Types of Bacterial

What Are Bacteria?
By Aparna Vidyasagar April 25, 2019 Health
A scanning electron microscope image of resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteria, with false color
added.
(Image: © Centers for Disease Control)
Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled organisms that thrive in diverse environments. These
organisms can live in soil, the ocean and inside the human gut.
Humans' relationship with bacteria is complex. Sometimes bacteria lend us a helping hand, such
as by curdling milk into yogurt or helping with our digestion. In other cases, bacteria are
destructive, causing diseases like pneumonia and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus
aureus (MRSA).
Structure
Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are classified as prokaryotes, which are single-celled organisms
with a simple internal structure that lacks a nucleus, and contains DNA that either floats freely in
a twisted, thread-like mass called the nucleoid, or in separate, circular pieces called
plasmids. Ribosomes are the spherical units in the bacterial cell where proteins are assembled from
individual amino acids using the information encoded in ribosomal RNA.
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Bacterial cells are generally surrounded by two protective coverings: an outer cell wall and an
inner cell membrane. Certain bacteria, like the mycoplasmas, do not have a cell wall at all. Some
bacteria may even have a third, outermost protective layer called the capsule. Whip-like extensions
often cover the surfaces of bacteria — long ones called flagella or short ones called pili — that
help bacteria to move around and attach to a host.
Classification
A few different criteria are used to classify bacteria. The organisms can be distinguished by the
nature of their cell walls, by their shape, or by differences in their genetic makeup.
The Gram stain is a test used to identify bacteria by the composition of their cell walls, named for
Hans Christian Gram, who developed the technique in 1884. The test stains Gram-positive
bacteria, or bacteria that do not have an outer membrane. Gram-negative bacteria don't pick up the
stain. For example, Streptococcus pneumoniae (S. pneumoniae), which causes pneumonia, is a
Gram-positive bacterium, but Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Vibrio cholerae, which causes
cholera, are Gram-negative bacteria.
There are three basic bacterial shapes: Round bacteria called cocci (singular: coccus), cylindrical,
capsule-shaped ones known as bacilli (singular: bacillus); and spiral bacteria, aptly called spirilla
(singular: spirillum). The shapes and configurations of bacteria are often reflected in their names.
For example, the milk-curdling Lactobacillus acidophilus are bacilli, and pneumonia-causing S.
pneumoniae are a chain of cocci. Some bacteria take other shapes, such as stalked, square or star.
This artist's image shows spherical bacteria. Both Staphylococcus and Streptococcus are spherical.
(Image credit: Kateryna Kon/Shutterstock)
Reproduction
Most bacteria multiply by a process called binary fission, according to the Cornell University
College of Agriculture and Life Sciences. In this process, a single bacterial cell, called the "parent,"
makes a copy of its DNA and grows larger by doubling its cellular content. The cell then splits
apart, pushing the duplicated material out and creating two identical "daughter" cells.
Some bacterial species, such as cyanobacteria and firmicutes, reproduce via budding. In this case,
the daughter cell grows as an offshoot of the parent. It starts off as a small nub, grows until it is
the same size as its parent, and splits off.
The DNA found in parents and offspring after binary fission or budding is exactly the same.
Therefore, bacterial cells introduce variation into their genetic material by integrating additional
DNA, often from their surroundings, into their genome. This is known as horizontal gene transfer;
the resulting genetic variation ensures that bacteria can adapt and survive as their environment
changes. [Watch Strange, Glowing Bacteria Harpoon and Swallow DNA to Evolve]
There are three ways horizontal gene transfer occurs: transformation, transduction and
conjugation.
Transformation is the most common process of horizontal gene transfer and occurs when short
DNA fragments are exchanged between donors and recipients. Transduction, which typically only
occurs between closely related bacteria, requires the donor and recipient to transfer DNA by
sharing cell surface receptors. Conjugation requires physical contact between the cell walls of
bacteria; the DNA transfers from the donor cell to the recipient. Through conjugation, a bacterial
cell can transfer DNA to eukaryotic cells (multi-celled organisms). Conjugation aids in the spread
of antibiotic-resistance genes.
Bacteria in human health and disease
Bacteria can be beneficial as well as detrimental to human health. Commensal, or "friendly"

bacteria, share space and resources within our bodies and tend to be helpful. There are about 10
times more microbial cells than human cells in our bodies; the highest numbers of microbial
species are found in the gut, according to microbiologist David A. Relman's 2012 article in Nature.
The human gut is a comfortable setting for bacteria, with plenty of nutrients available for their
sustenance. In a 2014 review article published in the American Journal of Gastroenterology, the
authors mention that gut bacteria and other microorganisms, such as helpful strains
of E.coli and Streptococcus, aid in digestion, stave off colonization by harmful pathogens, and
help to develop the immune system. Moreover, the disruption of gut bacteria has been linked to
certain disease conditions. For instance, patients with Crohn's disease have an increased immune
response against gut bacteria, according to a 2003 reviewpublished in the journal The Lancet.
Other bacteria can cause infections. Several bacteria — ranging from so-called group
A Streptococcus, Clostridium perfringens (C. perfringens), E. coli and S. aureus can cause a rare
but severe soft tissue infection called necrotizing fasciitis (sometimes called flesh-eating bacteria).
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), this infection affects the
tissues surrounding muscles, nerves, fat and blood vessels; it can be treated, especially when
caught early.
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A computer-generated image of E. coli.

(Image credit: Alissa Eckert and Jennifer Oosthuizen/CDC)
Antibiotic resistance
Antibiotics are typically used to treat bacterial infections. However, in recent years, improper and
unnecessary use of antibiotics has promoted the spread of several strains of antibiotic-resistant
bacteria.
In cases of antibiotic resistance, the infectious bacteria are no longer susceptible to previously
effective antibiotics. According to the CDC, at least 2 million people in the U.S. are infected with
antibiotic-resistant bacteria every year, leading to the death of at least 23,000 people.
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"Pretty much any infection you can think of now has been identified as being associated with some
level of resistance," said Dr. Christopher Crnich, an infectious disease physician and hospital
epidemiologist at the University of Wisconsin Hospitals and Madison Veterans Affairs Hospital.
"There's very few infections that we now treat where infections caused by resistant bacteria is not
a clinical concern."
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Types of Bacterial

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What Are Bacteria?

By Aparna Vidyasagar April 25, 2019 Health

Bacteria can be beneficial as well as detrimental to human health. Commensal, or "friendly"

A computer-generated image of E. coli.

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