Greenhouse Lecture Notes

GREENHOUSE MANAGEMENT
COURSE OUTLINE:
Course Objectives
(i) To acquit student with various principles and practices of producing plants in
greenhouses.
(ii) To introduce students to various types of greenhouses; designing and constructing
greenhouses; managing the greenhouse environment i.e covering, heating and cooling
techniques; light quantity and duration controls; moisture regulation and carbon dioxide
enrichment.
(iii) To introduce students to greenhouse growing media, irrigation techniques, nutrition,
growth regulators and pest management.
Learning outcomes
At completion of this unit, the student should be able to:
 Select and determine a crop to grow according to enterprise production plan
 Recommend greenhouse construction materials, equipment and tools
 Design and assist in the greenhouse construction
 Prepare for planting crops and design the planting layout
 Monitor greenhouse environmental control systems
 Manipulate the greenhouse environment for optimal crop growth
 Identify detrimental environmental impacts associated with the controlled growing
environment system and sanction controls
 Manage greenhouse pests
Greenhouse Management (2018-2019) Page 1

COURSE OUTLINE/CONTENT
CHAPTER ONE ......................................................................................................................................... 3
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................ 3
CHAPTER TWO ....................................................................................................................................... 6
STRUCTURE AND CONSTRUCTION ......................................................................................................... 6
CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................................. 18
COVERING MATERIAL.............................................................................................................................. 18
CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................................... 22
GREENHOUSE PRODUCTION SYSTEMS............................................................................................... 22
CHAPTER FIVE ...................................................................................................................................... 34
PLANTING PREPARATION AND PLANTING DESIGNS IN GREENHOUSE ................................... 34
CHAPTER SIX ......................................................................................................................................... 48
TEMPERATURE MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................................ 48
CHAPTER SEVEN .................................................................................................................................. 52
GREENHOUSE LIGHT MANAGEMENT ................................................................................................. 52
CHAPTER EIGHT .................................................................................................................................. 54
GREENHOUSE GAS MANAGEMENT ...................................................................................................... 54
CHAPTER NINE ..................................................................................................................................... 58
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE ................................................................................................................. 58
CHAPTER TEN ....................................................................................................................................... 61
FERTILIZER AND SALT ACCUMULATION .......................................................................................... 61
CHAPTER ELEVEN................................................................................................................................ 64
PEST MANAGEMENT ................................................................................................................................. 64

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Plants, like other living organisms, have certain requirements for growth. Climatic conditions are
not uniform throughout the world. As such, certain plants are grown or found in nature only in
certain regions (i.e., plants are adapted to certain environments). Some plants are more restricted
in their range of adaptation. The general principle in choosing plants is that if you desire to grow
a plant outside of its region of natural adaptation, you must provide all of the necessary growth
requirements (above- and below ground conditions in the new growing environment). Sometimes
supplementation of natural conditions such as the provision of additional light is necessary.
To enjoy flowers or horticultural products out of season, plants must be grown in a controlled
environment, meaning that humans, not nature, determine how the conditions change. Growers
can create stable microclimates that are ideal for specific plants. Otherwise, flowers or crops can
be produced elsewhere in due season and imported into an area where the plant is out of season.
Although some of this import-export trade in flowers and other horticultural products occurs, the
ready availability of controlled environment structures or facilities called greenhouses has
spawned an industry that produces off-season ornamentals and vegetables for local and distant
markets. This component is devoted to the greenhouse industry and discusses its advantages,
limitations, design, operation, and maintenance.
Definition
A greenhouse can be defined as a structure covered with a transparent material that transmit
natural light for plant growth or permanent structure that provide modified environment for
growing plants.
 It is a means of overcoming adverse environmental conditions and effectively using solar
radiations for plant growth.
 Unlike low tunnels, a greenhouse is sufficiently high to permit a person to work from
within and hence be referred to walk-in tunnel.
 The term greenhouse mainly means the green scenery of the plants rather than the
material inside the tunnel.
History of Greenhouse
Plant production in the greenhouse started in temperate regions where environmental conditions
prevailing during winter do not permit outdoor crop production. Off season production of high
valued crops were only possible in a protected environment.
 The history of producing plants in greenhouse can be traced back to 551-479 BC in China
and it used ancient structure made of oil treated paper as covering material and an
artificial heating mechanism. In the first century, cucumbers were grown under prototype
greenhouse constructed of transparent stone (Mica).
 Modern greenhouse started in France in the year 1590 while the first glass vegetable
greenhouse was built in the same region around 1540-1700.
 In 1815, first round roof glasshouse was built in England.

 Polythene was first introduced by Professor Emery Myers of University of Kentucky,
USA after the First World War. The oil crisis in 1970s led to greenhouse revolution with
the development of alternative greenhouse covering material. Plastic materials
(polyfilms) have become a major greenhouse covering material from this time.
 After many years of greenhouse cultivation, the soil media developed a serious problem
of soil-borne diseases. Due to the high cost and negative impact associated with chemical
usage in soil sterilization, soilless culture was introduced into the greenhouse as an
alternative cropping system.
 In recent years, growers have automated management of various greenhouse
environments (heating and cooling techniques; light quantity and duration controls;
moisture regulation and carbon dioxide enrichment and irrigation/fertigation system).
Uses of a Greenhouse
The fundamental purpose of a greenhouse is to regulate the environmental factors (temperature,
light, air and humidity) for optimal plant growth. In plant growth, greenhouses are used for the
following purpose:
(1).Plant Production
 Used to produce off-season crops e.g. lettuce, cucumber etc
 Used to increase the yields of the crops.
 Used to increase the quality of crops.
(2).Used for seed production
Most of the Solanaceous hybrids are produced inside a greenhouse to reduce the attack from
many kinds of diseases that infect them. In addition, pure bred lines can be maintained since you
are able to eliminate any possible cross pollination.
(3).Seedling raising
Frequent storms occasionally experienced in tropics are major difficulty in raising the seedlings.
This can be overcome by adopting greenhouse production of such plants.
(4).Plant conservation and museum
A collection of plants can be grown in the greenhouse for display and conservation. Some of the
precious and rare plants species that need special care can also be grown in the greenhouse.
(5).In China, greenhouses are used to for mushroom, animal and fish production.
Advantages of Crop production under Greenhouse
(1).Controlled environment for plant growth
 Temperature within the greenhouse is always higher due to Ŗgreenhouse effectŗ i.e.
heating up due to the fact that it is enclosed. Artificial heating can be also done. Excess
heat can be removed through by raising the skirts (ventilation or installing the cooling
system) to attain the optimal temperature for plant growth.
 Relative humidity inside the greenhouse is relatively higher than outside hence can be
regulated through ventilation. RH% can be increased by installing misting system.
 Carbon dioxide concentration in within greenhouse can be regulated. CO2 in the
greenhouse can be increased by carrying out what we call carbon dioxide enrichment.

 Light also can be regulated. It is always darker inside the greenhouse than outside. This
protects the plants from strong light intensity experienced on bright days. However.
During cloudy days, supplementary lighting can carried out using light bulbs. (Short,
Neutral and Long day plants).
(2).Increased crop yield and quality
 The yield and quality of crops produced in greenhouses are better than those from the
open field because of conducive growth environment.
(3).Extended producing area and growing seasons
 Some area previously unsuitable for producing crops can now be used for production
with the advent of greenhouses (extremely cold environment). In some regions, cropping
seasons last for a shorter time hence can be extended through the use of greenhouses.
Disadvantages of Greenhouse production of Crops
(1).High investment
 Compared with outdoor production, the construction of greenhouses requires extra cost of
installation and energy to run the equipment for environmental control. Normally, higher
inputs are required for greenhouse production for higher yield and quality.
(2).Intensive management
 Greenhouse management requires skilful personnel and intensive work.
(3).Greenhouse pests
 High humidity in the greenhouse favours development of fungal infections (diseases)
[Powdery mildew and downy mildew].
 Some pests e.g. nematodes, mites, whiteflies are more severe in the greenhouse than in
the open filed due to favourable microclimate inside the greenhouse.
 Improper management of greenhouses can result to physiological disorders such as
blossom-end rot.
(4).Special requirements for Crop
Some commercial varieties cannot perform well inside the greenhouse due to the fact that
they were bred in open field conditions. Moreover, greenhouse production is not suitable for
all crops and is economically applicable to small-sized plants (e.g., vegetables, ornamentals,
and herbaceous plants) but not fruit trees.

CHAPTER TWO
STRUCTURE AND CONSTRUCTION
BASIC COMPONENTS OF A GREENHOUSE

(1).Basic structure
 The greenhouse frames (metal pipes/bars, concrete beams, timber or bamboo) and
transparent covering (glass, polyfilm) form its basic structure.
Roof Cover
Sides
Microclimate
Wall
Glass
(2).Climate control and monitoring systems

 The system includes temperature monitors, Light intensity meter, Wind-vane, Rain
gauge, Ventilation facilities, Mist-system, thermal screen, Shade net, heating equipment.
(3).Irrigation system
 The irrigation system consists of a water tank, pumps, filters, water pipes, drip lines and
drippers.
 It also includes a water recycling system for collecting drainage water and rainfall from
the greenhouse roof.
 Some greenhouses also have soil moisture sensing equipment such as tensiometers.
 Modern irrigation system is controlled by a computer which operates according to the
data collected on soil moisture or pre-set irrigation schedule.
(4).Fertigation system
 Fertigation system supplies fertilizers in irrigation water.
(5).Pesticide application system
 The pesticide application system in the greenhouses normally runs parallel to irrigation
system. It is composed of a tank for mixing and diluting pesticides, a pump, supply pipes,
terminal socket, a hosepipe with spray nozzle is connected to the terminal socket during
the spraying operation.
Other structures
 A greenhouse requires separate storage facilities for tools, fertilizers, pesticides, covering
materials, machinery, spare parts etc.

 The explosive or inflammable chemicals should be kept in safe place and handled with
care.
 Grading hall with adequate benches needs to be located near the greenhouses.
 Cold rooms.
 Laboratory units are established in some large-scale greenhouse farms. These assist in the
analysis of water and fertilizer quality, soil physical and chemical status, pest
identification, seed germination and other necessary laboratory test that can be
undertaken at farm level.
TYPES OF GREENHOUSES
According to the frame structure
There are three basic types of greenhouses: attached, detached (freestanding), and connected.
These types of greenhouses are constructed according to one of several styles.
The older styles include the following:
1. Even-span
2. Uneven-span
3. Lean-to
4. Quonset
5. Gothic arch
6. Curvilinear
7. Curved eave
8. Dome
Quonset is the most common detached greenhouse design for commercial production. Though
suitable for most crops, the growing area and hence productivity is reduced because of the
arching of the side walls. Modern greenhouses are highly sophisticated with a significant amount
of automation of operations for increased efficiency. In addition to the modifications and
modernizations of older styles of greenhouses, there are newer greenhouse designs concepts,
such as the open roof design (Figure 1).

FIGURE 2 A lean-to greenhouse:(a) side view and (b) front view.
FIGURE:3A freestanding even-span American design greenhouse. FIGURE 12–4 A

freestanding even-span Dutch design greenhouse.
FIGURE:5 An uneven-span greenhouse design.

FIGURE:6 A Quonset greenhouse design. (Source: George Acquaah)
FIGURE: 7 A Gothic arch style greenhouse design.

Attached Greenhouses
A greenhouse is attached if part of it is connected to a building. Attached greenhouse
designs and construction are usually simple. They are less expensive to construct because one
side is pre-existing, which cuts down on the amount of materials needed. However, because they
are connected to existing structures, their sizes and uses are affected by the characteristics of the
buildings to which they are attached. The buildings may shade the greenhouse at some time of
day. Further, light control and ventilation may be problematic.
Attached greenhouses are not used for commercial production but are found in homes,
commercial buildings, garden centres, and where plant displaying is needed.
A style of greenhouse that is specifically designed to be attached is the lean-to greenhouse
(Figure 2). The ridge of the roof is attached to the pre-existing wall such that the roof slopes
away from the wall. Lean-to greenhouses are small in size and best located on the south side of
the building to take advantage of sunlight. Where more space exists, the even-span style (see
later section) may be adopted. A lean-to greenhouse may also be window mounted.

Detached Greenhouses
As the name implies, detached greenhouses are designed to be freestanding and thus are
sometimes called by that name. None of the walls or the roof are attached to a pre-existing
structure. A detached greenhouse can thus be located such that it takes maximum advantage of
environmental factors such as light and wind. Environmental regulation is easier in detached than
in lean-to styles. The most common style of greenhouse is the freestanding even-span
greenhouse. Also called the A-frame, this style consists of a symmetrical roof.
The even-span, or A-frame design, is the most common design for a glass greenhouse. An
even-span design has a symmetrical roof whose slopes have equal pitch and width. The
American-style A-frame design has a larger roof surface area (Figure 3), and the Dutch design
has small gables and a smaller roof surface area (Figure 4).
Another detached greenhouse style is the uneven-span design (Figure 5). This design has
asymmetrical roof slopes of unequal pitch and width. While it is adaptable to hillsides or slopes,
it does not readily lend itself to modern greenhouse automation and as such is not commonly
used.
Greenhouse roofs may be arched, as in the Quonset design (Figure 6) or the Gothic arch
design (Figure 7). The former design is quite commonly used, while the latter is not. Detached
greenhouses have several advantages. Environmental control is easier and can be programmed to
meet the needs of a specific production operation. Ventilation is easy to implement, thus limiting
carbon dioxide build-up, which can be a limiting factor in plant growth during winter. General
operation and maintenance is relatively easier in detached greenhouse designs than attached
designs. However, because of their generally vaulted ceilings, they are less energy efficient,
increasing operating costs in winter.
Gutter-Connected Greenhouses
Greenhouses of one style can stand alone and are called Single Span. Several greenhouses of
one style may be joined together to form a connected greenhouse or Multi span (gutter-
connected). These greenhouse units are joined along the eaves to create a large, undivided space
for a large operation. This arrangement makes the buildings more economical to heat on a per-
unit-area basis. When freestanding even-span greenhouses are connected with two adjacent
eaves creating a gutter they form a ridge-and-furrow designs (Figure 8). Ridge-and-furrow
designs are suited to greenhouse production enterprises that require similar environments. When
used for smaller projects requiring unique environmental conditions, this type of greenhouse
must be partitioned. When Quonset greenhouse units are connected, they form a barrel-vault
greenhouse (Figure 9). Similarly, several lean-to greenhouse units may be connected to form a
saw-tooth greenhouse (Figure 10). Large nurseries, for example, may construct a number of
greenhouses on one site to form what is collectively called a greenhouse range.
The construction costs of connected greenhouses are higher than freestanding designs. The
roofs are longer and thus require more structural strength in the framework to support the
building. They are also lower, and hence the volume of air space is less, decreasing the amount
of carbon dioxide available for plants in winter.

Greenhouses may also be categorized based on the material used in their construction.
These materials may further be grouped according to those used in the framework of the
structure and those used for framing or covering the structure. Greenhouses may be arranged in
multiple units to form large complexes. All of these styles, arrangements, and types of materials
have advantages and disadvantages. These characteristics are discussed further later in this
course.
FIGURE 8 A ridge-and furrow greenhouse range.
FIGURE 9 A barrel-vault greenhouse range.
FIGURE 10 A saw-tooth greenhouse range.

FRAME DESIGN
There are two basic frame designs: A-frame (gabled) and arched-frame greenhouses (curved
arch). The gabled types are more expensive to construct.
A-Frame Greenhouses
In A-frame design, most of the weight of the greenhouse rests on the side posts, which are often
encased in concrete. These erect posts support the truss (consisting of rafter, strut, and chords).
The trusses on either side meet at the peak (ridge) of the roof. Series of trusses are connected by
long bars (purlins) that run the length of the greenhouse. The end view presents an A-shaped
structure called a gable (Figure 11). The bottom 2 to 3 feet (0.6 to 0.93 meters) of the greenhouse
above the ground consists of a wall called the curtain wall, which is made out of materials such
as cement or concrete blocks. The curtain wall is the structure to which heating pipes are usually
attached. Sash bars are attached to purlins as anchors for panes.
FIGURE 11 A-frame greenhouse structure: (a) end view and (b) general view.

Arched-Frame Greenhouses
In arched-frame greenhouse designs, the trusses are pipes that are bent into an arch and
connected by purlins (Figure 12Ŕ12). This design is called a Quonset.
FIGURE 12 Arched-frame greenhouse structure: (a) end view and (b) general view.
A
A-frame, (2) Uneven
1 2 3
span, and (3) One-sided
Detached, (1) Tunnel, (2) and

B 1 2 3
(3) Saw-tooth
C Connected - A-frame
Connected - Tunnel
D
Connected - Sawtooth
E
F
G
Figure 13: Summary of types greenhouse according to frame design and structure

According to the frame material
The greenhouse frames can be made of different materials including metal pipes, timber,
bamboo and concrete. Greenhouses are therefore called metal, timber, bamboo or concrete
greenhouses depending on the material of the frame.
According to the covering material
Greenhouses can be classified as plastic-house (polyfilm greenhouse), fibreglass or
glasshouses.
GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION
Basic considerations
(1).Suitability for crop growth and development
 Optimum light transmission is a very important consideration in the design of greenhouse
structure.
 The beams and posts in the direction of sunlight should not only be as few but also thin as
possible to ensure minimum shading. The height and width of greenhouse should not
affect the growth of crops.
(2).Environmental control
 The facilities for environmental control such as windows, fans, evaporation pan, shade-
net, thermal screen, and heating equipment are necessary for greenhouses depending on
the climatic conditions. These facilities are located in the greenhouse according to the
prevailing weather conditions. The exhaust fans should not face the windward side and
the space behind the fans needs to be adequate for good air exchange.
(3).Comfortable working conditions
 A greenhouse has to be high enough for people to work comfortably from within. All the
greenhouse facilities should be placed in the right place to facilitate convenient
movement of workers and equipment.
(4).Strong structure
 The structure should be strong enough to withstand adverse weather conditions such as
heavy snow, strong wind etc. Light and sufficiently strong materials are recommended
for a good greenhouse. Proper selection of the roof slope angle and the height/width ratio
can reduce the frame size and improve the light transmission.
(5).Cost and availability of materials
 Greenhouse construction is a high cost investment. Suitable, simple, cheap and locally
available materials that can resist local weather conditions are recommended for
construction of the structures.
Site selection
Greenhouse production is initially capital intensive and hence must be embarked upon only after
good planning. The following are important factors for consideration in locating a greenhouse.
1. Market
 The grower must first identify the potential market in terms of its size and distance from

the production site.
2. Accessibility
 Greenhouse accessibility is closely related to its potential market. The production site
should be readily accessible to the primary customers. If a retail operation is intended, the
greenhouse should be located where the general public can readily reach the facility.
Certain production operations require that products be delivered promptly to sales outlets.
 Transportation between greenhouse site and markets should be reliable and convenient.
Cut flowers may be able to survive several days of refrigeration with little loss in quality.
It is important that supplies for production be delivered on schedule even in inclement
weather.
 Greenhouses should be readily accessible by a reliable means of transportation (Locating
greenhouse close to a road can also save on the cost of road construction and
transportation cost) because production inputs (including soil mixes, fertilizers,
pesticides, and seed) and the harvested produce must be hauled to and from the
greenhouse.
 Locating a greenhouse enterprise near markets significantly reduces operational costs.
Bedding and potted plants are expensive to transport; consequently, these enterprises
should be located near primary market outlets, if possible.
 Availability of suppliers of fertilizers, pesticides, and other inputs in the locality can
further reduce the running cost.
3. Climatic Conditions
 The patterns of weather factors including light, rainfall distribution and other
precipitation (e.g., snow, ice, and sleet), and winds affect production costs (e.g., heating,
cooling, and lighting).
 High elevations may provide cleaner air but are colder, requiring more heating in the cold
season. Establishing a production enterprise for a crop that requires warm conditions in
an area that is mostly cold will increase heating costs (unless the area has a great potential
market to offset the additional costs).
 The climate should be conducive for plant growth. In greenhouse site selection,
requirements of specific crops to be grown should be a guiding factor. The high light
intensity prevailing in higher altitudes is particularly advantageous for tomato, cucumber,
carnation, and roseřs crops, but has little benefit for crops such as African violet, begonia,
and gloxinia, which require low light intensity.
4. Topography
 Topography affects the drainage of the area. Greenhouses use large amounts of water and
must be located on soils that drain freely. Further, it is easier to mechanize operations if
the site is flat. It is more difficult to manoeuvre on slopes than on flat land. Construction
costs may not vary, but it is easier to automate a greenhouse built on level ground than
one built on a hill.
5. Utilities

 Another factor to consider in locating a greenhouse is the source of water. Greenhouses
use large amounts of water for a variety of activities such as watering plants, washing,
and maintaining high humidity inside of the facility. If an urban-treated water supply is
not accessible, an alternate source of water must be found (e.g., a well). It is critical that
the source of water be reliable to provide water year-round. The success of certain
production practices depends on the availability of water. The quality of water is also
critical, since certain plants are adversely affected by specific pollutants (e.g., fertilizers
and pesticides).
 Stable water source is highly recommended. Water tested for quality and quantity. Water
should be free from salts (ions such as sodium, chloride, and bicarbonate), pathogen
spores and pests. The cost of removing can be prohibitive, but failure to do so results in
plant injury.
 Pollutants can make water acidic or alkaline. Supplemental light is also required, as is a
source of heat for times when the temperature drops below a desirable level. Providing
artificial light and heat requires a source of energy. The greenhouse should be located
where there is ready access to a reliable supply of electricity, which is also needed for
operating pumps and cold storage equipment.
6. Labour Supply
 The location of a greenhouse should also take into account the kind and availability of
labour. Certain chores in the greenhouse are not automated but require some level of
skill. Not all greenhouse operations are readily amenable to automation.
7. Types of Production Enterprises
 The type of production enterprise is related to the accessibility factors. Bulky products
(e.g., potted plants) are expensive to transport over long distances.
8. Zoning Laws
 Various localities have zoning regulations regarding location of an agricultural enterprise
and building codes.
9. Future Expansion
 For a commercial venture, it is advisable to acquire more land than needed immediately.
This extra land will allow future expansion to be undertaken as needed.
CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE
(1).Determining the shape and size

 The shape and size of a greenhouse depend on the site selected and financial ability.
Maximize utilization of the available land for construction of the greenhouse is
recommended.
 Adequate space for other facilities such as water tank, pump house, should be factored in.
 Detached or connected type of greenhouses can be adapted depending on the desired size.
 The saw-teeth greenhouse is preferred where very cold weather is not a problem.
(2).Determine the weight of and loads on the structure

 A greenhouse frame is composed of roof, posts and foundation. The roof supports the
weight of covering materials, the wind, hail and snow pressures etc.
 The standing posts support the pressures on the roof frame and its own weight.
 At the same time, the posts have to tolerate the pressure of the wind.
 Then all the pressures on the post plus their own weight come to the foundation.
(3).Selection of the frame materials
 Metal, timber, bamboo, etc can be selected for the construction of frames.
 The size of the materials depends on the weight they are going to support and the spaces
between the frames.
 In some new greenhouses, the roof frames are made of wires instead of timber or metal
beams to reduce the weight of the roof and improving light transmission.
(4).Deciding the size and shape of the foundation
 There are two types of greenhouse foundation: single stand and long-connected stand.
 The latter is used for glasshouse. Greenhouse foundation can be constructed using
concrete or bricks.
 A wider foundation base can distribute the weight pressure.
 The stand should be above ground to prevent the posts from rusting or decaying.
 For detached plastic tunnel, no special foundation is necessary when the soil is firm
enough.

CHAPTER THREE
COVERING MATERIAL
CONSIDERATIONS IN THE SELECTION OF COVERING MATERIALS
(1).Light transmittance
 It should have high light penetrability.
 Should have low light reflection.
 Should have low light absorption.
NOTE: When the reflection and absorption are low, the transmission rate of the covering
material is high. Good covering material should be highly transparent to the desirable light
spectra for the crops and block light of undesirable wavelengths.
(2).Heat Conductivity
 Covering materials should be poor heat conductors.
 This characteristic is affected by the thickness of the covering material.
 Sometimes, double layers of covering material are used to reduce the heat conductivity
and thereby save the heating cost.
(3).Durability
 It can be in terms of how long it takes to wear or how long the material takes to have
significant reduction in light transmission.
 Good material should transmit about 85 Ŕ 95% light. As they wear, they reduce in light
transmittance up to 60% hence reducing the yield and quality of crops.
 The durability is influenced by:
(i) Type and component of the material (glass or polythene film).
(ii) Thickness of the material itself. A thicker film can last for longer period than a
thinner one.
(iii) Prevailing weather conditions particularly U.V. light (radiation) and temperature.
The ultraviolet radiation of wavelengths between 300-350 nm and temperature
also reduce the durability of polyfilm.
 Some films last for 3 Ŕ 5 years or longer, but others last only a few months.
 Some polyfilm become too dark to grow crops after a few months of covering and hence
are unsuitable for growing crops.
(4).Anti-drip
 The base material of polyfilms is hydrophobic. Moist air inside the greenhouse forms
dews or beads (water droplets resulting due to condensation of water from evapo-
transpiration) in cold nights. The beads drip down on the crop leaves causing plant
physiological or pathological problems. Therefore, the polyfilm for greenhouse covering
must have some detergent incorporated in the material to make it hydrophilic.

(5).Dust absorption
 Some covering materials have electrostatic charge and hence absorb dust onto its surface.
This results in significant reduction in light transmission after a short while. Such
covering materials are not recommended for greenhouse use.
(6).The release of toxic gases
 Some chemicals such as plasticisers added into the polyfilm for improving the flexibility
break down in the presence of sunlight and emit toxic gases that may affect the growth
and development of crops as well as the health of greenhouse workers. A good
greenhouse covering material should not emit any gases.
TYPES OF COVERING MATERIAL

A. Glass
Advantages
(i) It have long durability (up to 100 years)
(ii) High light transmission rate up to 90% (up to 100 years).
(iii) It possesses anti-fog properties or anti-drip properties.
(iv) Hammered glass (uneven surface) is also used in some greenhouses for scattering the
light to facilitate more even distribution of light intensity across the greenhouse to
ensure uniform crop growth and development.
 The recommended thickness of the glass for greenhouse covering is 3-5 mm.
Transmission rate of visible light through glass is about 90%.
 UV light with wave lengths of 330-380 nm can penetrate through glass while the one
with wave lengths less than 310 nm is blocked. Infrared light with wave length above
4000 nm is also blocked.
Disadvantage
(i) However, very few new greenhouses are built of glass due to high cost involved.
Plastic film
 Popular plastics used as greenhouse covering include polyethylene, polyester, polyvinyl
chloride, polyvinyl fluoride and ethylene-vinyl acetate.
Advantages
(i) They can be used as long lasting covering materials on permanent greenhouse frames.
(ii) They are also suitable for seasonal covering and can be removed during hot seasons
because they are light and easily reinstalled.
(iii) The cost of using polyfilm covering is considerably low compared to glass.
(1).Polyethylene
 It was first developed in the late 1930s in England because glass was expensive.
 Greenhouse polythene cover is not ordinary.
 The ordinary polyethylene film is not ultraviolet light (UV)-stabilised and only lasts for a
few months under sunlight. This is the major constraint for its use as greenhouse covering.
 Therefore, all polyethylene currently used for covering greenhouse are U.V. stabilized

(UV stabiliser is incorporated).
 Polyethylene film is available in different widths of up to 15 m.
 Some polyfilm manufacturers label their products as ŖUVŗ or ŖUVAŗ to indicate that UV
additives are incorporated.
 Polyethylene is hydrophobic and will form water drops on the inner surface in cold nights
as a result of condensation of moisture in the greenhouse due to lower outside air
temperature. The water drops slide downward into one another and form larger water
drops that drip onto the plants below. The wet foliage favours disease development, while
constantly wetted soil may become waterlogged and deficient in oxygen.
 Polythene are normally added a surfactant by the manufacturer and is marked ŖADŗ.
 Polyethylene is nowadays incorporated with materials which block more than half the
radiant heat loss. Since polyethylene is a poor insulator of radiant heat. The polyethylene
films with IR-blocking chemicals and are marked as ŖIRŗ has been developed. This
condition creates a large source of heat loss in greenhouses. Therefore, the heat
conservation ability of the polyethylene used for greenhouse covering is lower than that
of glasshouse.
 Some other polyfilms are added with some moisture-absorbing chemicals and therefore
they can be used to remove the fog from the greenhouse air, which is gaining high
interest in the foggy areas. This type of polyfilm is named anti-fog or anti-mist polyfilm
and is normally indicated with ŖAFŗ or ŖAMŗ by the manufacturers.
NOTE:
 The UV-stabiliser, anti-drip surfactant, and the IR-blocking chemicals are necessary
additives of polyethylene film for greenhouse covering.
 They are added into the polyethylene-based film through the coextrusion process.
 Currently, the polyethylene film for greenhouse covering is composed of three layers -
the outer, the central, and the inner layers as shown below.
 The IR-blocking chemicals are incorporated into the central layer while the anti-drip
surfactant is added into the inner layer.
 Insect repellent material can be added and is marked (AV). AV-Antivirus polythene
having repellent capabilities against virus vectors like aphids (this is to control vectors of
viral diseases).
 Al3+ is added to diffuse light uniformly.
Outside layer
Tri-coextruded
Central layer (IR-blocking chemicals added) polyethene
Inner layer (anti-drip surfactant added)

(2).Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
(3).Polyester (PE)
(4).Polyvinyl fluoride (PVF)
(5).Ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA)
B. Rigid-panel coverings
C. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
D. Fibreglass-reinforced plastic (FRP)
E. Acrylic and Polycarbonate

CHAPTER FOUR
GREENHOUSE PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

Introduction
Numerous production systems are used worldwide by commercial greenhouse producers. The
discussion in this chapter focuses on the production of plant products (ornamentals and food) to
be harvested and marketed to customers. All production systems require and use similar
environmental controls and general greenhouse production practices. The key distinguishing
features:
1. Irrigation and nutrient delivery methods and controls
2. Medium characteristics and packaging
The two major categories of greenhouse production culture are ground culture and soilless
culture, the latter occurring in receptacles or containers.
1. GROUND CULTURE
Also called in ground culture this production system entails growing crops in the ground in a
greenhouse. Greenhouse construction involves significant soil compaction for the erection of the
structure. For in-ground culture, the topsoil should be amended with large amounts of well-
decomposed organic matter to allow good penetration of plant roots. The greenhouse structure
limits the kinds of equipment that can be used in in-ground culture. The ground may be
cultivated for planting on the flat, or raised beds may be constructed as needed.
Because of the enclosure, pathogen build-up is of concern with in-ground culture. To protect
against soilborne pathogens, producers often sterilize or pasteurize the soil.
Methods of soil disinfection used include solarization, steaming, use of electrical heat sources,
and biological pest control.
Cover crops may also be used in in-ground systems. Species like legumes, buckwheat, annual
ryegrass, oats, radish, the rapeseed have been used as cover crops in greenhouse production to
enhance soil physical quality increase microbial activity, suppress soilborne diseases like
nematodes, and add nitrogen to the soil.
Weed control inside the greenhouse is best achieved without the use of herbicides for safety
reasons. Mechanical cultivations, steam pasteurization, solarization, plastic mulching, and hand
hoeing are all effective methods for weed control.

If needed, inorganic fertilizers may be applied to increase crop productivity. However, the crops
should not be over-fertilized, since fertilized soils do not readily leach out of the protected
greenhouse environment. Fertilizers with a high salt index, such as potassium chloride, and those
with high ammonium content should be avoided.
2. CONTAINER CULTURE
Container culture entails the production of plants in containers to be sold as such to customers.
3. SOILLESS CULTURE
Soil is a medium in which plants may grow. It provides the minerals needed for plant growth and
development. When adequate moisture is present, these minerals are dissolved in water and can
be absorbed by roots. When plants are grown in another kind of medium, all of the nutrients
must be provided in the irrigation water. Over the years, a wide variety of attempts (with vary
degrees of success) have been made at growing plants in soilless media (i.e., no mineral soil is
used). The most successful attempt, which perhaps ushered in modern soilless culture, is credited
to W. E. Gericke, who in 1936 grew a wide variety of crops in water supplemented with plant
growth nutrients. He called this method of growing plants hydroponics, or water culture. Plants
can be cultured in a variety of other inert substances besides water, including rockwool, sand
(sand culture), or air (aeroponics) All of these methods (including hydroponics) are called
nutriculture.
The substances used as media are called inert because they do not add to or alter plant nutrient
level in any way (unlike peat moss natural soil, which are both biologically and chemically
active).
3.1. TYPES OF SOILLESS PLANT CULTURE
There are two classes of soilless plant culture: water culture (hydroponic culture) and substrate
culture. In terms of type of medium used, hydroponics may be broadly classified into twoŕ
liquid and aggregate. The liquid hydroponic systems include no physical substrate besides
water. The aggregate systems utilize substrates that may be inert, organic, or a mixture of both as
growing media.
3.2. HYDROPONIC SYSTEMS
The basic requirements for successful water culture or hydroponics are as follows:
1. Root aeration. The root environment must be aerated to prevent anaerobic respiration (due to
waterlogging) from occurring. Preventing anaerobic respiration may include aerating the nutrient

solution (as done in domestic aquarium tanks) or circulating the nutrients using a pump. Systems
that use a continuous flow of nutrients provide the best cultural environment for plants.
2. Root darkness. Algae growth, which occurs around the roots when exposed to light, interferes
with root function. Darkness around roots eliminates or reduces this problem.
3. Physical support. A system must have a means of holding plants erect in water.
4. Nutrient supply. Since water lacks the essential nutrient elements supplied by the soil, the
hydroponic medium must be fortified with nutrients, both macronutrients and micronutrients.
In terms of design, there are two basic types of hydroponic systems:
1. Non-recycling (non-circulating) system. In the non-recycling system, excess nutrient solution
is drained out of the container and lost.
2. Recycling (circulating) system. Excess solution is collected for reuse in the recycling system.
4. PLUG PRODUCTION (TRANSPLANT PRODUCTION)
Plug production is a method of large-scale nursery sexual and asexual propagation of plants. It
lends itself to automation. Equipment types are becoming increasing more sophisticated. Plug
production had advantages and disadvantages, including the following:
Advantages
¥ Relatively easy to operate
¥ Amenable to automation for quick and large-scale produciton
¥ Operation is able to monitor the operation for uniform germination
¥ Special seed treatments (e.g., vernalization) are easy to provide
¥ Time from transplanting to sale is reduced
¥ It is cost effective
Disadvantages
¥ Initial equipment cost could be high, depending on the type
¥ Employees require special training to use equipment
Media
A key to success to plug production is to find the best medium for the enterprise and consistently
use it. It should be pasteurized. A common medium is 1:1 of sphagnum peat moss: vermiculite or
perlite. Sandy soils and bark are not recommended in the medium.

Containers
Containers should be cleaned and disinfected prior fo filling with media. Working surfaces
should also be cleaned and disinfected. There are plug trays for organic production.
Automation
Modern models of equipment are capable of full automationŕfiling plug flats or trays, sowing
seed, transplanting, and labelling. It is easier to automate the production of annuals then
perennial species.
Sowing
Week 1: Seed is sown is plug trays and placed in a germination chamber maintained at 70Ŕ70°F
and 80Ŕ90 percent relative humidity. Light intensity should be low during this period.
Week 2Ŕ4: After a week in the germination chamber, the trays are placed in the propagation
house at 70Ŕ75° F and 70Ŕ80 percent relative humidity. It may be necessary to provide bottom
heating. The grower may use a pre-charged mix (contains basic nutrients). In week 2Ŕ4 the
plants should be fertilized with 20-10-20 at 150 ppm, twice a week.
Week 5Ŕ6: Prior to transplanting into larger containers to be prepared for sale, the seedling
should be hardened at about 60Ŕ65°F and 35Ŕ40 percent relative humidity. Fertilization should
be reduced to 15-10-15 at 125 ppm weekly.
Finishing
Finishing is the presale plant management. The time it takes for finishing depends on the plug
size, the finish size, greenhouse temperature, and day length. The seedlings are transplanted into
larger containers (e.g., 4-inch pots). Some species, like bulbs, can be forced to bloom earlier by
modifying the day length (extending it for long-day plants).
Fertilization may be 20-10-20 or 15-5-15 applied once a week at 100Ŕ200 ppm depending on the
natural growth rate of the plant. It might be necessary to control plant height. This can be done
without the use of plant growth regulators by modifying the cultural environment (e.g., reducing
watering rate).
Factors that affect the success of plug production
A producer must decide whether to raise his or her own seedling or purchase plugs. The
economic decision varies from one enterprise to another. The provider should decide the
appropriate equipment to purchase for the operation. Once selected, the employees should be
trained to operate and equipment efficiently so that the plug trays are filled properly, seeded

efficiently, and stacked such as to avoid compaction of the medium. It is critical to fertilize and
water plants properly so they grow at the proper rate and attain the proper height.
Production systems: Integrated, organic production and soilless culture adapted from
Popsimonova et al., 2017
In greenhouse horticulture, production is commonly carried out in the soil under plastic-covered
greenhouses. Three main production systems are used: conventional, integrated crop production
and organic production. This chapter describes specific cultivation practices that can be easily
and efficiently adopted by the regionřs growers. For each system, options are presented to enable
growers to evaluate practices based on the climatic and economic conditions and make the best
choice. The concepts of integrated crop management and organic cultivation have been
developed as a response to the intensive exploitation of the natural resources (soil, water and air).
Definitions
In order to achieve efficient and durable production in line with the ecosystem and product
quality demands, the concept of integrated plant (or crop) production has been developed. It
maximizes the powers of nature, but also incorporates modern production technologies that are
adapted to the ecosystem, with respect for soil fertility, product quality and animal welfare, even
if it entails forgoing maximum yields.
Organic production is an environmentally sustainable system that integrates the rational use of
natural resources, biodiversity conservation and environmental protection.
Norms and regulations govern organic production, including the control and certification of
production and products. Organic production methods are regulated at international level
according to the standards of the International Federation of Organic.
Integrated horticulture production in greenhouses may take place either in the soil or in soilless
culture systems. The term ―soilless culture‖ refers to the cultivation of plants in systems without
soil in situ. It comprises systems without solid medium, i.e. liquid, as well as aggregate systems
and is the most intensive and effective in todayřs horticultural industry. The liquid system is also
called Ŗhydroponicsŗ, whereas the periodic spraying of the plant roots with nutrient solution is
called Ŗaeroponicsŗ (Gruda and Tanny, 2014). Adams (2002) divides soilless culture into two
categories based on their structure and the way the nutrients are provided:
¥ Soilless culture on organic substrates (e.g. peat, coir, sawdust, pine bark and rice hulls), which
are not inert and nutrients are supplied by solid fertilizers and liquid feeds.

¥ Hydroponics, which includes cultivation in either inert substrates (e.g. rockwool, perlite,
gravel) or nutrient solution without the use of any aggregate (water culture systems, such as
nutrient film technique [NFT], floating hydroponics, aeroponics, deep flow technique).
In all types of soilless culture, the supply of nutrients is based on the supply of a complete
nutrient solution (Savvas et al., 2013), because of the limited nutrient reserves that can be
included in a substrate. Soilless cultivation systems offer significant advantages compared with
direct cultivation in soil. For example, protected crops may be cultivated in areas with poor or
adverse growing conditions (e.g. poor soil structure or high soil acidity/salinity). Whereas
soilless culture can be used in both conventional agriculture and integrated plant (or crop)
production, for Organic production it is still debatable whether the detachment from the
natural soil generating layer can satisfy the concept of organically produced plants, and therefore
the denomination Ŗorganic soilless cultureŗ is not allowed in Europe. In most cases, soilless
culture is applied as part of an integrated greenhouse production system to provide benefits
arising from a more efficient control of the root environment.
Conventional agriculture refers to the current and traditional agricultural practices, without
adherence to any specific crop production protocol. It is also considered the reference system
(check) for comparison and improvement.
PREREQUISITES FOR STARTING PRODUCTION
Before starting the production and making the choice of a cultivation system, the grower has to
take into consideration several important factors regarding the market, climate, water sources and
environmental protection. Besides having access to sufficient solar irradiation, water, power,
main roads for transport etc., there are technical specifications for each different greenhouse
type.
The capital costs vary depending on the climate conditions, support and covering material, and
the applied technology. Variable costs include seedlings, heating, ventilation and transportation.
Labour accounts for the largest portion of the variable costs.
For conventional production there should be approximately 5 workers per hectare of production
area. Organic cultivation requires a greater number of working days (i.e. workers per hectare of
production area), since most of the operations are performed manually. For integrated plant (or
crop) production, the grower should foresee expenses for soil and tissue sampling and advisory
services.

Soilless culture should be suited to well-equipped high-tech greenhouses, where soilless culture
equipment represents only a small fraction of the total investment. However, low-tech
greenhouses may sometimes be modernized and used for soilless culture, depending on the
economic and technical conditions, such as region, farm characteristics, type of greenhouse, soil
situation, water resources, market requirements, establishment costs and, last but not least,
restrictions on environmental pollution. Low-cost alternatives are suitable for growers with
limited capital or in regions with a fluctuating demand. In low-tech soilless culture, a simple
system can control the distribution of the nutrient solution or a drip irrigation system can be
used.
For organic production, it is necessary to manage the greenhouse soil area according to the
established norms for the 3 years preceding production. Only plots that have not been cultivated
in the previous 2 years can immediately be adopted Ŕ provided they meet the other conditions.
During the transition period, it is necessary to keep books for the fields and to record data for
each greenhouse: orientation, size, soil analysis (on which to base fertilization), rotation crops
planned and cultivation measures applied from planting to harvesting.
Greenhouse production makes it possible to extend the growing season for crop production and
growing crops in regions where outdoor cropping is not normally possible.
Greenhouse organic production is based on the following:
¥ Knowledge of plant biology.
¥ Cultivation closely based on ecological principles and in harmony with the technical potential
of the greenhouse.
¥ Efficient use of energy and use of alternative energy sources.
The grower needs to ensure that the technical characteristics Ŕ dimensions and potential for
climate control Ŕ of the greenhouse correspond to the existing norms for organic production.
SOIL AND SOILLESS CULTURE MANAGEMENT
Soil is fundamental in agricultural systems. A rich soil ecosystem contributes to crop and
livestock performance. Good soil husbandry ensures long-term fertility, aids yield and
profitability, reduces the risk of soil damage due to erosion and compaction and associated
environmental concerns, and decreases crop susceptibility towards pests and diseases.
Soil organic matter has a vital role in the ecosystem, and is fundamental for the health of the soil
and crops. It comprises a mixture of plant and animal residues in various stages of

decomposition, their breakdown products, and the bodies of living and dead micro-organisms
and their decomposing remains. Soil organic matter affects the soil structure, allowing aeration
and biological activity, with a positive impact on both crop performance and plant defences. The
crop yield depends, inter alia, on the level of plant nutrients released from organic matter during
the mineralization process. The nutrient level depends mostly on the reserves of humus in the
soil and its quality, as well as the climate. The reserves of humus and nutrients in the soil are
constantly reduced as a result of organic matter mineralization, nutrient leaching and the
permanent removal of nutrients during plant growth. If these losses are not compensated by the
application of fertilizers, or by recurrent application of organic matter to the soil, the yield
decreases. Organic or inorganic fertilizers containing nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK
fertilizers), as well as other plant nutrients; have to be applied according to the results of soil
analysis.
The quantity of organic matter, in particular soil humus, is determined by the proportion of
carbon and nitrogen. A C: N ratio of 10: 1 is preferable and considered optimal. Plant residues
with a C: N ratio of 20: 1 or lower (e.g. composted manure C: N = 15: 1) ensure sufficient
nitrogen for the microorganisms required for decomposition, and release sufficient nitrogen to
plants.
However, for values above 20, there is competition for nitrogen among plants and bacteria,
which can result in nitrogen deficiency for the plants. For example, if straw with low nitrogen
content (C: N = 80: 1) is incorporated in nitrogen poor soil, bacteria will slowly increase,
because the straw is poor Ŗfoodŗ for micro-organisms. The process of decomposition can be
accelerated by applying additional quantities of nitrogen fertilizers in order to meet the needs of
microorganisms and plants.
Selection of the soilless culture system and growing media used has technical and financial
implications and is not a simple process. Inorganic growing media include rockwool, perlite,
tuff, volcanic porous rock, expanded clay granules, vermiculite, zeolite, sand and gravel; while
organic growing media include peat, compost, bark, coir, wood fibres and other wood residuals.
Growing media may be used in containers (organic substrates, perlite), in the form of prepared
cubes (rockwool) for seedling and transplant production, in bags (peat-based substrates), as slabs
(rockwool), on mats (polyurethane foam) and in troughs (rockwool). Therefore, the decision to

use a substrate as a growing medium in a greenhouse depends on availability, cost and the
medium characteristics, i.e. its physical, chemical and biological properties.
In any substrate, the absence of pests and pathogens is very important. Biostability and biological
inertia are other parameters to be taken into consideration, particularly when long cycles are
carried out or the growing medium is reused in successive growing cycles. Depending on its
physical, chemical and biological properties, each substrate is suited to its own growing
technology and management approach (Gruda et al., 2013).
CROP HEALTH AND PROTECTION
Crop protection refers to the control of pests, diseases and weeds. An accurate understanding of
crop health allows the farmer to assess resistance to biotic and abiotic factors. Crop protection
practices should be rationalized, using integrated control to reduce risk. This could be achieved
by:
¥ Application of available biological methods;
¥ Selection of tolerant cultivars; or
¥ Balanced crop rotation.
Sanitary measures
Appropriate practices include soil solarisation (sterilization) and steam pasteurization, in addition
to integrated measures to combat nematodes (e.g. hygiene control, crop rotation). A wide range
of biological resources have been developed, suited to crop protection in organic greenhouse
production: biological insecticides (against thrips, whiteflies etc.) based on competition between
useful and harmful insects; microbial toxins originating from fungi, bacteria and viruses (e.g.
avermektins, Bactospeine, BioBit, Foray, Novodor); organic disinfectants; insecticides based on
plant extracts (e.g. pyrethrum, Quassan, rotenone); and pheromone strips and plates (particularly
suitable for greenhouses).
Biopesticides have advantages: in particular, their selective effect and low toxicity in the short
term. Spinosad is used against many types of caterpillar and thrips. Capsaicin Ŕ an ingredient of
essential oil of pepper Ŕ is effective in the fight against gossamer mites.
Agents based on Trihoderma harzianumi, Gliocladium virens can be used to combat Pythium,
Fusarium, Rhizoctonia and Sclerotinia (Lazić et al., 2013). Soda is successfully used to suppress
phomopsis, downy mildew, anthracnose, scab and botrytis. A mixture of 0.5% soda and 0.5% bio

oil is an effective fungicide and can also be adopted for the disinfection of tools, shoes, clothes
and tables, and as a disinfection barrier before entering the facility.
Biopesticides can be applied to protect against seedling lodging. Biopesticides based on Bacillus
subtilis, copper products and preparations made with nettle, dandelion, wormwood, yarrow or
garlic are effective. To achieve optimal results, biopesticides must be supported by preventive
measures, for example, lowering the air humidity with regular ventilation and using nutrient
preparations based on nettle, dandelion, yarrow or garlic. Growing seedlings grafted onto
rootstocks resistant to specific soil-borne diseases and pests reduces the root damage caused by
Fusarium and nematodes; this is particularly important for tomatoes.
Other biological–natural means are available for plant protection in greenhouse production to
keep harmful organisms within the economic threshold level:
¥ Cultivation of Ŗusefulŗ plants that have allelopathic relations or are predators.
¥ Sowing of appropriate trap plants around the greenhouse (e.g. phacelia, plants of the Asteraceae
family, calendula, marigold, buckwheat, nasturtium) to attract Ŗusefulŗ insects.
¥ Application of herbal preparations of species with known phytoncide effects (garlic and onions)
or with an odour that repels or attracts pests (e.g. nasturtium attracts black aphids).
¥ Disinfection of seeds (using an infusion of chamomile, horseradish, garlic and nettle).
¥ Mulching to prevent the development of weeds (using organic or synthetic mulch).
¥ Mixed cropping.
Crop rotation
Organic production can be in pure or combined culture. A pure crop entails the cultivation of one
species, while a combined crop is the cultivation of two or more cultures in the same area. In
both cases, it is important to adhere to the principles of intensive crop rotation. Crop rotation
helps reduce the accumulation of pathogens and pests (which, on the contrary, intensifies when
one species is continuously grown), and also improves the structure and fertility of the soil when
deep-rooted and shallow-rooted plants are rotated. Rotation of legumes and green manure is
recommended for proper plant nutrition. Adopting nitrogen from the air, legumes reduce the
required amount of organic matter that is necessary to enter fertilization.
However, for economic reasons, it is not easy to follow this recommendation in greenhouse
vegetable production. The vegetable species most commonly grown in protected cultivation
belong to three plant families: Solanaceae (tomato, pepper, eggplant), Cucurbitaceae (cucumber,

melon, squash) and Asteraceae (lettuce). In addition, green bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is also
grown in greenhouses.
It should be noted that the EU directive stipulates that, regardless of the species grown in crop
rotation, short-term use of green manure and legumes is necessary for prevention against pests
and weeds.
Mixed cropping
Joint cultivation of two or more cultures Ŕ can be very beneficial. Positive effects are seen in the
following joint crops: lettuce and onion; pepper and basil; tomato and cabbage. Moreover, mixed
cropping can be adopted to repel or attract vegetable pests (Gilkeson and Grossman, 1991).
For example, growing tomato with cabbage reduces tansy and cabbage moth attacks on cabbage;
or the cultivation of white clover with cabbage results in fewer attacks from aphids and cabbage
moths. As a pre-crop, calendula, marigold, nasturtium or compost of some tropical plants
(Azadirachta indica) are commonly used. Their chemical secretions reduce the number of
nematodes.
Mulching
In organic production, it is advantageous to use organic green and dry mulch.
However, in INT and CON greenhouse systems, it is easier to use plastic films of polyethylene,
produced with permitted polymers and additives. Characteristics of different mulch foils include
the following:
• Black-foil: increases temperature below the foil, decreases water consumption by
approximately 50%, prevents weed growth, and improves phytosanitary conditions. Silver–
brown foil: reduces hea‰EêÖÆ!§ýöØtrªŔ

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GAP RECOMMENDATIONS – PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

Integrated crop production
¥ Keep records of all inputs and operations. This will help with crop production planning and
inspections.
¥ Conduct soil analyses and design a fertilization plan accordingly.
¥ Use drip irrigation in all kinds of greenhouse systems and especially in PE tunnels. When the
irrigation system is also used for fertilization, monitor the water quality.
¥ Apply mulch to prevent weeds and limit evaporation from the soil.
¥ Monitor early symptoms of disease and pest appearance. Seek advice immediately on how to
proceed with plant protection.
Soilless culture
¥ Determine the growing mediumřs physical and chemical properties and, if necessary, make
adjustments to meet plant requirements.
¥ Consider container size and shape when selecting a substrate and an SC system.
¥ Adopt green technologies that reuse, reduce and recycle resources.
¥ Adapt the irrigation strategy to the physical properties of the growing media.
¥ Consider sustainability and environmental protection. If possible, use a closed system (more
environmentally friendly than open systems).

Organic crop production
¥ Consider the exact location and size of the farm. Obtain the cadastral plan of the plot and take
account of neighbouring, non-organic farms and other sources of pollution.
¥ Keep at least a three-year history of the plot.
¥ Use only certificated organic fertilizers and plant protection substances and keep all purchase
records (invoices, receipts, delivery notes etc.).
¥ Record the use of certificated organic reproductive materials.
¥ Establish an insulating belt to avoid pesticide drift and crossover of grown varieties from
surrounding conventional farms.
¥ Keep records of harvest, yields, storage, product labelling and packaging.
CHAPTER FIVE
PLANTING PREPARATION AND PLANTING DESIGNS IN GREENHOUSE
1. ROOT MEDIA AND STERILIZATION
1.1.ROOT MEDIA
 Root media, also known as the substrate, refer to the materials surrounding the roots of the
growing plants. Soil is a common root medium. Other media include sand, peat, sawdust etc.
In liquid culture, the nutrient solution is in fact the root medium for the growing crops.
 The issue of root media is carefully addressed in greenhouse production. Apart from soil, a
wide range of root media are used in greenhouse.
1.1.1. FUNCTION OF ROOT MEDIA
(1).Plant support
As individual roots grow among the substrate particles, they anchor the plant and produce a
firm foundation, which physically support the stem in an upright position.
(2).Mineral elements supply
 Root medium must contain or have the capacity to retain and provide the essential
elements in available forms, sufficient quantity and proper balance if maximum yields
and high produce quality are to be realized.
(3).Moisture retain
 Root media retain large quantities of water required by plants. Substrate should retain
sufficient quantities of water to meet plant requirements between irrigation intervals.
(4).Oxygen supply

 Plant roots need oxygen to generate energy through respiration, which is required for
absorption of water and mineral elements from the substrate, and for growth.
 Root media with a pore size distribution that provides for adequate aeration and moisture
retention are essential for producing crops in containers.
(5).Organisms inhabitation
 Organisms like earthworms and nitrogen-fixing bacteria play an important role in the
recycling of root secretions, dissolving of some mineral nutrients and control of soil-
borne diseases.
 Root media that
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qjôÑS½ř›ø8Z!„ù aeration is effective. Macro- pores ≥0.1mm and micro-pores ≤0.1.
 Volume: Should be light for easy transportation though should not be too light since the
crop cannot be anchored. Should be able to support the plant. In case of potting or bench
production, light media are recommended for convenience, ease of movement and
reducing the cost of bench construction.
 Size of the granules: The porosity and the ratio of different size pores affect the aeration
and the moisture retaining capacity of the media.
(1).Chemical characteristics
 Stability: - Should disintegrate first. Organic media disintegrate first, for example coco
peat is only used for short season crops.
 pH: - Source of root media is very important and should be able to be adjusted by
treatment with lime.
 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC):-
 Chemical Buffering:- Should be able to supply nutrients.
 Electric conductivity (EC):- If the salts are too high, they have to be leached.
 Carbon: Nitrogen (C/N) ratio: - The carbon content should be lower, this will allow
enhanced nitrogen uptake by the plant.
 Good chemical stability is necessary for a good root media.
(2).Biological characteristics
 These are types and populations of organisms existing in the media. If the population of
harmful organisms is high enough to cause significant reduction in yield and quality,
effective media sterilization measures have to be employed to eliminate the pests and
then the media is re-inoculated with beneficial organisms.
Characteristics of a good root medium
(1).Relatively low soluble salts, but with an adequate exchange capacity to retain and supply
the elements necessary for the plant growth.
(2).Porous and well drained, yet retentive of sufficient moisture to meet the water
requirements of plants between irrigations.
(3).Free from harmful soil pathogenic organisms, insect pests, nematodes, weed seeds and
phytotoxic materials.
(4).Standardized and uniform with each batch to permit the use of standardized fertilization
and irrigation programs for each successive crop.
(5).Biologically and chemically stable following pasteurization, primarily free from organic
matter that releases ammonia when subjected to heat or chemical treatment.
1.1.2. COMMONLY USED MEDIA

(1). Soil

 Soil is the most popular, widely available and often the first choice root media for
greenhouses. Many of important physical and chemical properties of soil are related to
the size of mineral particles - sand, silt and clay.
 The percentage of sand and clay determines the texture of the soil. A large number of soil
classes have been designed, but six broad groups commonly used include: sandy loam,
loam, silty loam, clay loam and clay.
 Soils classified as sandy loam or loams are excellent ingredients for media mixtures for
container grown crops, but tillage has disruptive influence on soil aggregates.
(2). Sand
 Sand is chemically stable and easy to obtain. It is available in the banks or beaches of
rivers, lakes, seas, oceans etc. The sands from different sources are very different in
physical and chemical properties.
(3). Gravel
 This can be collected from the banks of rivers, quarries or other stone processing sites.
The desirable size of gravel particles is 1.6-20 mm of which 50% by volume should be
about 13 mm in diameter.
 The gravel should not contain fine particles and if present they must not be less than 1
mm in diameter.
 The particles should be hard enough to resist breakage, able to retain moisture in their
void space, and drain well to allow root aeration.
 When gravel is used as medium, the beds or trenches for cropping must be strong enough
to withstand the bulky weight of the granules.
(4). Rockwool
 This is a manmade mineral wool. The material is manufactured by melting a mixture of
igneous rocks known as diabase or dolerite (60%) limestone and coke at a temperature of
1500-2000oC.
 The molten droplets are then spinned at high speed through a series of motors to form a
fine fibres of 5nm diameter the cooled by air stream. The product is pressed and allowed to
harden and cut to shape. It has good porosity (96%), water-retention capacity. It s pH is
extremely high because of existence of oxides.
 The pH of fresh rockwool is normally high because of the existence of small amount of
oxides (Na2O, K2O, MgO etc). After irrigating the rockwool with weak acidic water for 2
days, these oxides dissolve in the acidic solutions, thereby reduce and stabilizing the pH.
 The products are graded according to their density, expressed in g/l or kg/m3. The
commonly used grades are 70 (Grodan), 80 (Cultura and Cutilene), 90 (Basalan), and 100
(Capogro). They are cut into cubes or slabs and wrapped with polythene sheet.
(5). Vermiculite
 It is a micaceous mineral which expands when heated to 1000oC. During heating, water
turns to vapour popping the layers apart forming porous sponge like kernels. It is light in
weight with bulky density 90-160 kg/m3.

 It has high porosity and is alkaline due to the presence of magnesium. The material
sometimes has an alkaline reaction (pH>7) due to the presence of magnesia limestone in
the original ore. Both the cation exchange capacity (100me/100g) and the water holding
capacity (1 m3 dry vermiculite can absorb 100-650 litres of water) of expanded vermiculite
are high. Horticultural vermiculite comes in different grades.
(6). Peat
Consist of partially decomposed aquatic, marsh, bogs, or swamp vegetation. The composition of
deferent peats varies widely, depending on the
 Vegetation from which it originated,
 State of decomposition,
 Mineral content,
 Degree of acidity.
There are three types of peat:-
(i) Moss peat:
This mainly distributed at top layer of peat heap in places of peat formation. It is the least
decomposed and derived from sphagnum, hypnum or other mosses.

It has high moisture holding capacity (10 times its dry weight).

High in acidity pH of pH 3.8-5.

Contain small amount of nitrogen.

Has little P and K.
(ii) Peat humus:-
This occurs in low and wet parts of swampy areas and derived from bryophyte, reeds and
other swampy vegetation. It is highly decomposed, weakly acidic and have high content
of Nitrogen. It is fertile and can be directly used as fertilizer or root media.
(iii) Reed Humus:
This is distributed in places between the moss and peat humus. Its properties are between
those of moss peat and Reed humus.
(7). Perlite
 Siliceous material of volcanic origin. They are crushed and screened. They are then heated
in the furnace to about 1000oC. The small amount of moisture present in it changes into
steam expanding the particles to small sponge like kernels to form perlite. They light, high
porosity, neutral in pH and low cation exchange capacity.
(8). Pumice
 Pumice is also a siliceous material of volcanic origin. However, the crude ore is crushed
and screened without any heating process, it has a density of 0.7-1.0 g/cm3 and its particles
with a diameter of 3-15 mm have a total porosity of 27% and water holding capacity of
19%.
(9). Wood bark

 Mostly wood shavings and bark from hard woods are used. Coco peat a by-product of
coconut is also becoming popular as a media. Most of the wood barks contain toxic
materials and high C/N ratios.
(10). Sawdust
 This has the same characteristics as the bark, but the C/N ratio is higher. In composting
sawdust, some extra nitrogen should be incorporated and the decomposition period needs to
be longer than 3 months.
 Sawdust is mostly mixed with other materials to serve as a mixed root medium. Very fine
sawdust is not an ideal media when used alone.
 Sawdust is a long lasting medium, which can be recycled for 2-4 years.
(11). Sugarcane waste (baggase)
 Sugarcane waste has a high C/N ratio of up to 169. The fresh sugarcane waste cannot be
used as root medium until it is fully decomposed.
 Addition of either water (70-80%) or urea (0.5-1.0%) to the sugarcane waste during
composting enhances the decomposition process.
 The decomposing period is around 3-6 months and longer duration than 6 months can
lower the quality of the compost.
1.2.STERILIZATION
This is treatment of the root media to eliminate mainly the destructive/harmful organisms
(pathogenic bacteria and fungi, insects, nematodes or weed seeds) in the root media interferes
with normal growth and development of crops resulting in reduction of subsequent yields and
quality. It is an essential practice in greenhouse management. There are different methods of
media sterilization which includes heat treatment, solarization, and fumigation.
(1).Heat treatment
Heat treatment of root media to eradicate soil pests is based on the fact that living organisms
have relatively low thermal death points (temperature at which enzymes are denatured and
proteins coagulated). The lethal temperatures for some soil-borne plant pathogens and other
harmful organisms at 30 minutes exposure under moist substrate conditions are listed below.
Soil pests Lethal temperature (oC)
Nematodes 49
Pathogenic fungi and bacteria 60
All bacteria and plant mist 71
Weed seeds 82
Resistant weed seeds and viruses 100
Heat treatment can be in form of dry heat and moist heat.
(i) Dry heat
This can be generated by combustion or electrical resistance in the form of flame or electrical

current, respectively. The heat may be applied directly to the substrate or to a metal plate or
container that is in contact with the substrate and transmitted from the point of application
through the substrate by conduction and convection.
(ii) Moist heat
Moist heat for pasteurization of root media can be in the form of hot water or steam. Hot water at
a temperature of 100oC can be used to eradicate soil pests and also help in leaching excess
soluble salts from the substrate. However, the practice requires considerably large amount of
labour to apply boiling water to a root medium.
Steaming is the introduction of water vapour (>100oC) into the root medium to elevate the
medium temperatures to levels lethal to soil borne pests. Steaming is approximately seven times
more efficient in transferring heat to a root medium compared with hot water treatment. The
steam is available in four different forms:
(1) Free-flowing steam (at atmospheric pressure with a temperature of 100oC);
(2) Superheated steam (above 100oC);
(3) High-pressure steam; and
(4) Aerated steam (injecting free-flowing steam into a stream of air propelled by a
fan or air compressor).
Both dry heating and wet heating increase the solubility of many substrate compounds
particularly phosphates, potash, manganese, zinc, copper, iron and boron resulting in higher
levels of soluble salts in the growing medium.
(2).Solarization
Solarization is a thermal process of disinfecting soil by trapping solar radiation under clear
plastic mulch to elevate the temperature of moist soil to a level lethal to soil-borne pests
including pathogens, weeds, insects and mites. It involves covering the root medium (soil) with
clear plastic to transmit solar heat to deeper layer of soil as much as possible for a period
generally ranging from 3-8 weeks. The heat quantity for solarization is a function of soil
temperature and time. It is affected by a number of factors including diurnal maximum and
minimum air temperatures as well as the duration of exposure; wind speed and duration; soil
texture, colour and moisture content; characteristic of the film mulch used; and thermal
sensitivity of the target pests. This method is effective for most pests except; Fungi (Fusarium
oxysporum f. sp opini and Pythium aphamidermaturm), nematode (Meloidogyne incognita), and
weeds (Conyze canadensis, Cynodon dactylon, Cyperus rotundus, C. esculentus, Purtulaca
oleracea, Solamum luteum). The efficacy of solarization can be improved when it is combined
with fungicides, biological antagonists and appropriate cultural practices.

(3).Fumigation
Fumigation is the process of media sterilization whereby volatile chemical compounds applied
defuse through the pores of substrate and act as toxicants to soil-borne pathogens and harmful
organisms. The volatile chemicals for fumigation are also known as fumigants. There are various
fumigants used for sterilizing plant media. These include:
(i) Methyl bromide,
(ii) Chloropicrin,
(iii) 1,3-dichloropropene (1,3-D),
(iv) Methyl isothiocyanate (MITC),
(v) Methyl iodide,
(vi) Propargyl bromide,
(vii) Formaldehyde,
(viii) Inorganic azides, and
(ix) Vapam, etc.
Methods of Applying Fumigants

(i) Broadcast application
Broadcasting is still the most commonly used method of treating media with chemical
disinfectants. It effectively applies chemicals to large quantities of media and allows efficient
coverage with highly volatile fumigants.
(ii) Liquid injection
It involves injection of liquefied chemical fumigants such as methyl bromide through shanks into
media where it vaporises and diffuses through media atmosphere, knocking out a wide spectrum
of soil-borne organisms.
(iii) Hot-gas method
This involves the use of generator to vaporise the liquid fumigant and pump it through perforated
tubing on the soil surface while a plastic tarp covering the soil surface contains the material.
(iv) Chemigation
With intensive flower and vegetable production systems moving towards drip irrigation, various
chemigation treatments have been successfully used or tested. It involves application of
fumigants through irrigation systems.
(4).Soil amendment and Biofumigation

The fumigants are agricultural by-products. The fumigants should decompose and release
volatile compounds which are toxic to pathogens hence the name biofumigation. Examples of
organic amendments are pyrethrin from pyrethrum, tobacco residue, brassicas, carrot leaves and
onion leaves.
Biofumigants are used in large scale quantities.

(i) Plough the fields.
(ii) Apply the biofumigant after chopping them and mix them with the soil thoroughly,
(iii) Apply water,
(iv) Mulch with plastic mulch and leave them for 3-8 weeks.
(v) Re- inoculate with non-pathogenic micro-organisms,
Re-inoculation of Non-pathogenic organisms
A biological vacuum normally results after media sterilization. The risk of media re-infection by
pathogens is very high. The multiplication of pathogens will be very fast when there is no
competition or suppression from other organism. Therefore, the damage to the crops by re-
infecting pathogens will be higher than in non-sterilized media. It is recommended to re-
inoculate the sterilized media with some beneficial or non-pathogenic bacteria, fungi and other
organisms that compete for space and nutrients or are antagonistic to pathogens in the rizosphere.
Types of micro-organisms used for re-inoculation.
(i) Competitors;
(ii) Antagonists of pathogens;
The inoculation of antagonistic Trichoderma spp. decreases incidence of problems
caused by the pathogens. The bacterium, Pasteuria penetrans is effective for controlling
root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.).
(iii) Plant growth promoters;
Some plant growth rhizobacteria (PGPR) stimulate plant growth and antagonise the
pathogens by colonizing the roots and establishing a biological shield to prevent or delay
invasion of a pest or pathogen.
(iv) Use non-pathogenic micro-organisms.
2. PLANTING IN GREENHOUSE
2.1.GREENHOUSE BENCHES AND BEDS
Greenhouse production occurs either in ground beds (in the ground) or on benches (raised
platforms). The design and layout of these structures should facilitate greenhouse operations and
make the most efficient use of space.
Beds and benches in a greenhouse are located so as to allow personnel to freely move around and
work and also to move greenhouse equipment such as carts and trolleys. To accommodate
equipment, the principal aisles should be about 3 to 4 feet (0.93 to 1.24 meters) wide. Some
arrangements are more efficient than others in terms of the efficient use of space. The more
usable space, the greater the profits from a greenhouse operation.
In terms of where the planting media and containers are located, three strategies may be adopted
in a greenhouse production enterprise.
2.1.1. No Bench
No bench, or floor benching, is the practice in which production takes place directly on the floor
of the greenhouse. The floor may be covered with gravel or concrete and should be well
draining. It is best to have a gentle slope in the floor so that excess irrigation water drains into a
gutter and is carried out of the facility. Gravel covers and porous concrete are prone to weed

infestation. Bedding and seasonal plants such as poinsettia are commonly grown on floor
benches. Aisle space is created by the way flats or containers are arranged on the floor (Figure
12Ŕ15). If done properly, up to about 90 percent of the floor space can be utilized for production.
2.1.2. Raised Benches
Raised benches are suited to potted plant production. Most greenhouses have raised benches of a
wide variety of designs and constructions. Some of them are makeshift and temporary, consisting
of brick legs and movable bench tops. The top may be of wood, concrete, or wire mesh and may
or may not have side boards (Figure 12Ŕ16). Metal benches are most common. Moulded plastic
is sometimes used to make troughs in which potted plants are grown. This material is also used
in the construction of benches for ebb-and-flow irrigation. Notwithstanding the material used, the
bench must have a system for draining properly. If wood is used, cedar, redwood, and cypress
make good bench materials because they resist decay. Wooden benches may be painted with
copper naphthenate preservative to prevent decay. Redwood has natural preservatives that are
corrosive to iron and steel; as such, nails and other construction materials that come into contact
with this wood should be of different materials such as aluminium or zinc.
The height of the bench above the floor should be such that cultural operations (e.g., pinching,
spraying, harvesting, and staking) are facilitated. Width of the bench is also important. It should
be narrow (3 to 6 feet or 0.93 to 1.86 meters) enough to permit pots located in the middle rows to
be easily reached. Air should be able to move freely around and under the bench, as well as
around the pots on the bench.
FIGURE 12–18 Longitudinal layout of greenhouse benches.

2.1.3. Ground Benches or Beds
Plants to be grown for several years that will grow tall in the process (e.g., cut flower plants such
as roses) are planted in ground beds (Figure 12Ŕ17). Ground beds vary in design and
construction. Using ground beds can be problematic from the standpoint of disease control. If the
ground bed has no real bottom in terms of depth, diseases such as bacterial wilt are hard to
control because of the impracticality of thorough pasteurization of the soil to a reasonable depth.

To correct this problem, concrete bins may be constructed in the ground to hold the soil and to
facilitate periodic pasteurization to control soilborne diseases. These concrete bins have V-
shaped bottoms and drain holes for good drainage. They should be about 6 to 12 inches (12.2 to
30.5 centimetres) deep, depending on the plant to be grown. When drainage is poor, drainage
tiles may be installed and overlaid with gravel before topping with the root medium. Walkways
should be strategically located between beds to allow gardeners easy access to the beds to
prepare them, plant the crop, care for it, and harvest the produce.
These spaces should be graded so that water flows away from the beds to reduce contamination
from pathogens carried on the wheels of carts and wheelbarrows and the shoes of gardeners.
2.2. LAYOUT (ARRANGEMENT)
The five types of bench arrangements commonly used in greenhouses are described in the
following sections. The layout depends on the crop and the nature of the production enterprise,
taking into account row spacing, irrigation type, and structural support systems (e.g., trellises).
2.2.1. Longitudinal Arrangement
In a longitudinal arrangement, beds or benches are constructed to run the full length of the
greenhouse in several rows (Figure 12Ŕ18). This arrangement is associated with cut flower
production. It is easier to conduct mechanized operations with this type of arrangement, which
provides for long, uninterrupted production areas. However, moving across the facility is
hampered and requires workers to go all of the way to one end of one row to make a turn to the
next row.
2.2.2. Cross-Benching
Cross-benching is like the longitudinal arrangement except that the orientation of the benches are
not lengthwise with respect to the greenhouse but are arranged crosswise (Figure 12Ŕ19). The
benches are shorter and aisles numerous. Although the aisle space significantly reduces the
usable area of the greenhouse, movement around the greenhouse is easier with this arrangement.
FIGURE 12–19 Cross benching layout of greenhouse benches.

2.2.3. Peninsula Arrangement

The difference between the peninsula arrangement and cross-benching is the presence of a
primary central aisle in the former that runs the entire length of the greenhouse. The primary
aisle in cross-benching runs along the wall (Figure 12Ŕ20).
FIGURE 12–20 Peninsula arrangement of greenhouse benches.

2.2.4. Movable Benches
Movable benches are especially popular container production enterprises. To maximize the use
of space, some greenhouse designs include movable benches and one aisle. When work on one
bench is completed, the bench is mechanically moved so that work can be completed on the next
bench (Figure 12Ŕ21).
2.2.5. Pyramid Bench
A pyramid bench is an arrangement in which benches are placed in tiers. It is an ideal
configuration for hanging basket production.
Whether concrete bins or raised benches are used, the layout is important. As previously
indicated, aisles must be made to allow equipment to be moved around and to provide working
room around the bench while maximizing the use of floor space. In greenhouses designed
especially for cut flower production, the ground bed may run the full length of the facility.
Designs for nutriculture usually have special designs to accommodate the special equipment they
require.

FIGURE 12–21 Moving tables allowing for maximized space efficiency of the greenhouse
growing area.
Note the heating pipes used to provide "bottom heat" to the seedlings grown on the tables.
(Source: Dr. AJ Both, Bioresource Engineering, Department of Plant Biology and Pathology,
Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901)

CHAPTER SIX
TEMPERATURE MANAGEMENT
Energy Input and Output of Greenhouse
The microclimate created by the greenhouse structure exchanges energy with the outside
environment.
The sources of heat entering the greenhouse include:-
(i) Solar radiation,
(ii) Artificial heating, and
(iii) Heat generated by the machinery and equipment inside the greenhouse.
Heat loss in the greenhouse occurs through the following ways:-
(i) Radiant loss from greenhouse ground, covering material, and crops;
(ii) Convectional loss from ventilation;
(iii) Conduction loss from greenhouse frame, covering material, and soil; and
(iv) Absorption by greenhouse air, material and crops.
Heat
radiated
Solar back
radiation
Net heat gain

bringing up
the
Greenhouse
WAYS OF INCREASING GREENHOUSE TEMPERATURE
(i) Supplementary heating e.g. combustion of fuel which can be solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels
in the form of wood, oil, and gas are used for heating the greenhouse. Every kind of fuel has
its advantages and disadvantages.
(ii) Hot Water Heating Systems
The fuels described earlier are used to heat water, in a boiler which becomes the medium
through which heat is circulated throughout the greenhouse. Hot water systems are adapted for
use in small greenhouses. The temperature of water may be varied as needed. The disadvantage
of this system is that an elaborate network of pipes is usually needed to carry the hot water from

a boiler throughout the facility. Further, if a gravity flow return system is installed, gravity
causes cold water to flow back into the boiler, thus reducing its efficiency. Modern systems
utilize forced-water circulation. Apart from being more expensive to heat and maintain a desired
temperature, its heat value is lower than that of steam. Further, hot water is not amenable to use
in pasteurization. The system is adapted to small greenhouses because it is difficult to transfer
water over long distances without losing heat (temperature drops over long distances).
(iii) Steam Heating Systems
Steam can be heated to a higher temperature (100 to 101.7°C or 212 to 215°F) than hot water.
Smaller pipes are needed to transport steam over long distances and hence can be efficiently used
in large greenhouses. In large greenhouses, the steam pressure at the boiler may be as high as
120 psi (pounds per square inch). Even though steam can be transported over long distances, it
condenses in the pipes; thus, provision must be made to drain and recirculate the water for
reheating. Steam is very efficient for pasteurization.
(iv) Infrared Radiant Heater
Heating a greenhouse by infrared radiation is very economical. Reductions in fuel bills of about
30 to 50 percent have been reported. Heat is not conducted through any medium but transmitted
directly to plants (or other objects) without even warming the surrounding air. As such, while
plants receive the desired temperature, the general greenhouse atmosphere may be several
degrees colder than would be the case if hot water or steam were used. Even though infrared
heaters are highly efficient, the equipment or sources of the radiation must be located directly
above the plant or object to be warmed. Failure to provide for such placement will result in cold
spots (pockets of low temperature) in the facility. Further, as plants grow bigger, they tend to
block the radiation from reaching the soil, leaving it cold.
(v) Installation of solar heating equipment: this consists of heat collector, heat storage and heat
exchanger.
(vi) Use geothermal heat.
(vii) Install electric heating system. This can be by use of lambs particularly infra-red light or
electrical wiring system.
HEAT CONSERVATION IN THE GREENHOUSE
(i) Manipulating Greenhouse design
Heat loss is a function of the exposed surface area of greenhouse. A greenhouse with large ratio
of surface-area/land-area will lose heat easily and vice versa.
(ii) Double covering
As the name indicates, double covering refers to the covering of greenhouse with double layer of
polyfilm. The two layers of polyfilm are separated by 5-10 cm layer of air.
(iii) Thermal screens

A thermal screen is a curtain of materials such as polyfilm or polyester cloth that is drawn from
eave to eave or gutter to gutter as well as around the inner perimeter of the greenhouse.
(iv) Wall insulation
Little benefit is derived from scattered light entering through the back wall of a greenhouse in
high latitude regions. About 5-10% savings in heating cost can be realized by constructing a
solid, insulated back wall with a reflective inner surface.
(v) Reducing ventilation and sealing air leaks.
This is achieved by closing or blocking of the vents which will then increase the greenhouse
temperature. A piece of clear polyfilm or insect-proof net can serve the purpose.
(vi) Additional covering
Additional covering involves putting extra covering materials on the transparent cover of the
greenhouse at night.
(vii) Windbreaks
For every 2.2 m/s rise in average wind velocity above 6.7 m/s, there is a 4% increase in heat loss
from the greenhouse. A windbreak can reduce the velocity of wind striking a greenhouse.
REDUCING TEMPERATURE
(i) Greenhouse temperature is lowered by increasing the energy loss or reducing the level of
heat entering by use of:
a) Shade net
Shade net is a net weaved of UV-stabilized plastic strings or strips. The nets with black or
grey colour are commonly used though there are various colours available. The shading rate
ranges from 25% to 80% depending on the texture of the net. Shade nets are normally
installed inside the greenhouse or on top of the greenhouse. Covering the roof with some
opaque materials such as timber, maize straw can also be employed to shade the greenhouse.
b) Painting or dusting
If the shading period is a long time such as several months, painting the greenhouse cover
may also be used to shade the greenhouse. White paint is normally used for this purpose.
The transparent cover can also be painted with lime or white wash to shade the greenhouse.
Since rainfall washes off the lime powder from the greenhouse cover, the light intensity
increases after several rains.
c) Ventilation
Ventilation cooling systems in greenhouse include natural ventilation and forced ventilation.
Natural ventilation involves the exchange of greenhouse air with ambient air by opening the
greenhouse curtains, vents and windows.

Forced ventilation refers to the enhancement of greenhouse air exchange by fans or other
facilities installed in the greenhouse. A typical system is composed of a louvered inlet at one
end and an exhaust fan at another end of the greenhouse.
d) Evaporation
The evaporative cooling systems are based on the process of heat absorption during the
evaporation of water. The evaporation of one litre of water can absorb 580 kcal heat. This
can be done by misting.
 Misting
Misting is meant to generate fog containing water droplets that are sufficiently small to
stay suspended in air while they are evaporating. The fog is dispersed throughout the
greenhouse, cooling the air everywhere.
The misting system can be used in greenhouses relying on natural ventilation alone.
Misting nozzles are spaced above plants throughout the greenhouse. Fog comes on
intermittently to cool the air, which has entered the greenhouse through the ventilators
such as curtains and windows. As the humid, cooled air begins to warm up and leaves
the greenhouse through vents, more outside air is drawn in and in turn gets cooled by
subsequent fog.
Valv e
N oz zle
 Fan-and-pad system
Fan-and-pad system is an evaporative cooling system in which the exhaust fans draw in
air through the opposite wet porous wall (pad). The air cools and then mixes with the
warm air inside the greenhouse before it is forced out by the exhaust fans.
W ater supplying pipe
Air movement
Exhaust fan
Cellulose pad

CHAPTER SEVEN
GREENHOUSE LIGHT MANAGEMENT

Light can be viewed in three dimensions:-
(1).Spectral quality (quality of light)
(2).Light intensity
(3).Light duration.
(1).Spectral Quality
As far as spectral quality is concern, the light received from solar radiation has different spectral
components. It includes:-
(i) Ultra violet light (200-400nm).
(ii) Visible light- PAR (400-700).
(iii)Far red light Ŕ FR (700 Ŕ 800nm).
(iv)Infra-Red light (IR).
Plant physiological response
(i) Ultraviolet Light
 It has a wavelength of 200-400nm.
 It is not important for crops in the Greenhouse.
 It restricts internodes elongation and increases leaf thickness.
(ii) Visible light- PAR (400-700)
The wavelength ranges from 400-700nm.
It is responsible for photosynthesis hence called photo-synthetically active radiations (PAR).
Wave length of green light is not used by plants. Blue and red light are the only ones used by the
plants.
(iii) Far-Red light (700 – 800nm)
This light has effect on:- Seed germination, plant elongation and photoperiodic response.
(i) Spectral transmission

Polyethylene transmits more of ultraviolet wavelengths than glass. This is why petal blackening
of red roses or other flowers is common in polyethylene covering material than in glass. The
transmission of PAR through polyethylene can vary with the type of and chemical additive in
polyfilms.
UV-stabilized transmits 87% PAR
IR blocking polyethylene transmits 82% PAR.
(2).Light Intensity
(a) Factors influencing Light intensity in the greenhouse
(i) Covering material and their condition
The age of glass has little effect on transmission of radiant energy if it is cleaned regularly. In
the other hand, the radiant energy transmitted by polyethylene reduces with age. New
polyethylene transmits more light than the older.

(ii) Structure of the Greenhouse.
The detached Greenhouse transmits more solar radiant than ridge-and-furrow
greenhouses. Tunnel Greenhouses transmits more light than saw-teeth.
(iii) The angle of incidence of radiant light.
(iv)Orientation of the greenhouse.
In most cases, Greenhouses are orientated E-W in sub-tropical regions. In tropics,
orientation is not a factor because the sun is overhead.
(b) Light Intensity regulation
Reducing Light intensity:- Measures such as use of shade nets, roof shading, dusting and
painting mentioned in chapter five can be selected for regulating light in the Greenhouse.
Increasing light intensity in the greenhouse
This can be done by:
(i) Cleaning the covering material.
(ii) Installation of reflecting material. Aluminium incorporated polyfilms can be used as a
reflective material in the Greenhouse.
(iii) Electric lamp Supplement. High pressure discharge gas lamps are recommended. The
gas discharge lamps produce a line of spectrum and its quality depends on the gas.
Mercury vapour mainly produces blue-green light which is the most important for the
process of photosynthesis.
(3).Light duration (Photoperiod)
This means duration of sunlight in 24 hours.
Reducing the day length
You can reduce by blocking:-You cover the greenhouse with an opaque material, black
sateen cloth black polyethylene, black PVC e.t.c.
Extending the day length
You particularly carry out supplementary lighting by use of incandescent lamps or tubular
fluorescent lamps.

CHAPTER EIGHT
GREENHOUSE GAS MANAGEMENT
CARBON DIOXIDE ENRICHMENT [CO2]
 CO2 is an essential plant nutrient which is absorbed in greater quantity than any other
nutrient. On average, air contains 245ppm of CO2 but the levels of CO2 outdoor can vary
between 200 Ŕ 400ppm.High levels of CO2 are found in the industrial areas.
 CO2 of 300ppm is sufficient to support plant growth. Most plants have the capacity to utilize
greater concentrations of CO2 and in turn attain more rapid growth.
CO2 deficiency in the greenhouse
When the greenhouses are closed continuously during cold season, CO2 concentration may go
down necessitating supplementary application. Plants also use it for the process of
photosynthesis hence reducing its concentration in the greenhouse.
EFFECTS OF CO2 ENRICHMENT
CO2 enrichment in the greenhouse has a significant on the yield of the crops. It increases the
yield of vegetables in a pronounced manner.
CO2 also increases the quality of Greenhouse crops. For cut flowers, they produce thicker and
longer stems, bigger flower heads and more shiny leaves.
CO2 APPLICATION
Concentration of CO2
Maintaining higher CO2 is expensive but it generally suitable to increase the concentration up to
750ppm. The presence of this CO2 will protect the crop from leaf aging.
CO2 quantity
The amount of CO2 to apply is determined by the desired CO2 concentration, the prevailing
weather, which affects the greenhouse ventilation frequency and the photosynthetic efficiency of
the crop. Normally about 30kg of CO2 is applied during sunny day while 15kg is applied during
the cloudy day for 1000m2 greenhouse. CO2 enrichment is unnecessary in a rainy day.
Sources of CO2
(i) Liquid, solid and gaseous CO2
They are sold commercially.
(ii) Combustion:
Paraffin and coal can be used for generating CO2. These fuels have to be free of sulphur,
which produces phototoxic SO2 during combustion. Plants should be protected from carbon-
monoxide [CO] injury.
(iii) Composting [application of organic fertilizers]
Application of more organic fertilizers in greenhouse is a safe and economical way of CO2
enrichment. When organic matter is decomposing, they produce large quantities of CO2.
(iv) Intercropping with mushroom:
The crop canopy provides shade for growth of mushrooms. The process of plant
photosynthesis and decomposition of substrate by mushroom mycelium can exchange their
by-products CO2 and O2.

(v) Incorporating animal husbandry
An animal pen is built at the back wall of the greenhouse and some windows (or vents)
left for air exchange. During daytime, the plants in the greenhouse provide oxygen to
neighbouring animals and utilise the CO2 produced by animal during respiration.
(vi) Chemical reaction
Waste Sulphuric acid which are found in the industrial area can be reacted with backing
powder (NaHCO3) to yield CO2.
FACTORS CONSIDERED DURING CO2 ENRICHMENT

(i) Safety: Very high CO2 is toxic to human being. It should be between 700-1000ppm.
(ii) Senescence: Very high concentrations cause earlier aging of the plant. This is a
physiological problem.
(iii) Profitability: It should not cost more to ensure that profits are realized.
AIR POLLUTION
(i) Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
This is common in firms which carry out artificial heating and greenhouses near
industrial areas.
Symptoms of damage
Damage is on the leaves. Injury of plant leaves begin as large dull-coloured, water soaked areas
between veins that change to dry. Chlorotic spots develop at lower conc. of SO2. Middle aged
leaves are affected most followed by the aged ones and the resistant leaves are the younger ones.
Most plants are injured when exposed to 1ppm of SO2.
(ii) Ethylene (C2H4)
This is a plant hormone. It causes injury to plants when present in the greenhouse. Plants are
sensitive to conc. of 1pp.
Symptoms of damage
(a) Epinasty- sleepiness-the flower will not open.
(b) Reduced growth,
(c) Abnormal development,
(d) Rapid senescence.
(e) Shortened internodes,
(f) Increased stem thickness,
(g) Loss of epical dominance,
(h) Flowers donřt open.
(i) Closing of flowers soon after opening e.g. carnations.
Sources of ethylene include;- combustion of organic compounds, gasoline and
diesel engines produce ethylene, boilers and furnace for heating greenhouses and
burning rubbish or trash near the greenhouse.
(iii) Mercury vapour
Mercury vapour is harmfully to plants. Plant growth is retarded, plants become hardened,
and the flower production decrease drastically. The colour of mature plants fade, become

pink or even greenish white. Mercury is released in to greenhouse from paints containing
organic mercury coated on the surface of metallic bars used in construction of
greenhouses.
(iv) Phenolic compounds
Flower petals and foliage are burned indiscriminately when they are exposed to Phenolic
vapour. They are released by tar or pentachlorophenol, both which are used to preserve
wood.
Others gasses include the following
(v) Atmospheric chlorides
(vi) Hydrogen sulphides,
(vii) Ammonia (NH3),
(viii) Carbon monoxide,
(ix) Chlorine,
(x) Soil fumigants,
HUMIDITY CONTROL
Humidity in the greenhouse comes from:
(i) Plant evapotranspiration,
(ii) Soil surface evaporation,
(iii) Air misting.
If the humidity is high enough, fog or mist is formed in the inner surface of the greenhouse if the
outside temperatures reduce like during evening period. Greenhouse humidity affects the quality
of the plants, the incidence and severity of the insects and disease. Low humidity can lower the
quality of ornamental crops and leaves of the vegetables. The insects normally multiply faster
when the air is dry while diseases infection is facilitated by wet or extremely high humidity and
temperature variations.
Increasing humidity in the Greenhouse
(i) Surface watering
This can be done with the use of watering can or hosepipe. Some soil-borne diseases like
soft-rot can be spread by flooding. The water is applied on the paths.
(ii) Misting
This carried out with the aid of a misting system which is currently installed by large
scale greenhouses. Misting increases humidity and reduces the temperature very fast.
(iii) Reducing ventilation,
Humidity inside the greenhouse is normally higher than outside. Reducing ventilation can
retain moisture thereby increasing the humidity.
Decreasing humidity in the Greenhouse

(i) Reducing the quantity of irrigation water
 Ground surface evaporation contributes a lot to the greenhouse humidity. Reducing
irrigation during high humidity greatly helps to reduce or control greenhouse humidity.

(ii) Polyfilm mulching
 Polyfilm mulch helps block the surface evaporation. This is strongly recommended for
controlling greenhouse humidity. This also helps to slow down salt accumulation in the
greenhouse soil. For annual crops, polyfilms are normally laid down before planting. It
also improves the hygiene condition of the greenhouse.
(iii) Increasing ventilation
 Outdoor air is normally drier than greenhouse air. Increasing house ventilation force air
into the greenhouse and facilitates air exchange with the outside environment.
(iv) Increasing the temperature
 The lower the temperature, the higher the relative humidity. Fog and water droplets can
form when the greenhouse temperatures are low especially in the evening. Increasing
greenhouse temperature can causes decrease in humidity and prevent fog or mist
formation.
(v) Using anti-fog covering material
 Anti-fog materials are hydrophilic. When greenhouse relative humidity reaches saturation
level, the water vapour can condense onto the anti-drip polyfilm, and move downwards
following the cover surface.
(vi) Moisture removal
 Moisture can be removed by putting moisture removing materials such as dry rice straw
in the greenhouse and transferring them out in the next morning. The installation of
moisture removing machines for controlling humidity is also used. In some greenhouse,
heat exchange moisture removing equipments is installed. The principle is that, he
outdoor air is dry and cold while the indoor air is warm and wet. When the greenhouse
warm air is forced out through a radiator, the outdoor dry air is forced into the
greenhouse hence reducing the greenhouse humidity.

CHAPTER NINE
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE

Water quality
The considerations for the irrigation water quality include the content of salt, sodium, carbonate,
phytotoxic substances, impurities, and the presence of pollutants.
 Check on the total salts. Use EC meter to check. Salts content should be <0.75ds/m. if the
EC is high, use reverse osmosis system to correct the problem.
 Sodium content. If its excess (70-345mg/l), it will inhibit absorption of other elements.
 Bicarbonates should not be high. It should be less than 0.05Mmol/l, if high, bicarbonate
is particularly damaging to plants. It causes variable chlorosis over plants, burning of
leave margins and generally poor growth. A part from reverse osmosis, bicarbonate can
be removed by acidifying irrigation water with dilute (at a pH of 6) sulphuric acid, Nitric
acid or phosphoric acid which safe to handle. At this the bicarbonates are converted to
carbon dioxide gas and water.
 Hardness of water. This depends on the concentration of Calcium and Magnesium salt
such as Ca (HCO3)2, Mg(HCO3)2, CaSo4, MgSo4,CaCl2, MgCl2 etc. It is usually evaluated
by equivalent content of CaO. 1o of hardness = 10mg CaO/l. If water is less than 10o, it
does not need treatment.
 Heavy metals in irrigation water are harmful to plants and human health if greenhouse is
used for producing edible crops. Tolerable content of heavy metals in water are listed
below;
 Boron < 1mg/l
 Mercury < 0.005 mg/l
 Selenium < 0.01 mg/l
 Lead (Pb) < 0.05 mg/l
 Cadmium (Cd) < 0.01 mg/l
 Arsenic (As) < 0.01 mg/l
 Chromium (Cr) < 0.05 mg/l
 Impurities-causing blockage of emitters.
 Pollutants
Water Requirement
The amount of water to be provided by the irrigation depends on three factors:
(i) Depth of the root zone.
(ii) The moisture holding capacity of the soil.
(iii) The local evaporation rate.
Soil moisture monitoring
(1).Using gravimetric sampling method.
The soil samples are taken from the root zone measured, dried at 105oC, after which the
weight loss is determined.

(2).Tensiometers
A tensiometer consists of porous ceramic cup and a pressure gauge. The cup is buried
into the soil at the root zone and equilibrium will be attained between the water in the soil
and the apparatus. The pressure will be read from the pressure gauge. The right tension
should be between 0.1 and 0.3 atm (atmospheres).
(3).Electrical Resistant units
(4).Neutron scattering technique
(5).Plant indicator
IRRIGATION
(1).Drip Irrigation System
Components of drip irrigation
It consists of water source and a pump house, main pipe, sub-main pipe, auxiliary pipe, lateral
pipe and emitters.
(i) Water source and pump house
Accessible water source such as rivers, ponds, dams and boreholes should be found to
provide water. Water reservoir should be sealed from leakage with polyfilms. The pump
house should be fitted with pumps, valves, discharge and pressure meters, filters and
fertilizers dilution and injectors.
(ii) Main pipes
This is a pipe with a larger diameter and always buried underground. They convey water at
high pressure from the source to the main control points in the field.
(iii) Sub-main pipes
It ranges from 32 Ŕ 90mm and conveys water to the individual fields.
(iv) Auxiliary pipes
They are always made of PVC with the diameter of 20 -75mm and distribute water from the
sub-main pipes to the individual blocks or individual Greenhouse.
(v) Lateral pipes
They are made up of flexible polyethylene pipes. One lateral supplies to the individual bed or
row. They are laid on top of the ground and carry emitters.
(vi) Emitters
Emitter is a device for reducing the line water pressure to atmospheric pressure, providing
water at a low controlled pressure. There are many types of emitters which include:-Orifice,
long path, perforated pipes, double walled pipe.
Consideration when buying an emitter
(i) Discharge rate: should be able to supply amount of water and a specified time. It should be
able to avoid water logging, run off, erosion, and wastage.
(ii) Operation pressure: This normally affects the uniformity of discharge rate between emitters
within the same laterals. The higher the operating pressure the better the uniformity. This
means you have to invest on more powerful pumps.
(iii) Reliability:- It should be reliable in terms of discharge rates.

(2).Micro-Sprinklers
They are also called mini-sprinklers. They only supply water to a fraction of the soil. They eject
out fine sprays of water and the volume of wetted surface is larger than for drip irrigation. It is
used in the soil with low water holding capacity and in the nurseries.
(3).Sub-Irrigation (Seepage)
It is similar to drip irrigation only that it is buried at a depth of 5-10 cm deep in the soil. It is
made up of porous material with pores size of 4 microns and 50% porosity. It has the advantage
in that you will avoid soil surface compaction but it will result to salt accumulation in the top
soil.
(4).Hand Watering
It can be done by use of:
(i) watering can
(ii) Hosepipe which is connected to the tap with the nozzle at the end part. Watering is
carried out manually. It is done when humidity is to be increased in the Greenhouse.
Irrigation scheduling
This depends on the crop.
 Shallow rooted crops require regular watering than deep rooted crops.
 Deep rooted crops require large quantities of water but not frequently.
DRAINAGE
Drainage system has to be built before setting up a greenhouse. There are two drainage systems:
(i) Surface drainage:
This relies on ditch, trench network in the greenhouse. Raised beds are made and paths
constructed between the beds. The drainage water runs from the path-ditches onto sub
main trenches which take the runoff out of the greenhouse to water collection reservoir in
the farm
(ii) Underground drainage:
It is made of trenches constructed below the greenhouse surface especially if the soil is
too compact. They are 4-8 m apart and 1-1.5 m below the land surface. The trenches are
enforced by bricks and blocks are used to cover the trench. The soil is then returned to
cover the trench. The main trench will direct water into collection reservoir in the farm

CHAPTER TEN
FERTILIZER AND SALT ACCUMULATION

Greenhouse fertilization is more intensive than open-field agriculture. Before applying fertilizers,
soil and foliar testing has to be carried out.
Soil testing
 The soil samples should be taken from the root zone. The top soil has to be scrapped off and
auger used to draw samples soil. One sample should be collected from 10 points of the
sampling area.
 Soil solution is also sampled from the greenhouse. A soil solution extraction tube with
ceramic end is buried in the soil and syringe is connected into it to draw soil solution from it.
The soil samples should be packed into plastic bags or bottles and sent to the laboratories for
analysis.
Foliar sampling
 This is also called tissue analysis, leaf analysis or plant analysis. This refers to practice of
determining the concentration of the elements in a sample of a leave. This depends on the
crop, position and time. Samples for foliar analysis should be taken every 4-6 weeks. For
roses, you obtain 2 top most leaf lets for each crop.
Fertilizer application
 There are three types of fertilizers;
o Organic fertilizers,
o Common chemical fertilizers and
o Slow releasing fertilizers. All of them are used in the greenhouse.
Organic fertilizers
 Farmyard manure, crop residues, and organic materials are composted and applied in the
greenhouse. This assist in improving the soil structure.
Common chemical fertilizers
 The common chemical fertilizers such as Urea, Potassium sulphate, ammonium nitrate are
normally applied through fertigation system. Fertilizer formulations such as NPK are
commercially available in a number of grades.
Slow releasing fertilizers
 Slow releasing fertilizers such as plastic encapsulated fertilizers, slowly soluble fertilizers,
urea formaldehyde and Sulphur coated fertilizers can be incorporated into the greenhouse
substrate.
Fertilization Methods
(i) Top dressing
(ii) Broadcasting
(iii) Fertigation Ŕ This is used to apply soluble fertilizers by incorporating them into irrigation
water.
(iv) Foliar application:- normally it is carried out to correct nutrient deficiency.

SALT ACCUMULATION
Excessive quantities of soluble salts commonly accumulate in the greenhouse root media. This
soluble salt consists of all inorganic and organic compounds. As the concentration of soluble
salts increase in a solution, the electrical resistance decrease while electrical conductivity
increases and hence electrical conductivity is used to determine the accumulation of soluble salts.
It is measured by use of EC-meter.
Causes of salt accumulation

(1).Fertilizers and their residues
(2).Greenhouse crops are grown with luxurious levels of plant nutrients to obtain maximum
yields and high quality produce. These large quantities of organic and inorganic chemical
fertilizers lead to accumulation of chemical salts in the root medium as fertilizer residues,
dissolved minerals and compounds resulting from microbial decomposition of the organic
matter. In addition, Imbalances of nutrient absorption contribute in salt accumulation.
For example when ammonium sulphate is applied, NH4 is absorbed rapidly leaving sulphate
to accumulate thus leading to imbalance hence salinity.
(3).Water movement/irrigation method:- Salts are left on the soil after evaporation. Flooding
and overhead irrigation may increase salt content in the soil after evaporation process.
(4).Cropping system: This is due to repeated application of the same type of nutrient into the
soil/substrate.
(5).Water quality: Irrigation water with modest quantities of water can result in salt
accumulation leading to saline condition after some time.
Detrimental effects of salt accumulation

(1).Osmotic effects (high osmotic potential).
 High salt concentrations in the plant root zone hinder plantřs ability from taking up
the water from the soil solution leading to water stress or physiological drought.
Plants normally counter this condition by osmotic adjustment i.e. increasing their
internal solute concentration by producing organic acid or accumulating salts like
potassium.
(2).Specific toxicities
Concentrations of Cl-, B, and Na+ affect most plants. When NaNO3 IS added to the soil, NO3
is absorbed by the crop while Na+ remains in the soil hence leading to salinity. The same
occurs with the application of KCl. It leads to excess accumulation of Cl-.
(3).Nutritional imbalances
High salt accumulation in the root zone induces nutritional imbalances. High concentration
of monovalent ion (Na+) impairs the uptake of calcium. CO32- and H CO3- in irrigation water
can precipitate Ca and micronutrients such as Fe, Zn and Mn by forming insoluble
carbonates.
Salt accumulation management strategies
(1).Leaching: This is done by application of excess salt free water e.g. by flooding.

(2).Drainage: Improve on the drainage of the soil to combat salinity caused by crusting, hard
pans and sodic conditions.
(3).Planting configuration, bed arrangement and irrigation: In case of fallow irrigation,
crops need to be planted in two rows near the outer edge of the bed with a ridge or
corrugation in the centre. Sprinkler irrigation on the other hand moves salts with water
downward below the crop zone and hence reduces salt concentration.
(4).Fertilizer management: Apply the fertilizers from the right source, rate, timing and
placement. Consider using soil amendments such as gypsum and manure.
(5).Soil amendment and water treatment: apply compounds such as gypsum which contains
large quantities of Ca2+ that helps to displace Na+ ions from the soil colloids resulting in
leaching of Na+.

CHAPTER ELEVEN
PEST MANAGEMENT
 Pests are organisms injurious to crops and productivity. They include insects, fungi, viruses,
nematodes, rats, birds or weeds.
 Damage caused by fungi, bacteria, nematodes or viruses are referred to as a diseases.
 Pest management is the selection and use of appropriate techniques to eradicate or suppress
pests to below economic threshold levels.
 Due to the modified environment, pests such as leafhopper are rarely found in the greenhouse
while others like thrips, white flies and mites always affect greenhouse production.
Monitoring
 When abnormal functioning of plant organs is observed in the greenhouse, the sources of the
problem can be either biotic or abiotic factors.
 Some of the abiotic factors include water stress, fertilizer deficiency or toxicity, temperature
extremes, pest infestation etc.
(1).Insects
 Their damage can be easily identified.
 The damage caused by insects to plants depends on their mouth parts.
 The chewing insects cause eclipse to the leaves, fruits and flowers and can be identified
easily.
 The piercing-sucking insects normally cause leaf rolling, wrinkling or folding. Sometimes
coloured spots appear on the leaves after the insects have pierced and sucked the sap.
 When onions are affected by thrips, leaves fold down. The thrips can be found at the turning
point of the leaf.
 White flies normally stay on the underside of the leaves. When the plants are shaken, the
white flies fly out and can be seen. The larva of the white flies sacks the sap and excretes
large quantities of honey dew, which will provide nutrients to some moulds. The plants
infected with whiteflies normally appear dark and dirty due to the presence of moulds.
 Spider mites prefer greenhouse and the most important one is Tetranichus spp. They form
webs when they are present in large quantities. They damage the plant by sacking the sap.
Nematodes
Symptoms
 Poor plant growth.
 Retarded growth.
 Formation of galls on the uprooted plant roots.
(2).Fungi and Bacteria
Identification of some fungal infection is done in the lab by culturing.
 It is advisable to use signs rather than symptoms because symptoms are not reliable. It is a
function of biotic and abiotic factors.
 In the case of powdery mildew, you can directly use the fungicides.
 In the case of the leaf spots, you can directly use a fungicide.

 In case of rots, it can be due to fungi or bacteria. Bacterial soft rots are wet but fugal rots are
dry.
(3).Viruses
 Mottled leaf is an indicator.
 Chlorosis/streaks/mosaic
 Use Elisa test to detect the kinds of the virus.
PEST MANAGEMENT METHODS USE IN THE GREENHOUSE
A. Cultural pest management

(1).Sanitation and farm hygiene
It is done by:
 Timely destruction of crop residues and removal of shelter in which pest harbour. This will
deny pests continuity.
 The workers in the greenhouse should avoid contact with infested plants or visiting infested
farms.
 A foot path containing disinfectant should be placed on the entrance of the greenhouse.
(2).Repulsion of pests
 Light spectra can be manipulated to suppress pests in the greenhouse. For instance, grey
mould (caused by Botrytis cinerea) of cucumber and tomatoes and Sclerotinia disease of
eggplant and cucumber (induced by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) can be suppressed when ultra
violet light (300-390nm) is filtered out of sunlight entering the greenhouse. This is because
UV light I required by Botrytis cinerea for sporulation and required by Sclerotinia
sclerotiorum for maturation of apothecia.
 Aphids and white flies can be repelled by filtering the UV light by use of light converting
material.
 Some diseases induced by aphids-vectored viruses can be suppressed by repelling the aphids
with reflective mulch (especially the winged aphid).
 Installation of insect proof nets onto greenhouse vents/openings can prevent many types of
insects, especially aluminium incorporated vents.
(3).Modification of greenhouse environment
 Some of the diseases of greenhouse like powdery mildew and downy mildew of roses can be
suppressed by altering the greenhouse environment. Powdery mildew is most serious during
wet and humid season. During such seasons, growers are advised to replace moist air with
dry air by opening vents and turning heater on for a short period.
 Downy mildew is favoured by cool and dry climate and can be suppressed by increasing
greenhouse temperature and humidity (>85%).
 Light intensity can be manipulated to suppress few pests. Some pests are less severe on crops
grown under a shade than on plants grown under sunlight.
(4).Modification of plant density and pruning
The micro-climate of crops with an open canopy should be drier than micro-climate of crops
with dense canopy. The dense canopy favours pathogens that require high levels of moisture.
The canopy density can be adjusted by altering then crop spacing, growing smaller plants and
pruning.
(5).Alteration of irrigation type and frequency
Foliar diseases induced by bacteria and downy mildews are generally not expected to be
serious in area of infrequent rainfall. However, intensive irrigation, especially surface
irrigation can cause microclimate favourable for such pathogens. Drip irrigation with the use
of plastic mulch is recommended for greenhouse production.
The time of the day when irrigation is performed influences disease development. For
instance, tomatoes irrigated with hose pipe or micro-sprinklers during the morning hours
cause severe infection of late blight than the ones irrigated during the mid-day or evening.
This is because irrigation during the morning hours increases relative humidity in the
greenhouse and on the surface of the leaves hence increasing the germination and penetration
of the pathogen.
(6).Alteration of fertilization
Plant nutrition affects plants reaction to pathogen. Each disease must be treated separately
because some diseases are severe on plants grown on minimal nutrition while others are
severe on high nutrition. For instance early blight of tomatoes is more severe on plants grown
with minimal amounts of nitrogen.
(7).Other cultural measures
 The seed treatments such as hot water treatment and pesticide treatment will help to
control seed-borne pests.
 Crop rotation will reduce pesticide application and provide good pest control.
B. Biological Management
Any organism that feeds on the other is a natural enemy. In biological pest control, natural
enemies are called predators, parasites or pathogens.
C. Chemical management
Pesticide formulation
(i) Granules: This are large (>0.1mm) granules consisting of an inert carrier and a small
amount of pesticides. Applied on top of the soil. They are applied when the plants are
planted.
(ii) Dusts: -Consist of small particles (<0.03mm) of an inert matter and the active ingredient.
Small particles ensure complete coverage.
(iii) Wettable powders: these are solid formulations of pesticides which are added to water to
produce a uniform suspension of pesticide and the sprayed onto plants. It usually contains
wetting agent (surfactants) to disperse fungicides.
(iv) Flowables: Flowables consist of particles of fungicide suspended in a liquid containing
surfactants, dispersing, and suspending agent. The active ingredients consists the largest
proportion.

(v) Emulsifiable concentrates: This are concentrates dissolved in water-immiscible solvents
containing surfactants and emulsifying agent to disperse the pesticide when it is added to
water.
(vi) Solutions: Mostly used for some systemic pesticide and some soil-pesticide.
Pesticide Application Methods
(i) Sprays:- Using pesticide spraying system.
(ii) Broadcasting: for granules.
(iii) Dusting:- used to apply dust formulation with an aid of a blower.
(iv) Aerosol method: This done with liquefied gas.
(v) Smoking:-This is done by burning combustible material with pesticide.
(vi) Hot fumigation:- It is widely used to apply pesticide in the greenhouse. Pesticides are heated
and evaporated to work as a fumigant. Chemical used for this method include: sulfur,
naphthalene, azobenzene, chlorobenzilate, aramite, lindane etc.

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What are the main objectives of the course?

What are the main objectives of the course?

What are the different types of greenhouses discussed?

What are the different types of greenhouses discussed?

GREENHOUSE MANAGEMENT

Greenhouse Management (2018-2019) Page 1

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BASIC COMPONENTS OF A GREENHOUSE

(2).Climate control and monitoring systems

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FIGURE:3A freestanding even-span American design greenhouse. FIGURE 12–4 A

FIGURE:5 An uneven-span greenhouse design.

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FIGURE: 7 A Gothic arch style greenhouse design.

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FIGURE 8 A ridge-and furrow greenhouse range.

FIGURE 9 A barrel-vault greenhouse range.

FIGURE 10 A saw-tooth greenhouse range.

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Detached, (1) Tunnel, (2) and

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(1).Determining the shape and size

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CONSIDERATIONS IN THE SELECTION OF COVERING MATERIALS

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TYPES OF COVERING MATERIAL

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Inner layer (anti-drip surfactant added)

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GREENHOUSE PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

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GAP RECOMMENDATIONS – PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

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Characteristics of a good root medium

1.1.2. COMMONLY USED MEDIA