Chemistry 3/4

Summary Notes
2016
By David Pham
 Content

Contents:

Chemical Analysis:
1. Gravimetric analysis
2. Volumetric analysis
3. Acid and Base Reactions
4. Analysing Oxidants and Reductants
5. Chromatography
6. Spectroscopy
7. Infrared spectroscopy
8. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy
9. Mass spectroscopy

Organic Chemistry
1. Compounds of carbon
2. Organic reactions: pathway to new products
3. Proteins
4. Lipids (fats and oils)
5. Biofuels
6. DNA

Industrial Chemistry
1. Chemical energy
2. Yield and Equilibrium
3. Acid and base equilibrium
4. Indicators
5. Sulfuric acid​ (Case study: not needed for exam)

Supplying and Using Energy

1. Supplying energy
2. Batteries
3. Measuring heat from a reaction
Data booklet

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Gravimetric Analysis

Definition:​ The definition of gravimetric is essentially using gravity to weigh an object

or chemical compound.

Applications in real life:​ The real life application is when you want to measure the
amount or percentage of salt in foods. This is to help with the nutrition information at
the back of your food labelling.

The procedure (must do to get accurate result):

1. Crush the sample ​(increases TSA, allows more to react)

2. Mix the crushed sample with water to dissolve all the content.
3. Filter out the solid ​(Can skip 1 and 2 if sample can be made into a liquid)
4. Using the filtered liquid, mix it with excess of another chemical to create a
precipitate ​(you will know what chemical to use since you will know what you
want to precipitate. Look at the picture below)
5. Making sure it has 100% reacted (precipitated), filter the sample again.
6. Squirt deionized water over and around the filter paper and onto the
precipitate the remove any excess chemicals.
7. Using an oven set at 110 degrees to dry the sample ​(evaporates the water).
8. Record the result and repeat 7 and 8 until a constant weight is measured.
9. Knowing the precipitate, create a balanced chemical equation that represents
the precipitation reaction. Using basic stoichiometry, work backwards to find
the mass of the original sample (the chemical you initially wanted to test).
10. Then answer the question as required.

The reasons:

Why Crush?​ - Creates a greater surface area for the water to dissolve your wanted
chemical… aka faster reaction (Lower percentage in mass due to less wanted
chemical being reacted overall)

Why filter?​ - To remove excess chemicals of any sort. Any error is an increase to
percentage

Why rinse with deionized water?​ - Remove any excess chemical added (Will
increase mass/percentage if not rinsed)

Why heat it over and over?​ - To remove all the water (Will increase
mass/percentage)

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Why 110 not 100?​ - It is to fully evaporate all the water (Lower than that then you’d
get a higher percentage)

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Volumetric analysis

Definition: To measure the concentration of an unknown aqueous solution with a

standard, which has a known concentration.

Basic knowledge that we should all know

C = n/V​ , C = concentration (mol/L)

V = volume (L)
n = moles (mols)

Primary standard

Definition: The solid/chemical that is used to prepare the standard solution. The
non-liquid/aqueous chemical.

Properties:

● Readily obtainable in a pure form (100% purity)

● Readily soluble in water
● Have a known chemical formula (Molecular formula)
● Easy to store without degrading or reacting with the atmosphere (stable)
● Have a high molar mass to minimise the effect of weighing
● Be inexpensive

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Standard solutions

Definition:​ The standard solution is a solution that has a known concentration and
molecular formula to use in an equation. It is made from a primary standard or
otherwise stated in the question

Creating the standard solution:

1. Weigh out the primary standard on a scale and record the result.
2. Transfer the weighed solid into a volumetric flask ​(record the volume).
3. Fill the volumetric flask half way around the bulb with deionized water.
4. Use a blocker to close the volumetric flask and shake the flask until all the
solid has been dissolved.
5. Fill the rest of the volumetric flask with deionized water to the mark on the
flask.
6. Record the concentration by using C = n/V

The Volumetric analysis

***This type of analysis is used when the unknown chemical is in solution***

Steps:

1. A known volume of one of the solutions (standard or the one testing) is

measured using a​ pipette ​and transferred into a ​conical flask​. This is called
the ​aliquot.
2. With the other solution, fill the burette it. This is called the ​titre.
3. Add the appropriate indicator to the ​aliquot​ (important).
4. Slowly dispense the​ titre ​into the ​aliquot​, carefully observing the color of the
indicator (called the ​end point*​)
5. When the color changes, stop the titration.
6. Record the value that was from the burette (basic maths and awareness is
needed since the burette is weird in its numbering).
7. From there work out the concentration by using basic stoichiometry ratios
from a balanced equation of the reaction.
8. Repeat step 1-6 several times until a concordant result is obtained ​(off by 0.05
ml)

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Endpoint​ = The endpoint is when the selected indicator changes color to represent
that the reaction is finish.

Equivalence point ​= The equivalence point is when there are equal number of
moles according to a balanced equation is present in the solution.

Example of a titration graphically:

The accuracy of the equipment

Pipette is ± 0.05 ml
Burette ± 0.02 ml for each reading
Volumetric flask ± 0.3 ml

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Washing what with what

● Rinse the ​burette​ with the solution that it is going to be used as the ​titre.​ This
will have no effect on the experiment.
● Rinse the ​conical flask​ with deionised water since it does not affect the
moles.
● Rinse the ​volumetric flask​ with water since water does not affect mole count,
and since you are filling it up with water in the end anyways.
● Rinse the ​pipette​ with the solution that is going to be used as the ​aliquot​.

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Acid and Base reactions

Revision:

- Acids donate protons

- Bases accept protons
- Acid-base reactions transfer protons from the acid to base
- Strong acids/strong bases fully ionises (readily accepts/donates protons)
- Weak acids/weak bases partially ionises. (limited extent on
accepting/donating protons)
- HCl (acid) and Cl- (base) differ by one proton and are called conjugate
acid-base pair.

pH basics:

- Concentration of [H3O+] or [H+]

- pH = -log([H+]
- pH of 7 = neutral at 25 degrees celsius
- pH > 7 is basic
- pH < 7 is acidic

Indicators:

- They are weak acids

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

pH curves:

- Strong acid vs Strong Base = will full neutralise due to property, therefore
curve will be sharp (equivalence point) at ph of 7.
- Strong acid vs weak base = will partially react due to the weak base (meaning
more strong acid in solution), therefore curve will not be sharp, will have its
equivalence point ph < 7.
- Weak acid vs strong base = will partially react due to weak acid (meaning
more strong base in solution), therefore curve will not be sharp, will have
equivalence point ph > 7.
- Weak acid vs weak base = will be the same as strong vs strong.

Back Titration

**Used when the solution is in a gaseous or unstable form or weak acid/base*

Definition:

The term back titration is dissolving a solid or gas with a known chemical in excess
(known volume). Then reacting that excess chemical that was left over with another
to determine the information of the unknown.

Steps for practical:

1. Crush the solid into smaller pieces (with a gases chemical, pump the solution
in water or a solution to dissolve it in).
2. Dissolve the particles in deionized water (if a solid).
3. Filter the solution, carefully rinsing the filter paper. This is to get as much of
the solid in solution as possible.
4. Knowing about the chemicals acidic or basic properties (eg. strong/weak
acid/base), add either a weak/strong base/acid in excess to the filtrated
solution. ​THIS SHOULD NOT PRODUCE A PRECIPITATE​. (If it does, it is
not a back titration).
5. Pipette a small known volume of the solution into a beaker. Add an
appropriate indicator.
6. Titrate the solution with the opposite acid/base property to it until the end point
is reached. (That is if you added acid to the filtered solution, titrate with a base
and vice versa)
7. Perform necessary calculations.

Another way is you can perform a gravimetric with the excess chemical used from 5
and then follow the normal gravimetric approach.

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Potental errors

- Not transferring the sample from the mortar and pestle carefully…. Meaning
lower percentage by mass.

- Not properly filtering the sample…. Meaning lower percentage by mass.

- Not repeatedly heating the sample (gravimetric)…. Meaning a high

percentage by mass because the water adds to the weight.

- Incorrect rinsing of glassware … multitude of errors

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Analysing Oxidants and Reductants

Recap on Redox

- Redox = reduction and oxidation

- When one of the reactants loses electrons - this process is called oxidation
- The other reactants gain the electrons - this is called reduction
- OXIDATION AND REDUCTION OCCUR SIMULTANEOUSLY
- The easiest way to remember this is OIL RIG

O -Oxidation
I - Is
L - loss

R - Reduction
I - Is
G - Gain

The most confusing information about redox is coming:

- Oxidation agents are called reductants or reducing agents

- Reduction agents are called oxidants or oxidising agents

Oxidation number (O.N) rules:

1. Elemental are all 0 in oxidation numbers. By themselves. (eg. Cl​2​ , Na)

2. Ionic compounds, the simplest ions have an oxidation number equal to their
charge. (eg. Na has an O.N of 1)
3. Oxygen is usually -2 in compounds except for H​2​O​2​ and BaO​2​ have Oxygen
as -1.
4. Hydrogen is usually +1 in compounds, except in metal hydrides such as NaH
and CaH​2​ where it has -1.
5. Electronegative elements such as F, Cl and O take numbers equal to their
charge when in a compound. Provided they are the most electronegative
element.
6. The sum of the oxidation numbers in a neutral compound is 0.
7. In a polyatomic ion, the sum is equal to its charge.

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

- An ​increase​ in oxidation number means the element has​ oxidised

- A​ decrease​ in oxidation number means the element has ​reduced
Volumetric analysis is connected to redox.

Balancing redox equation (used for unit 4 mainly)

Steps for acidic condition:

1. Balance main chemical first (non H and O)

2. Then balance the oxygens by adding water to the side lacking the oxygen
count.
3. Then balance the hydrogens by adding ​H+​ ions
4. Add electrons on the side that is required

Steps for alkaline/basic condition:

1. Balance the main chemical first (non H and O)

2. Then balance the ​OH​ with ​OH- ​ions
3. Then balance the oxygens by adding water to the side lacking oxygen count
4. Then add electrons where necessary

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Chromatography

What is chromatograph?

It is a technique which separates the substances present in a mixture. It can also be

used to determine the identity of a substance. This is called a ​qualitative analysis
(tells you what is in it, not the amount).

How does it work?

Every single type of chromatography has two major components, the ​mobile phase
and the ​stationary phase​. The ​mobile phase​ is the substance or liquid that carries
the sample along the ​stationary phase​. The ​stationary phase​ does not move.

The sample gets dissolved into the mobile phase (so it can travel with it up the
stationary phase), which is known as ​desorption​. The sample then get’s absorbed
onto the stationary phase, which is called ​adsorption​. This is done super fast. Each
chemical has a different attraction to the stationary phase and will travel on it at a
different rate.

Thin-layer chromatography

Thin-layer chromatography uses a solid ​stationary phase​ and a liquid ​mobile

phase​. You stop the chromatography by pulling the stationary phase out of the
mobile phase.

It is a quick way to determine what type of chemicals are in your sample. This is
called a ​qualitative analysis.

There are two types, paper chromatography and thin layer chromatography.

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Determining the chemical in the sample

Method 1:​ Running standards of a known solution in the same condition. Under the
same condition, run the sample then compare the result with the unknown sample.

Method 2: ​Using the R​f​ value which is the retention factor.

Eg:

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Column chromatography

Stationary phase​ =​ solid

Mobile phase​ = ​liquid
Sample​ ​= ​liquid

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)

Also known as high pressure liquid chromatography.

Stationary phase​ = ​solid

Mobile phase​ = ​liquid
Sample​ = ​liquid

Facts about the HPLC

- The particles in the column are often 10-20 times smaller than in a column
chromatography.
- Very small size of solid particles allow for more frequent adsorption and
desorption of components, giving much better separation of similar
compounds.
- Small particle size creates a considerable resistance to the flow of the mobile
phase and so the solvent is pumped through under high pressure - up to
about 14,000 kPa.
- A range of solids is available for use in HPLC columns, some with chemicals
specially bonded to their surfaces to improve the separation of the particular
class of compounds.

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

The components are usually detected by passing the ​eluent ​stream through a beam
of UV light since most organic compounds absorb UV. This then is recorded as a
spike on the graph.

The time taken for a component to pass through the column is called the ​retention
time​, R​t​. It is a unique time for every compound.

The retention times are used to identify the components associated with the peak on
a chromatogram (the graph produced). The relative amount of each component can
be determined by comparing the areas under each peak with the areas under peaks
for a standard sample.

Gas Chromatography (GC)

The most sensitive chromatographic technique is called gas chromatography.

There are two types of gas chromatography: ​gas-liquid chromatography​ (GLC)

and ​gas-solid chromatography​ (GSC)

Gas-Liquid chromatography

Stationary phase​ = ​porous solid w/coated liquid hydrocarbon or ester

Mobile phase​ = ​gas
Sample​ = ​gas

Gas-Solid​ ​chromatography

Stationary phase​ = ​packed with an absorbent solid such as silica gel or alumina
Mobile phase​ = gas
Sample​ = ​gas

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Quick facts of GC:

- The mobile phase is a gas, usually Nitrogen since it is inert. It is called the
carrier gas.
- A small amount of the sample is inserted into the machine via an injection
port.
- The column is in a loop, meaning it increases in travel length (stationary
phase) in a small amount of space.
- The column is mounted in an oven and heated.
- The detector can be a flame ionisation detector which means the compound
becomes ions and get’s detected. However, you lose the sample.
- Same graph reading as the HPLC.

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Spectroscopy

The electromagnetic spectrum

What spectroscopic techniques tell us:

- The type of atoms or molecules that is present (qualitative analysis)

- How much of a particular atom or molecule is present (qualitative analysis)
- Structure and bonding of molecules

How does it work:

- Atomic or molecules absorb and emit electromagnetic radiation of specific

energies
- Atoms and molecules undergo a change when they absorb electromagnetic
radiation
- Different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum affect different parts of the
atom or molecules.

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Flame test

- The flame test is when you excite an element/atom so that the electrons jump
from its stable state to an excited state.

Basic school lab

What the electrons do

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

What you’d need to do to gain a result

The emission spectrum of basic elements

Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS)

- This measures how much light is absorbed, which in turn determines the
quantity of the present chemical being analyzed.

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Usage in real life

You will run the sample through the machine, measure the absorbance. Then
whatever chemical you are looking for, create a pure sample of different
concentrations and run that through the same machine under the same conditions.
Create a calibration curve and compare your absorbance from the sample to the
calibration curve.

UV-Visible spectroscopy

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

- Select the wavelength with the highest absorbance and lowest interfernace of
any other chemical

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Infrared spectroscopy

- Used to identify the elements present in a sample.

- This is done by exploiting the properties of covalent bonds. The property that
is being exploited is that the covalent bonds undergo an amount of bending or
stretching when exposed to energy.
- The stretching can only occur when a specific amount of quantum energy
(energy from infrared) is obtained by the covalent bond.
- This type of analysis yields a quantitative result since the absorbance
increases as the concentration of the molecule in the sample increase.

- As the number of bonds increase, the number of energy increases. Think of

snapping pencils, you need more energy when you try to snap three instead
of one.
- The mass of the atoms attached also affects the energy required. The higher
the mass, the lower the energy absorbed.

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Instrumental setup

Graphical result

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Complex result graph

Basic organic chemistry wavenumbers

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy

What is it?

NMR spectroscopy is a method of spectroscopy that uses radio waves, which does
not cause electronic, vibrational or rotational transitions. It causes the nucleus of the
atom to spin either in an up or down position. The positions are temporary when a
radio wave hits the atom. This up or down position can be seen as an on or off
switch. You are able to get 4 combinations (on-on, on-off, off-on, off-off ​note that
on-off and off-on are different combinations)​. Since the atoms are in an induced
spin, they want to get back to it’s original spot, how it does this is release the energy
off. This energy is then detected via a detector and a graph is produced.

There are two types of NMR. There is Hydrogen - 1 and Carbon - 13 NMR. The
hydrogen -1 NMR (H-NMR) provides information about the structure of any molecule
contained hydrogen. The carbon - 13 NMR (C-NMR) provides information about the
structure of any molecule containing carbon. This leads us to an idea called
environments.

The instrument:

- Radio transmitter coil, providing the radio waves

- Powerful magnet to produce magnetic field
- Sample in a glass container.
- Radio receiver that detects the emitted radio waves.
- Tetramethylsilane sample (used as a reference)

What is an environment?

An environment is essentially the surrounding of an atom such as hydrogen

environment and carbon environment. For example, think of it as your neighbours.

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

For example, take tetramethylsilane (TMS):

Looking at the protruding carbons, there are 3 hydrogens attached to the carbon.
Looking around the molecule it is the same. All the methyl groups are connected to
the same silica. Hence, this will only have 1 environment.

Another idea of an environment is, let’s say you are in your house and you have two
neighbours next to you. This is a set of environment. Let’s say you have a friend who
lives in another suburb and has only 1 neighbour. They’ll be in a different
environment compared to you. You have two neighbours, they have 1. This is the
same for molecules. Let’s take another molecule

Here we have propan-1-ol

Counting the carbon from the right, the first set of hydrogens we see is the hydroxyl
group. This is one environment, since the only neighbour it has is oxygen. The next
set is the carbon set connected to the oxygen. There are two hydrogens connected
here. This is another separate hydrogen. No hydrogens are connected to the
oxygen. Looking at the next carbon, there is two hydrogens, similar to the previous.
In this case, we have to check it's next door carbons. They are different... we are
stuck. But wait, the neighbours are not similar at all. There is no oxygen around
carbon 2, hence creating another environment. Going to carbon 3, it has three
hydrogens, and the next door carbon has 2. A different environment. Hence this
molecule has 4 environments.

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Interpreting the NMR spectrum

- In VCE, we are expected to draw the structure from the graph, read the data
booklet, identify what each peak represent.
- There are two types of NMR spectra. The first is called low resolution HNMR and
high resolution HNMR. The low resolution provides us the rough idea of the
composition in the sample. High resolution allows us to draw the molecule.

Note: with CNMR, there is always going to be one peak because carbon 13 is so
rare and that carbon do not easily couple with each other.

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Mass Spectrometry (MS)

What is it used for?

- Quantitative analysis - it can measure how much a substance is present

- Qualitative analysis - identify the substance

Instrumentation

- Sample enters the device

- Positive ions of the sample are formed in the ​ionisation chamber​, this when
electrons bombard the sample.
- Positive ions are accelerated by electric field
- Positive ions then enter a magnetic field, causing it to curve depending on its
mass to charge ratio (m/e).

How the spectrum is formed

- The fragmentation of the molecules into a large number of different positive

ions
- The occurrence of different isotopes of the atoms that make up the molecules

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Fragmentation

The M+ is called the molecular on or parent molecular ion.

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Compounds of carbon

Quick year 11 revision

Homologous series

Alkanes

- Simplest type of carbon chain

- C​n​H​2n+2
- Has only single carbon bonds

Year 12 for Alkanes: Cyclic molecules

Bent carbon chains which are enclosed

Alkenes

- C​n​H​2n
- Has a double bond in the carbon chain

Isomers

Isomers are molecules which have the same molecular formula, but different
structure which in turn changes its physical and chemical properties.

Naming

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

How to name an organic compound:

1. Find the longest carbon chain

2. Search the number of carbons in the list above to find the name
3. Locate any functional groups.
4. Name the molecule as followed

[weak functional groups in alphabetical order]​ (longest chain)- ​[position of the

strongest functional group​ (except if it is a carboxylic acid)] - ​(name of the strongest
functional group)

Strength of functional group:

COOH > OH > NH​2​ > Extended alky > Group 17 add ons

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Organic reactions: pathways to new products

Important chemical pathways to know and learn

Haloalkane reaction (Halogenation or substitution reaction)

Alkane + Halogen → Halo Alkane + Halogen bonded to a H

RH + Cl​2​ → RCl + HCl

Haloalkene reaction (Halogenation or addition reaction)

Alkene + Halogen → Halo Alkene

RH + Cl​2​ → RHCl​2

Making an alcohol

From an​ alkane​, ​substitute halogen​, then ​add NaOH (any base)

From an ​alkene​, add ​water ​with ​catalyst

Making carboxylic acid

From an​ alkane​, ​substitute halogen​, then ​add NaOH (any base), ​then oxidise the
alcohol with MnO​4​-​ or Cr​2​O​7​2-​ with H​+ ​(usually H​2​SO​4​)

From an ​alkene​, add ​water ​with ​catalyst, ​then oxidise the alcohol with MnO​4​-​ or
Cr​2​O​7​2-​ with H​+ ​(usually H​2​SO​4​)

Esterification

Adding an alcohol with carboxylic acid to produce water

Polymerisation

Breaking the double bond, add on another homologous series to it (with it’s double
bond broken)

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Making Aspirin

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Protein

What do proteins do?

Proteins make up the human body. They are the fundamental cell structure and its
operation.

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

How are proteins made?

Proteins are made from chains of amino acids. There are 20 amino acids

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

When the amino acids join together, they produce water (aka a condensation
reaction). These amino acids join in a long chain to create protein. There are three
types of structure that chemist need to know.

Primary structure: Covalent bonding holds them

Secondary structure: Hydrogen bonding
Tertiary structure: Range of bonds, from disulfide links, covalent, hydrogen bonding

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Enzymes

They are protein that speed up a reaction in the human body. For example, the
breakdown of maltose, would use an enzyme that can break it down. The enzyme
works by acting as a lock on a door. The maltose is the key. They key can only
unlock the lock.

Denaturing

Denaturing occurs when either the temperature reaches the threshold limit due to the
increase in kinetic energy, resulting in more collisions, resulting in the intermolecular
forces breaking, hence denaturing the active site.

pH can also denature the active site due to the change in pH

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Lipids (aka fats and oils)

Fat is the name used to describe a large number of organic compounds called lipids.
Fats and oils fall under lipids

- Fats are solids at room temperature

- Oils are liquids at room temperature

Fats and oils are formed when a ​glycerol​ (found in the data booklet) join with three
fatty acids​ (also found in the data booklet). This reaction is a ​condensation
reaction​ because water is being taken away. The final product is called a
triglyceride​.

There are three types of fats, saturated fats (only single bonds), monounsaturated
(​one​ carbon-carbon double bond) fats and polyunsaturated (​more than one
carbon-carbon double bond) fats.

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Biofuels
Bioethanol

What is it?
- It is essentially the production of pure ethanol from a sustainable resource
such as wheat, which is then mixed with octane to produce a biofuel, called
E10. (10% ethanol and 90% petrol)
-
How is it created?

Since the enzymes, aka yeast can only withstand a certain amount of temperature,
alcohol percentage and life span, the production of ethanol is not quite efficient.

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Biodiesel

What is it?

- Biodiesel is a mix of esters produced by a chemical reaction between

vegetable oil and an alcohol.

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

How is it made?

This process is also known as ​transesterification

Normally the final biodiesel product is mixed with diesel producing the shortened
name of B. For example B10 is 10% biodiesel and 90% diesel. We do not have this
in Australian since the majority of cars use petrol, while a minority are diesel.
However, as the years go by, we might start seeing B10 soon since the increase of
diesel cars being sold.

Biogas
What is it?
- An equal mixture of carbon dioxide and methane that are both in gaseous
form.

How is it made?

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Usage

- Small scale heating

- Generate electricity

Why are we studying these biofuels?

Well as the years go by, the amount of crude oil we have in reserves will decrease
and since we are developing more ways to use that crude oil, we will soon run out of
it fast. This results in ours cars being left without a fuel source. What we need is an
alternative fuel source to continue running things with engines such as cars and
generators. These biofuels are made from nature. That is from waste, glucose, etc.
These are all renewable resources since the rate of production of waste and glucose
will be more than the consumption of these. However with crude oil, the regeneration
of crude oil will take many years and since we are using a lot of it, we are going to
need a new source of fuel.

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

DNA

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the genetic code of the human being or animal. It
contains instructions and information regarding that animal.

Structure

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Bonds between AT GC

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Chemical energy

What is chemical energy?

Chemical energy is the potential energy stored in chemicals that can be converted to
other types of energy that we can use. An example of straight energy that we use is
the breakdown of glucose, which is a combustion within the body, producing ​heat​.
Another that goes from one energy to another is a car engine. It goes from chemical
(petrol) to mechanical (wheels).

In a chemical reaction, the atoms interact with each other, producing different
chemical energies while making a product. Since energy is always constant, it is not
always necessarily 100% transformed into other produces. For example an
exothermic (ΔH<0)​ reaction is when reactants react with each other, to produce a
product and heat. An example of this is combustion.

An ​endothermic (ΔH>0) ​reaction is when the reactants take heat into the system to
produce necessary bonds to produce the product. An example of this is
photosynthesis.

The energy either released or absorbed in the system is called the ​heat of the
reaction​. This is also called the ​enthalpy​, given by a ​ΔH

ΔH = E(products) - E(reactants)

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Activation energy​ is the energy required to break the bonds in the reactants. The
enthalpy​ is the amount either given out to the environment or taken into producing
the products.

Collision theory

The collision theory helps us visualise how chemical reactions react. It is a theory
that states that the collision between two chemicals only occur when two conditions
are met. The first condition being that the reactants are in the correct orientation to
react and the second is that they have enough energy to react, that is the activation
energy.

Factors that affect reaction rates

- Increasing the surface area of solids (TSA).

- Increasing the concentration of the reactants
- Increasing the temperature
- Adding a catalyst

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Increasing the surface area of solids

This can be done via crushing the solid up. This expose more surface area of the
solid to other reactants to perform a reaction. Hence, increase the rate of reaction.

Increasing the concentration of reactants

The increase in particles in the reaction allows the frequency of the reaction to
increase, hence making the reaction fasters.

For gases, increasing the pressure raises the concentration of gas molecules,
causing more frequent collisions.

Increasing temperature

As you increase the temperature, you are providing more energy to the particles,
hence making them move faster, increasing the number of particles over the
activation energy, resulting in an increase in collision rates.

Catalysts

They act as a platform for the chemicals/reacts to bind and react to without actually
using the catalyst itself. It essentially (the catalyst) breaks the individual reactant
bonds, and rebonds the reactants together to form the products. This results in a
lower activation energy required to have a reaction. They also provide alternative
reaction pathway.

Homogeneous catalysts​ are catalyst in the same state as the reactants (eg. H​2​SO​4
speeding the reaction to make an ester).

Heterogeneous catalysts​ are catalyst in a different state was the reactants (eg. car
diffusers)

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Yield and equilibrium

Majority of the reactions studied are reacting forward and backwards simultaneously.

For example, in a container of pure nitrogen and hydrogen, it is allowed to reaction,

at the start NH3 is produced, but once it begins, some of the NH3 react back to N
and H2. Until a point in time the reaction will eventually reach an equal amount of N
+ H2 forming NH3 and NH3 forming to N + H2, which means no matter how long you
wait, you will see the same amount of every compound (this is not always evenly
split).

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

During​ dynamic equilibrium

- The amount of concentrations of chemical substances remain constant

- Total gas pressure is constant (if a gaseous reaction)
- Temperature is constant
- Reaction is incomplete

Equilibrium constant

A constant to compare with the same system on if the system is in equilibrium or

near it.

2A + 4B → 2AB + 2B (g)

Coefficient of product
[Product]
K​c​ = [Reactants]
Coef ficient of reactants

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

2 2
−2
K​c​ = [AB]2
[B]
[A] [B]
4 M

With the formula we can deduce that

- With a K value between 10^-4 and 10^4, there will be significant amounts of
reactants and products present at equilibrium
- If K is larger (>10^4), the mixture will consist of mostly products, with small
amounts of reactants
- If K is smaller (<10^-4), the mixture will consist of mostly reactants, with small
amounts of products.

Effect of temperature on equilibria

When temperature increases

- For an exothermic reaction, the amount of products decreases and so the
value of K decreases. This pushes the reaction backwards
- This is because the system wants to oppose the increase in temp,
meaning it has to absorb it into the chemicals, how it does that is
pushed backwards.
- For an endothermic reaction, the amount of products increase and so the
value of K increases. This pushes the reaction forward.
- An increase in temperature, wants to be opposed with a decrease, the
reaction is endothermic, which means it absorbs energy as it products
products, hence it pushes forwards.

Changing the equilibrium position

The equilibrium position (relative amounts of reactants and products) of a reaction

may be changed by:

- Adding or removing a reactant or product

- Changing the pressure by changing the volume (only with gases)
- Dilution (solution)
- Changing the temperature

The following rules utilise the Le Chatelier’s principle, stating that ​“If an equilibrium
system is subjected to a change, the system will adjust itself to partially oppose the
effect of the change.” Now let’s apply it

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Adding extra reactants or products

N2(g) + 3H2(g) ↔ 2NH3(g)

Increasing concentration of nitrogen causes reaction to go forward to reduce [N2], so

it can return to equilibrium

Increasing in ammonia causes the system to push the reaction backwards, forming
more N2 and H2 due to the breaking of NH3.

Changing the pressure

Via the physical volume

As pressure is increased, the system undergoes a net back reaction, meaning that
the equilibrium moves in the direction that produces​ fewer particles​ and reduces the
pressure (by decreasing the amount where there is more particles).

Adding an inert gas

Adding an inert gas increases the pressure of the container. Since it is inert, nothing
changes, hence the equilibrium is the same as before.

Dilution

When you dilute the solution by adding water, it pushes the system to equilibrium
again. However now the reaction favors the side with ​more particles​ since it wants
to get back to that stable exchange of particles.

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Changing the temperature

Increase in temperature, results in a wanting to decrease in it, hence a net backward

reaction.

When temp rises:

A net backward reaction (less products) for exothermic reactions

A new forward reaction (more products) for endothermic reaction

Catalysts

Does not affect equilibrium position

Lowers activation energy
Increases rate but increasing successful collisions

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Acid and base equilibrium

See this​ part​ for pH calculations

Acidity constants

[H3O+][Conjugate base]
K​a​ = [Acid]

K​a​ can be obtained in the data booklet

Buffers

Buffers is the term given to a solution that can absorb the addition of acids of bases
with little to no change in the overall pH. This occurs when there is significant
amounts of both the weak acid and its conjugate base.

Buffers are usually amphiprotic systems that can donate or accept H+ ions to resist
changes to pH

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Indicators

An indicator is a weak acid which will change color when they either accept or
donate H+ ions

Use the data booklet (page 11) to work out the pH when you have a solution which a
concentration is given with the acid equilibrium formula:

[H3O+][Conjugate base]
K​a​ = [Acid]

Which can be further simplified to

2
[H3O+]
K​a​ = [Acid]

Since the [H3O+] = [conjugate base]

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Case Study: Sulfuric acid

Properties of sulfuric acid

Superphosphate
- Used in fertilisers, allows the conversion of insoluble calcium to soluble for
plants.
Strong acid
Dehydrating agent
Oxidant
Corrosive
Colourless
Dense
High boiling point
Electrolyte
Diprotic

Uses of sulfuric acid

- Fertilisers ((NH4)2SO4)
- Remove oxide from Fe rust
- Product of HCl
- Production of explosives
- Bleaching of properties
- Catalyst
- Batteries
- Production of drugs

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

The contact process

Step 1: Burning sulfur

Molten sulfur (pure) is sprayed in a furnace with hot air to produce sulfur dioxide gas.

The temperature can reach up to 1000 degrees celsius so that sulfur can be in
constant molten form.

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Step 2: Catalytic oxidation of sulfur dioxide

Sulfur dioxide gas is oxidised to sulfur trioxide gas by oxygen, using vanadium (V)
oxide as a catalyst.

This all happens in a container called the converter. The sulfur dioxide passes
through trays of loosely packed porous pellets of the catalyst, then goes through a
heat exchange, then into another set of catalyst trays. The converter is maintained
between 400-500 degrees with a pressure of 1 atm. This process eventually turns
sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide.

Explaining how this works with LCP

- As temperatures decrease, reaction is exothermic, meaning the equilibrium

system will compensate for the loss of energy associated with temperature
decrease by favouring the direction that releases energy.
- As pressure increases, equilibrium system reacts to high pressure by
favouring direction with lesser particles.

A conflict exists because a high equilibrium yield is favoured by low temperatures,

where's a fast rate of production of sulfur trioxide is favoured by high temperature.
This is overcomed by the catalyst.

Step 3: Absorption of sulfur trioxide

Sulfur reacts with water to form sulfuric acid, but it is a dangerous and violent
reaction, hence not used. Another way is to pass the sulfur trioxide into concentrated
sulfuric acid in an absorption tower. This essentially creates oleum (H2S2O7). This
oleum mixture is then mixed with water to produce sulfuric acid.

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Supplying Energy

Energy can be found from most things. In Australia, the most predominant energy
source we use is fossil fuels. However, fossil fuels are classed as non-renewable
fuel sources, hence, we need a different source of energy supplied for our everyday
usage. Converting coal to electricity is around 45%. That’s 55% of the energy lost
along the line!

Don’t fear, there are other energy resources such as:

- Nuclear energy (most efficient)

- Solar energy
- Wind power
- Hydroelectric
- Waves
- Biomass
- Fuel cells
- Batteries

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Batteries

What are batteries?

Batteries are portable devices which generate electricity via chemical reactions.

There are three types of batteries:

- Primary
- Secondary
- Fuel Cells

Primary battery cells​ are the types you use everyday which does not have the
capability to recharge, such as heavy duty cells. These batteries are not
rechargeable due to the fact that the products from the chemical reaction to do stay
in contact with the electrodes that produced them,hence they can not convert back
into their original states.

Secondary battery cells ​are the types which are usually more expensive than the
primary battery cells due to their ability to recharge.The products and the electrodes
are in contact with each other, hence have the ability to accept electrons to recharge.

Fuel cells​ are a type of battery which have a constant supply of reactants to keep
producing electricity.

Primary battery cells

- The reaction in these cells are called galvanic reactions and they follow the
electrochemical series (ECS) in your data booklet.
- Only a spontaneous reaction can occur to be called galvanic reactions.
- To determine if it’s spontaneous, the oxidant must be on top of the reductant
(BE CAREFUL OF THE STATES)
- Think of it like this, if you draw two circles around the reactants and draw a
line between them, from the higher circle, can a ball roll along the line you’ve
drawn? (assuming gravity is down towards the Lithium)
- If yes, spontaneous
- If no, non- spontaneous

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Secondary battery cells

- The discharge process (producing electricity) is the same as the galvanic

reaction. Must be a spontaneous reaction
- The recharge process goes like this
- The negative terminal of the battery goes to the negative electrode
(which was assigned during galvanic)
- This electrode is going under reduction, hence must be named
the cathode
- The positive terminal of the battery goes to the positive electrode
(which was assigned during galvanic)
- This electrode is going under oxidation, hence is called the
anode

Fuel cells

- Constant supply of reactants

- Check what the membrane allows through it
- Really expensive, but really efficient

Drawing Galvanic Cells

Must have these things

- Electron flow
- Electrodes labelled, name and symbol (AN OIL RIG CAT)
- Salt bridge flow
- Half equation at each cell
- Overall equation
- EMF created (E0)

Electrolysis

Electrolysis is the use of electricity for numerous applications, such as electroplating,

turning impure metal to pure metal, etc. This is done by forcing the metal to dissolve
in the solution, travel in the ​electrolyte​ and plate or coat on another surface.

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Alkaline solution

Remember when we are balancing half equations, we usually add H2O and H+ to
either side to balance? That was only for acidic solution. So what do we do when
they say alkaline? Well we replacing adding H+ with OH-

We can be asked to calculate the mass produced from electrolysis

1. Calculate charge acquired (Q = It, where q is charge, I is current and t is time

(s))
2. Divide that by 96500 (Faraday's constant)
3. Convert to appropriate mole ratios from the half equation
4. Times by Molar mass

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Measuring heat creating from a reaction

We use a neat device to measure heat created from a reaction. We use a device
called the bomb calorimeter. It isn’t what you think!

First, we need to calibrate the device. We have a number called the calibration factor
which is the number we need to fine for a specific bomb calorimeter. This is done by,
reacting a known amount of sample (which the enthalpy is given in the Data Booklet)
calculate the energy released and using the following equation

E(J) = C.F(J/C) x ΔT

Now you can use the C.F for calculations

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

Good luck for

the Chemistry
Exam! You will
always have my
blessing :)

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]
 Content

References

1. Heinemann Chemistry 12, Enhanced (pictures)

2. VCAA (data booklet link)

All content is in ownership of David Pham, the founder of VCE Subject Helpers. All the
content replicated must be properly accredited and informed to David before releasing.
These notes are for educational purposes only. Email: [email protected]