatly simplifies the analysis. In a well-
designed converter, the switching ripples in the inductor currents and
capacitor voltages are small compared to the respective dc
components, and can be neglected.
3. The principle of inductor volt-second balance allows determination of the
dc voltage components in any switching converter. In steady-state, the
average voltage applied to an inductor must be zero.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 46 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Summary of Chapter 2

4. The principle of capacitor charge balance allows determination of the dc

components of the inductor currents in a switching converter. In steady-
state, the average current applied to a capacitor must be zero.
5. By knowledge of the slopes of the inductor current and capacitor voltage
waveforms, the ac switching ripple magnitudes may be computed.
Inductance and capacitance values can then be chosen to obtain
desired ripple magnitudes.
6. In converters containing multiple-pole filters, continuous (nonpulsating)
voltages and currents are applied to one or more of the inductors or
capacitors. Computation of the ac switching ripple in these elements
can be done using capacitor charge and/or inductor flux-linkage
arguments, without use of the small-ripple approximation.
7. Converters capable of increasing (boost), decreasing (buck), and
inverting the voltage polarity (buck-boost and Cuk) have been
described. Converter circuits are explored more fully in a later chapter.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 47 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis