Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 113 (2019) 109288

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

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Crop residue utilizations and potential for bioethanol production in China T

a,b a,b a,b,∗
Yan Ru Fang , Yi Wu , Guang Hui Xie
a
College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, China Agricultural University, 100193, Beijing, PR China
b
National Energy R&D Center for Biomass, China Agricultural University, 100193, Beijing, PR China

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Crop residue is an abundant and lucrative biomass resource in China, which is expected to decrease its reliance
Bioenergy on coal and petroleum through the use of crop residue. This study was conducted with the data of crop pro-
Biomass duction released by the National Bureau of Statistics of China and 1417 valid face-to-face questionnaires on
Bioethanol potential residue utilizations. It was found that the crop residue increased from 725.47 Mt in 2007 to 897.06 Mt in 2016 at
Collectable
the annual rate of 2.63%. It amounted for 897.06 Mt including 781.32 Mt field residue and 115.74 Mt and
Straw
Sustainability
process residue, respectively in 2016. Field residue retained in field exhibited the highest ratio (35.19%), for
bioenergy use was less than 1%. A total amount of available field residue (AFR) for bioethanol was 254.57 Mt in
2016. Maize provided the greatest quantity of AFR (95.00 Mt), followed by rice (78.90 Mt) and wheat
(18.89 Mt), sum of three accounted for 76% AFR in China. The largest AFR was found in Heilongjiang
(39.79 Mt), followed by Henan (31.03 Mt) and Jilin (22.51 Mt). The density of AFR exhibited high in NEC and
CSC and southeast provinces of SWC. The bioethanol potential was 124.3 Mt in 2016, with maize, rice and wheat
residues representing 77.8% of the total. The four top-ranked provinces of bioethanol potential were
Heilongjiang, Henan, Jilin, and Sichuan. It was suggested that financial and taxation support are necessary to
promote cellulosic bioethanol research and industrial use in its early stage.

1. Introduction USA and Brazil, contributed to at least 84% of the worldwide ethanol
production, whereas China's only contribution was only 3% [10].
Biomass as a potential low-carbon emitting, renewable energy However, considering China's abundance of feedstock, bioethanol fuel
source, is receiving increasing attention and is being developed around production may be an inevitable long-term energy source for this
the world [1,2]. Renewables are, by far, the fastest-growing fuel source, country [11–13]. Crop residue has high contents of cellulose and
as they providing approximately 14% of the world's primary energy [3]. hemicellulose, which can be hydrolyzed into fermentable sugars, for
Globally, China is now the largest primary energy consumer and pro- conversion into bioethanol. Since crop residue is a key feedstock for
ducer, and its rapidly increasing energy demand, especially for coal, bioethanol production, knowing the quantity of this resource input is
petroleum, and other liquids, has made China influential in world en- particularly important.
ergy markets [4]. Furthermore, China is on track to become the world's To obtain widespread and efficient use of crop residue in China, the
largest emitter of greenhouse gases [5], and China's carbon emissions most important task is to evaluate the available crop residue quantity
increased the most among all countries in 2017 [6]. Due to growing for the entire country and its provincial regions. Specifically, the
energy consumption and associated environmental consequences of amount of available crop residue is based on the total crop residue
petroleum and other nonrenewable fuel types, bioenergy as a form of produced and its collectable quantity [14]. The crop residue weight in
renewable energy has received much interest in China [7]. In this China has been reported [15–18], with some researchers estimating
context, crop residue is an important and abundant biomass resource in that the crop residue weight in China was 620 Mt in 2002 [19]; the crop
China; if the full potential of crop residue utilization is exploited and residue weight was estimated to be 630 Mt per year from 1995 to 2005
realized, China could decrease its reliance on coal and petroleum. Using [20]; later, in 2008, the crop residue weight was reportedly 751 Mt
crop residue for bioenergy production entails the production of gas- [17]. However, when the same years were assessed [21], different crop
eous, biomass pellets, solid fuels, and liquid fuels [8]. Among these fuel residue weights of 641, 649 and 774 Mt were found for the years 2002,
types, bioethanol could become a popular alternative automotive fuel 1995 to 2005 and 2008, respectively. A major reason for these disparate
throughout the world [9]. In 2017, the two largest ethanol producers, quantities for the same years is the different values that were used for

∗
Corresponding author. College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, China Agricultural University, 100193, Beijing, PR China.
E-mail address: [email protected] (G.H. Xie).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.109288
Received 29 December 2018; Received in revised form 22 June 2019; Accepted 18 July 2019
1364-0321/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y.R. Fang, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 113 (2019) 109288

List of abbreviations: NC North China

NEC Northeast China
AFR available field residue NWC Northwest China
CSC Central-South China PRI Process residue index
EC East China SWC Southwest China
FRI Field residue index t ha−1 metric tons per hectare
Kt kilo (thousand) metric tons t km−2 metric tons per square kilometer
Mt million metric tons

the residue/crop product coefficients (i.e., crop residue index). Thus, a Therefore, it seems timely and necessary to provide a better un-
robust crop residue index should be developed and consistently adopted derstanding of the quantities of biomass supplies so that they can be
because it is the basic information needed to evaluate the amount of monitored by including updates of their spatial distributions and tem-
crop residue available for use in bioethanol production. poral variations to meet and accommodate innovative technologies and
Two previous studies [15,16] estimated the crop residue yields of industry strategies for cellulosic bioethanol development in China.
nine crops in 2005 and 2009, respectively, but did not provide details of Therefore, this paper's aims were to evaluate the crop residue diversity,
the quantity of crop residue for different regions in China. In another quantity, yield, and density as well as the spatiotemporal distribution
study, the crop residue distributions in 2008 and 2009 were analyzed across China, which was supported by analyses of the collectable and
[17], however, the data are already outdated; and the crop residue available quantity for bioethanol production of each crop residue type,
yields in 2010 were presented for nine crops [18], but not for the whole and calculations of the bioethanol potential of the available quantities
crop residue types in China. However, all of these studies overlooked of crop residue. This study used the statistical data of crop production
the quantity of crop residue available for bioethanol production, which across China from 2007 to 2016. The results of this study can be used as
is an important parameter for determining the energy utilization of crop a reference for selecting promising sites for use by crop residue-utili-
residue, since it is also a key guideline for resolving China's energy zation enterprises, and this study provides recommendations regarding
deficit and for determining where the bioethanol industry should locate which crop residue type to use in different regions as well as policy
new plants. Additionally, the quantity of crop residue available for advice to governments to ensure the sustainable use of crop residue and
bioethanol production serves as critical reference for policy and plan- to maintain regional agricultural production systems.
ning purposes [22]. Townsend et al. [23] analyzed wheat straw avail-
ability for bioenergy in England through a postal survey and found that 2. Methods and data sources
wheat straw used for bioenergy has limitations. In Canada, Li et al. [24]
found that the available crop residues for ethanol production averaged To assess the potential of bioethanol production from crop residue,
48 Mt per year (for 2001–2010), which obtained by deducting the soil the total quantity and availability of crop residue should be determined.
conservation and livestock uses. In summary, the research to date offers The premise behind studying the available quantity of crop residue is to
no standardized estimation for the amount of available crop residue for consider both the utilized and collectable quantities. Yearly estimations
bioenergy production nor does it consider its current competitive uses at the national and provincial region levels were made from 2007 to
or deduct the uncollectable part from the total crop residue. 2016 for temporal analysis and for 2016 for spatial analysis. In this

Fig. 1. Division of China into six regions (NC: North China, NEC: Northeast China, EC: East China, CSC: Central-South China, SWC: Southwest China, NWC:
Northwest China).

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Y.R. Fang, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 113 (2019) 109288

way, estimation of the potential bioethanol production from crop re- stubble height, fall-off rate of leaves and branches, ratio of leaf biomass,
sidue was conducted by clarifying the following: (1) study areas and and loss rate during crop residue collection and storage. According to
crops; (2) field residue index, process residue index, and the crop yields; these findings, the calculated collectable coefficient of crop residue for
(3) utilization of crop residues; (4) collectable coefficients and avail- China is listed in Table 3.
ability of crop residues for bioethanol production; and (5) bioethanol According to the utilization of crop residue, the available crop re-
conversion rate and bioethanol potential. sidue for bioethanol production was determined by including the
quantity of crop residue burnt in the field and abandoned. Since the
2.1. Study regions and crops portion of crop residue retained and burnt in the field was not removed
from the field, this quantity should be included in the stubble weight,
A total of 31 provincial regions—22 provinces, 5 autonomous zones, while abandoned and competitive uses of crop residue need be removed
and 4 municipalities in mainland China—were divided into six regions from the field, as these quantities excluded the stubble weight. Thus,
(Fig. 1 [25]): North China (NC), Northeast China (NEC), East China the quantities of residues retained and burnt in the field were calculated
(EC), Central-South China (CSC), Southwest China (SWC), and North- by multiplying the total crop residue with the utilization ratio of each,
west China (NWC). For the sake of easing communication, in this study, while the remaining quantity of utilization came from multiplying the
autonomous zones and municipalities are simply referred as “pro- total crop residue, utilization ratio, and collectable coefficient together.
vinces”. Following the National Bureau of Statistics of China [26], this Therefore, available crop residue for bioethanol production was cal-
research studied 16 crops: wheat, maize, other cereals, beans, tubers, culated based on the amount of residue burnt in the field as well the
cotton, peanut, canola, sesame, other oil crops, jute and ambary, other collectable quantity of abandoned residue. It means that the total crop
fibers, sugarcane, sugar beet, and tobacco. residue was deducted from the quantity retained in field and the col-
lectable quantity of competitive uses was the result of the available
2.2. Field residue index and process residue index quantity of crop residue for bioethanol production.

In its calculation, crop residue includes both field residue and pro- 2.5. Bioethanol conversion rate and its potential
cess residue components, for which annual crop production is multi-
plied by the values of the field residue index (FRI) and the process re- Calculation method of a theoretical bioethanol conversion rate that
sidue index (PRI) [17,27], as summarized in Table 1. A total of six types was based on the cellulose and hemicellulose contents of different crop
of process residues—rice hull, maize cob, cotton seed hull, peanut husk, residues [36–42] (Table 4). The availability of crop residue multiplied
sugarcane bagasse and sugar beet bagasse—are produced in the pri- by this bioethanol conversion rate equaled the bioethanol potential.
mary manufacturing process [17]. Most crop residue data are presented
on an air-dried basis (moisture content is approximately 15%) in this 3. Results and discussion
research. Not surprisingly, the quantity of crop residue differs among
China's 31 provinces; this disparity is not solely driven by crop pro- 3.1. Production and distribution of crop residue
duction but is also related to the crop FRI and PRI values. Based on the
author group's research [28–32], both FRI and PRI were recalculated 3.1.1. Changes in crop residue production from 2007 to 2016
(Table 2A, Table 2B) for the 16 crops per province to better express the The total crop residue at an annual rate 2.63% increased from
crop residue quantities from 2007 to 2016. 725.47 Mt in 2007 to 897.06 Mt in 2016 (Table 5). The yearly quantity
The crop yield data were taken from the National Bureau of of crop residue in China averaged 821.96 Mt, which comprised
Statistics of China [26] for 16 major field crops grown in China over the 711.46 Mt of field residue and 110.50 Mt of process residue from 2007
10-year period. For each crop, the study also calculated the residue to 2016 (Table 5). The field residue showed a stable increasing trend,
yield and distribution density. The residue yield is the crop residue
quantity divided by the arable land area, and the distribution density is Table 1
the crop residue quantity divided by the administrative land area. Calculations for field residue, process residue, and crop residue in China.
Residue type Field residue (FR) Process residue Crop residue
2.3. Utilization of crop residue (PR) (CR)

The field residue utilization percentage were summarized from Rice APa × FRId rice hull, FR + PR
AP × PRIe
1417 valid questionnaires, for which were conducted face-to-face field
Wheat AP × FRI N/A FR
surveys to interview farmers in 15 provinces during 2015–2016. In Maize AP × FRI cob, AP × PRI FR + PR
questionnaire surveys, all the possible residue utilizations included, i.e. Other cereals AP × FRI N/A FR
field residue retained in field, burnt in field, and abandoned, and used Beans AP × FRI N/A FR
for animal feed, cooking and heating, paper pulp, electricity generation, Tubers AP × FRI N/A FR
Cotton AP × FRI seed hull, FR + PR
other bioenergy, and others. The utilization of other bioenergy use was AP × PRI
mainly for biogas production, while a few uses were for biodiesel Peanut AP × FRI husk, AP × PRI FR + PR
ethanol, “others” utilization simply means that the crop residue was Canola AP × FRI N/A FR
eventually used but in a way that was unlike the eight other types; a Sesame AP × FRI N/A FR
Other oil crops AP × FRI N/A FR
typical example was the use of field residue for house roofing. In this
Jute and ambary AP × FRI N/A FR
study, the summarized crop residue utilizations were retained in field, Other fibers AP × FRI N/A FR
burnt in field, abandoned, and competitive uses. Sugarcane AP × (1–70%b) × FRI bagasse, AP × PRI FR + PR
Sugar beet AP × (1–75%c) × FRI bagasse, AP × PRI FR + PR
2.4. Collectable coefficient and availability of crop residue for bioethanol Tobacco AP × FRI N/A FR

production
N/A: means not available, no process residue for the crop.
a
AP: Annual production of a crop (from 2007 to 2016).
The collectable quantity of crop residue refers to the maximum b
Assuming a 70% moisture content for sugarcane.
amount of the residue that can be taken from the field and used [33]. c
Assuming a 75% moisture content for sugar beet.
Previous research [32,34,35] has studied the major factors associated d
Field residue index.
with the collectable quantity of crop residue, such as crop height, e
Process residue index.

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Y.R. Fang, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 113 (2019) 109288

Table 2A
Values used for Field Residue Index (FRI) and Process Residue Index (PRI) of different field crops in North China (NC), Northeast China (NEC), and East China (EC).
Residue type China NC NEC EC

Beijing Tianjin Hebei Shanxi Inner Liaoning Jilin Heilongjiang Shanghai Jiangsu Zhejiang Anhui Fujian Jiangxi Shandong
Mongolia

Field residue
Rice 0.99 1.04 1.26 0.90 0.95 0.79 0.98 0.98 0.87 1.21 1.17 1.01 1.03 1.08 0.98 1.22
Wheat 1.33 1.34 1.21 1.27 1.30 1.17 1.27 1.30 1.09 1.13 1.47 1.25 1.16 1.39 1.41 1.44
Maize 1.05 0.99 0.96 1.03 1.15 1.31 1.00 1.07 1.15 0.89 0.97 0.93 0.97 0.89 0.91 0.93
Other cereals 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90
Beans 1.49 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.42 1.65 1.24 1.67 1.67 1.67 1.67 1.67 1.67 1.50
Tubers 0.51 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.59 0.57 0.57 0.57 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.55 0.50 0.40
Cotton 3.98 3.63 3.63 3.63 3.63 3.63 3.63 3.63N/A 4.65 4.65 4.65 4.65 4.65 4.65 3.66
Peanut 0.96 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 1.22 1.22 1.22 1.22 1.04 1.22 0.86
Canola 2.59 N/A N/A 2.30 2.30 2.30 2.30 N/A 2.30 2.66 2.66 2.66 2.66 2.66 2.66 2.30
Sesame 2.78 N/A N/A 2.62 2.62 2.62 2.62 2.62 2.62 N/A 2.96 2.96 2.96 2.96 2.96 2.62
Other oil 2.48 2.48 2.48 2.48 2.48 2.48 2.48 2.48 2.48 2.48 2.48 N/A 2.48 2.48 2.48 2.48
crops
Jute and 1.82 N/A N/A 1.82 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 1.82 1.82 N/A 1.82 N/A
ambary
Other fibers 4.23 N/A N/A 4.23 N/A 4.23 N/A 4.23 4.23 N/A 4.23 4.23 4.23 N/A 4.23 N/A
Sugarcane 0.26 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26 N/A
Sugar beet 0.23 N/A N/A 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.23
Tobacco 0.65 N/A N/A 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.69 N/A 0.69 0.69 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.69
Process residue
Rice hull 0.22 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.23 0.19 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.24 0.20
Maize cob 0.19 0.17 0.17 0.14 0.17 0.18 0.17 0.18 0.20 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.15
Cotton seed 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.47N/A 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.47
hull
Peanut husk 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.25 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.30
Sugarcane 0.20 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 N/A
bagasse
Sugar beet 0.05 N/A N/A 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.05
bagasse

N/A: means not available, because of no statistics for crop production according to the China Statistical Yearbook [26].

Table 2B
Values used for Field Residue Index (FRI) and Process Residue Index (PRI) of different field crops in Central-South China (CSC), Southwest China (SWC), and
Northwest China (NWC).
Residue type CSC SWC NWC

Henan Hubei Hunan Guangdong Guangxi Hainan Chongqing Sichuan Guizhou Yunnan Tibet Shaanxi Gansu Qinghai Ningxia Xinjiang

Field residue
Rice 0.92 0.91 0.93 1.01 1.04 1.14 0.86 0.85 1.08 1.08 1.01 0.89 0.80 N/A 0.94 0.70
Wheat 1.34 1.44 1.43 1.32 1.27 N/A 1.12 1.16 1.34 1.25 1.27 1.32 1.31 1.36 1.12 1.41
Maize 1.05 0.95 0.93 0.89 0.90 0.90 0.93 0.95 0.90 0.89 0.91 1.08 1.10 1.08 1.21 1.14
Other cereals 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90
Beans 1.50 1.67 1.67 1.67 1.67 1.67 1.67 1.67 1.67 1.67 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.46
Tubers 0.40 0.50 0.50 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.71 0.59 0.59 0.71 0.59 0.59
Cotton 3.34 4.65 4.65 N/A 4.65 N/A N/A 4.65 4.65 N/A N/A 3.63 3.63 N/A N/A 3.95
Peanut 0.83 1.22 1.22 1.22 1.22 1.22 1.22 1.22 1.22 1.22 N/A 0.83 0.83 N/A N/A 0.83
Canola 2.30 2.66 2.66 2.66 2.66 N/A 2.66 2.66 2.66 2.66 2.30 2.30 2.30 2.30 N/A 2.30
Sesame 2.62 2.96 2.96 2.96 2.96 2.96 2.96 2.96 N/A N/A N/A 2.62 N/A N/A N/A 2.62
Other oil crops 2.48 2.48 2.48 N/A 2.48 N/A 2.48 2.48 2.48 2.48 2.48 2.48 2.48 2.48 2.48 2.48
Jute and 1.82 1.82 1.82 1.82 1.82 1.82 N/A 1.82 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
ambary
Other fibers 4.23 4.23 4.23 N/A 4.23 4.23 4.23 4.23 4.23 4.23 N/A 4.23 4.23 N/A N/A 4.23
Sugarcane 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26 N/A 0.26 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Sugar beet N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.23 N/A 0.23 N/A N/A 0.23 0.23 N/A 0.23
Tobacco 0.69 0.69 0.83 0.69 0.69 N/A 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.51 N/A 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.69
Process residue
Rice hull 0.20 0.24 0.22 0.24 0.23 0.24 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.20 0.20 N/A 0.20 0.20
Maize cob 0.14 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.23 0.26 0.23 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17
Cotton seed 0.47 0.47 0.47 N/A 0.47 N/A N/A 0.47 0.47 N/A N/A 0.47 0.47 N/A N/A 0.47
hull
Peanut husk 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.31 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 N/A 0.28 0.28 N/A N/A 0.28
Sugarcane 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 N/A 0.20 N/A N/A N/A N/A
bagasse
Sugar beet N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.05 N/A 0.05 N/A N/A 0.05 0.05 N/A 0.05
bagasse

N/A: means not available, because of no statistics for crop production according to the China Statistical Yearbook [26].

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Y.R. Fang, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 113 (2019) 109288

Table 3 reports and this study confirms the substantial increase in crop residue
Collectable coefficient values of the field residue types in China. production has lasted in the country for 63 years since 1952.
Residue type Collectable Residue type Collectable The major field residues came from rice, wheat, and maize, the sum
coefficient coefficient of which contributed to an annual average of 78% of total field residue
between 2007 and 2016, according to this study (Table 5). This result
Rice 0.79 Canola 0.65
agrees with the finding regarding the total rice, wheat and maize re-
Wheat 0.70 Sesame 0.84
Maize 0.88 Other oil crops 0.85
sidues, which account for 75.7% of the total residue for all field crops
Other cereals 0.84 Jute and ambary 0.87 [43].
Beans 0.54 Other fibers 0.86 The major process residues was composed of rice hull, maize cob,
Tubers 0.76 Sugarcane 0.70 and sugarcane bagasse, the sum of which accounted for 93% of the total
Cotton 0.88 Sugar beet 0.75
process residues annually in China from 2007 to 2016. Rice hull ex-
Peanut 0.83 Tobacco 0.93
hibited the highest annual average process residue (44.03 Mt), followed
by maize cob (34.91 Mt) and sugarcane bagasse (23.71 Mt) throughout
Table 4 the 10-year period. A few previous studies reported that process residue
Theoretically based bioethanol conversion rate of the field residue types in was as well mainly composed of rice, maize and sugarcane. Bi [34],
China. who reported that China produced 40.30 Mt of rice hull, 34.84 Mt of
maize cob, and 29.80 Mt of sugarcane bagasse in 2008, and 34.38 Mt of
Residue type Conversion rate (g kg- Residue type Conversion rate (g kg-
1
) 1
) rice hull, 25.72 Mt of maize cob, and 18.81 Mt of sugarcane bagasse
annually during 2007–2009 according to Guo et al. [31]. These findings
Rice 521.09 Canola 460.20 indicate that major components of the process residue are in agreement
Wheat 487.75 Sesame 492.19
with this study in a great extent, although the pattern changes with
Maize 487.89 Other oil crops 492.19
Other cereals 498.91 Jute and 481.14 time. In these two previous reports, the sum percentage of rice hull,
ambary maize cob, and sugarcane bagasse to the total process residue were
Beans 363.51 Other fibers 481.14 89.04% [31] and 95.98% [34], which is similar with the finding of this
Tubers 561.20 Sugarcane 439.62 study (93%).
Cotton 442.65 Sugar beet 436.10
Peanut 342.54 Tobacco 401.59

3.1.2. The state–of–the-art of crop residue

For the current state, the total crop residue amounted to 897.06 Mt,
while the process residue and total crop residue also increased, with
which consisted of 781.32 Mt of field residue and 115.74 Mt of process
some fluctuation evident over the 10-year period. There was a near
residue in 2016 in China (Table 6). Because the crop production data
24% increase from 2007 to 2016 in the total crop residue, while the
was released by the official statistics administration after a duration of
field residue and process residue increased by 25% and 18%, respec-
some 2–3 years, the data reported in this study was the latest. The
tively. Assessment on crop residue in China has been well documented
production of crop residue in 2016 has not been reported in the pre-
in the previous studies. Bi [34] reported that crop residue increased
vious literature to the best of our knowledge.
from 214.35 Mt in 1952 to 771.35 Mt in 2008. Jia et al. [43] reported
The total mass of all crop residue was 875.33 Mt in 2015 in China,
that it increased from 356.40 Mt in 1978 to 819.70 Mt in 2014 in China.
according to this study. It includes 757.79 Mt of field residue and
As well, the annual production of crop residue was reported as
117.54 Mt of process residue. For the same year, Cao et al. [45] re-
532.99 Mt in 2007 by Ji [18], 750.36 Mt in 2008–2009 by Wang et al.
ported residue production of 674.85 Mt, including 621.81 Mt from field
[17], 846.00 Mt in 2012 by Li et al. [44]. The findings of these previous
crops and 53.04 Mt from fruits and vegetables. Its field residue from

Table 5
Estimates of field residue and process residue resources in China from 2007 to 2016.
Residue type 2007 (Mt) 2008 (Mt) 2009 (Mt) 2010 (Mt) 2011 (Mt) 2012 (Mt) 2013 (Mt) 2014 (Mt) 2015 (Mt) 2016 (Mt)

Field residue 627.03 665.09 665.49 678.31 709.59 732.28 745.58 752.15 757.79 781.32
Rice 182.87 188.39 191.53 191.80 196.63 199.80 199.12 201.88 203.61 202.42
Wheat 145.60 149.80 153.43 153.61 156.48 161.34 162.84 168.60 174.07 172.29
Maize 159.71 174.86 172.55 187.16 204.44 218.31 233.05 230.54 240.03 233.93
Other cereals 9.97 9.58 8.47 7.87 8.70 7.81 7.63 8.25 0.00 8.79
Beans 25.87 30.26 28.69 28.15 28.43 25.95 24.11 24.44 24.01 25.94
Tubers 14.01 14.93 15.01 15.65 16.51 16.57 16.74 16.75 16.66 16.83
Cotton 30.19 29.65 25.33 23.81 26.41 27.44 25.28 24.70 22.41 21.07
Peanut 12.43 13.69 14.12 15.01 15.41 16.02 16.28 15.94 15.95 16.70
Canola 27.40 31.34 35.44 33.93 34.88 36.36 37.55 38.37 38.79 37.78
Sesame 1.55 1.63 1.73 1.63 1.69 1.78 1.73 1.75 1.78 1.76
Other oil crops 3.76 6.43 6.34 7.41 7.41 7.51 7.73 7.91 8.33 9.50
Jute and ambary 0.18 0.15 0.13 0.12 0.14 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.10
Other fibers 2.66 2.28 1.32 1.05 0.93 0.81 0.71 0.74 0.67 0.84
Sugarcane 8.81 9.68 9.02 8.64 8.93 9.60 10.00 9.80 9.12 29.59
Sugar beet 0.50 0.56 0.40 0.52 0.60 0.66 0.52 0.45 0.45 2.15
Tobacco 1.54 1.84 1.99 1.93 2.01 2.18 2.18 1.93 1.82 1.64
Process residue 98.44 104.88 103.12 104.86 109.83 115.10 117.96 117.52 117.54 115.74
Rice hull 41.05 42.32 43.05 43.12 44.23 44.95 44.79 45.44 45.83 45.54
Maize cob 27.18 29.76 29.52 31.98 34.65 37.12 39.42 39.09 40.73 39.69
Cotton seed hull 3.58 3.52 3.00 2.80 3.10 3.21 2.96 2.90 2.63 2.49
Peanut husk 3.65 3.99 4.11 4.37 4.48 4.66 4.74 4.61 4.59 4.83
Sugarcane bagasse 22.59 24.83 23.12 22.16 22.89 24.62 25.64 25.12 23.39 22.76
Sugar beet bagasse 0.40 0.45 0.32 0.42 0.48 0.53 0.42 0.36 0.36 0.43
Total crop residue 725.47 769.96 768.61 783.17 819.43 847.38 863.54 869.67 875.33 897.06

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Y.R. Fang, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 113 (2019) 109288

Table 6
Spatial distribution of the crop residue in the six regions and 31 provinces of China in 2016.
Region and province Field residue Process residue Total crop residue

a a
Amount (Mt) Percent (%) Amount (Mt) Percent (%) Amount (Mt) Percenta (%)

NC 98.90 12.66 8.99 7.77 107.90 12.03

Beijing 0.56 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.64 0.07
Tianjin 2.17 0.28 0.24 0.20 2.41 0.27
Hebei 41.07 5.26 3.12 2.70 44.19 4.93
Shanxi 15.35 1.96 1.49 1.29 16.84 1.88
Inner Mongolia 39.75 5.09 4.07 3.52 43.82 4.88
NEC 124.07 15.88 21.11 18.24 145.18 16.18
Liaoning 21.10 2.70 3.64 3.14 24.74 2.76
Jilin 39.08 5.00 6.56 5.67 45.64 5.09
Heilongjiang 63.89 8.18 10.91 9.43 74.80 8.34
EC 191.38 24.49 21.80 18.83 213.17 23.76
Shanghai 1.23 0.16 0.19 0.17 1.42 0.16
Jiangsu 47.52 6.08 4.40 3.80 51.92 5.79
Zhejiang 8.54 1.09 1.57 1.35 10.11 1.13
Anhui 42.96 5.50 4.66 4.02 47.61 5.31
Fujian 7.01 0.90 1.28 1.10 8.28 0.92
Jiangxi 23.90 3.06 5.13 4.43 29.04 3.24
Shandong 60.21 7.71 4.57 3.95 64.78 7.22
CSC 203.95 26.10 41.74 36.06 245.69 27.39
Henan 78.74 10.08 5.08 4.39 83.82 9.34
Hubei 34.43 4.41 5.11 4.42 39.54 4.41
Hunan 34.27 4.39 6.32 5.46 40.59 4.52
Guangdong 18.36 2.35 6.09 5.26 24.45 2.73
Guangxi 35.60 4.56 18.34 15.85 53.95 6.01
Hainan 2.55 0.33 0.80 0.69 3.34 0.37
SWC 90.96 11.64 16.29 14.07 107.24 11.96
Chongqing 10.96 1.40 1.84 1.59 12.80 1.43
Sichuan 38.44 4.92 5.62 4.85 44.06 4.91
Guizhou 13.72 1.76 2.09 1.81 15.81 1.76
Yunnan 25.95 3.32 6.73 5.82 32.68 3.64
Tibet 1.88 0.24 0.01 0.00 1.89 0.21
NWC 72.07 9.22 5.82 5.03 77.88 8.68
Shaanxi 15.35 1.96 1.14 0.98 16.49 1.84
Gansu 14.24 1.82 0.96 0.83 15.20 1.69
Qinghai 1.88 0.24 0.03 0.03 1.91 0.21
Ningxia 4.47 0.57 0.49 0.42 4.96 0.55
Xinjiang 36.13 4.62 3.20 2.77 39.33 4.38
Total 781.32 100 115.74 100 897.06 100

NC: North China, NEC: Northeast China, EC: East China, CSC: Central-South China, SWC: Southwest China, NWC: Northwest China.
a
Residue amount produced in each province as a percentage of each type of China's total residue value.

field crops was lower than this study due to its lower FRI values of CSC > EC > NEC > SWC > NC > NWC. The order of the total
wheat, rice, other cereals, and cotton. The FRI values are the only factor crop residue in Ref. [45] was the same as reported in this study, which
to affect the accuracy of field residue assessment for specific crops, studied the crop residue in 2015 in China. The decreasing orders were
production data of which could be collected from the official in- EC > CSC > NEC > SWC > NC > NWC and CSC > EC >
formation administration. The researcher group of this study was the SWC > NEC > NC > NWC for the field residue and process residue,
only one to determine FRI values with the latest field crop data and on average, for 2008 and 2009, respectively [17]; the major reason for
enough sample size for each province of China in the earlier report the slight differences reported in this study may be due to the different
published in 2013 [17]. For this study, the FRI values of all the field data that were taken from the different research years.
crops were updated according to the latest crop production progress in This study reveals that the greatest quantities of crop residue and
each province. field residue were found in Henan province, accounting for 9.34% and
The total mass of all crop residue was 869.67 Mt in 2014 in this 10.08% of the total residue in 2016 in China, respectively. However,
study. The finding was 99.39 Mt or 13% higher than the crop residue of the largest amount of process residue was produced in Guangxi, which
770.28 Mt reported by He [32] for the same year. This was because He accounted for 15.85% of the total process residue. Beijing had a total
[32] calculated the field residue with much lower FRI values of maize, crop residue of less than 1 Mt, which corresponded to only 0.1% of
sugarcane, and sugar beet. For example, He [32] made a mistake to use China's total value. The study of [43] found that the largest quantity of
harvest index (0.46) as FRI (1.17) for maize. As a result, He [32] un- field residue was produced in Henan, and [43] showed that Guangxi
derestimated field residue of maize, which production was the largest produced the greatest quantity of process residue, mainly the sugarcane
one among all the crops in China. bagasse, as in the present study.
Rice and wheat straw were mainly found to be distributed in EC and
CSC, whereas maize residue was mostly found in NEC and NC in 2016
3.1.3. Spatial distribution of crop residue in regions and provinces
according to the present study. Yang et al. [46] also reported that maize
The mass of the total crop residue varied between 77.88 and
residue was mainly distributed in NEC and NC from 2008 to 2010.
245.69 Mt among six regions in China, with a decreasing order of
The residue of peanut, canola, sugarcane, and sesame crops were
CSC > EC > NEC > SWC > NC > NWC in 2016 (Fig. 2). The mass
primarily distributed in CSC, with cotton straw mainly found in NWC,
of the field residue exhibited the order of EC > CSC > NEC >
and SWC harbored the most tobacco residue among the six regions.
NC > SWC > NWC, and the mass of process residue had the order of

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Y.R. Fang, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 113 (2019) 109288

Fig. 2. Crop residue production in six regions of China in 2016 (including field residue and process residue). NC: North China, NEC: Northeast China, EC: East China,
CSC: Central-South China, SWC: Southwest China, NWC: Northwest China.

Maize, wheat and cotton residues were the main residue types in the all crops in the six regions, except that of NWC, where the highest field
NWC region, which was same as in Ref. [47]. residue yield was maize (Table 7). The yields of all the process residues
Rice field residue exhibited a high yield in NEC, topping the yield of were < 2 t ha−1. Maize had the highest density of field residue in NC,

Table 7
Crop residue yields and densities in China's six regions in 2016.
Residue type NC NEC EC CSC SWC NWC

Yield Density Yield Density Yield Density Yield Density Yield Density Yield Density

(t ha−1) (t km−2) (t ha−1) (t km−2) (t ha−1) (t km−2) (t ha−1) (t km−2) (t ha−1) (t km−2) (t ha−1) (t km−2)

Field residue
Rice 6.85 3.45 7.57 35.65 8.11 86.66 6.41 64.39 6.27 25.21 6.48 2.64
Wheat 6.06 37.77 4.53 0.29 5.45 58.61 4.16 52.41 4.40 4.05 5.36 9.98
Maize 6.49 60.82 7.24 111.59 4.86 22.08 4.58 24.79 4.86 15.89 7.19 17.30
Other cereals 2.37 1.12 5.46 0.27 6.52 3.32 5.27 0.53 4.75 1.39 4.41 1.30
Beans 2.68 1.89 2.73 7.37 3.72 4.28 3.47 2.56 3.33 4.57 2.70 0.82
Tubers 1.92 0.97 3.12 1.62 2.22 2.37 1.92 3.17 2.20 6.63 2.23 1.80
Cotton 4.94 2.62 4.92 0.00 5.26 2.82 4.58 1.57 2.68 0.02 6.14 1.86
Peanut 2.46 1.28 2.35 2.45 3.95 4.19 3.64 7.78 2.07 0.92 3.47 0.09
Canola 2.74 0.26 6.87 0.01 5.39 6.73 4.35 12.15 5.51 9.38 4.16 1.51
Sesame 1.67 0.03 4.51 0.03 3.89 0.23 4.31 1.19 1.73 0.05 2.89 0.04
Other oil crops 5.83 2.17 6.08 1.14 5.90 0.07 4.32 0.08 5.33 0.11 5.76 1.93
Jute and ambary 0.81 0.00 N/A N/A 3.03 0.00 6.83 0.06 1.18 0.00 N/A N/A
Sugarcane N/A N/A N/A N/A 4.48 0.54 6.13 19.97 12.83 2.82 5.58 0.00
Sugarbeet 1.90 0.33 2.76 0.07 0.15 0.00 N/A N/A 2.69 0.00 8.51 0.17
Tobacco 1.50 0.01 1.85 0.10 1.58 0.19 1.27 0.43 1.26 0.62 2.31 0.05
Process residue
Rice hull 1.40 0.60 1.63 7.77 1.59 16.88 1.48 15.05 1.47 6.17 1.58 0.58
Maize cob 0.98 9.30 1.22 18.75 1.17 4.07 1.05 4.13 1.17 4.12 1.06 2.52
Cotton seed hull 0.64 0.34 0.64 0.00 0.55 0.33 0.50 0.17 0.27 0.00 0.77 0.22
Peanut husk 0.80 0.40 0.78 0.81 0.97 1.26 0.90 2.24 0.47 0.21 1.15 0.03
Sugarcane bagasse N/A N/A N/A N/A 9.36 0.42 13.11 15.36 9.87 2.17 4.29 0.00
Sugarbeet bagasse 1.13 0.07 1.61 0.01 0.32 0.00 N/A N/A 0.54 0.00 1.70 0.03

N/A: means not available because there were no statistics for crop production according to the China Statistical Yearbook [26].
NC: North China, NEC: Northeast China, EC: East China, CSC: Central-South China, SWC: Southwest China, NWC: Northwest China.

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Y.R. Fang, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 113 (2019) 109288

NEC, and NWC but was displaced by the rice field residue of the other that Heilongjiang. Beijing had the least collectable quantity of crop
three regions (Table 7). In NEC, the density of maize residue was residue from 2007 to 2016.
111.59 t km−2, which was the highest found for any crop residue across The collectable quantity of crop residue in the six regions in 2016 is
all of China. With respect to the density of the process residue, those of illustrated in Fig. 4. This value was highest for Henan, at almost 60 Mt,
rice hull in EC and CSC, maize cob in NEC, and sugarcane bagasse in followed by Heilongjiang, at more than 50 Mt. Shandong was ranked
CSC were > 15 t km−2, while for other process residues, they were < third, with 46.37 Mt of collectable quantity of crop residue. In terms of
10 t km−2. crop type, the greatest quantity of collectable crop residue came from
maize followed by rice and wheat, which when pooled, accounted for
3.2. Utilization and the collectable crop residue 79.51% of the total crop residue in China. The total collectable residue
of maize, rice and wheat accounted for 79.96% of that found in Ref.
3.2.1. Utilization of crop residue [18], which was same as in this study.
The utilization of field residue exhibited a pattern of residue re- For rice residue, its highest collectable quantity was in Hunan
tained in the field (35.19%), burnt in the field (25.20%), abandoned Province, at approximately 19.1 Mt, followed by Jiangsu, Heilongjiang,
(8.93%), feed (20.89%), cooking and heating (5.84%), paper pulp and Jiangxi, at > 15 Mt each. Sun et al. [51] studied the collectable
(0.44%), electricity (0.55%), other bioenergy use (0.13%) and others quantity of crop residue in Jiangsu, which was 16.3 Mt in 2014 and had
(2.83%) for all crops in 2016 (Table 8). Based on this study, the pro- the same collectable coefficient as in the present study.
portion of cooking and heating was lower than found in Ref. [48], Wheat straw in Henan has the greatest collectable quantity, at
which reported that the value was 20% and was unreliable. One plau- 32.5 Mt, which was also the highest quantity of collectable residue of all
sible explanation is that the economic development and living condi- studied crops found in China. Heilongjiang had the maximum collect-
tions improved, which directly affected crop residue utilization; for able quantity of maize residue, at more 31 Mt, followed by Inner
example, the amount of residue used in households for cooking and Mongolia, with almost 25 Mt. Generally, the collectable quantity of
heating would decrease as farmers gain a greater income and better cotton residue was small in China, peaking at 12.5 Mt in Xinjiang, fol-
quality of living. The National Development and Reform Commission lowed 1.77 Mt in Shandong and no more than 1 Mt for all remaining
[49] reported a similar result as in the present study, in that the total provinces combined, with almost half of them having no cotton residue
crop residue retained in the field was 43.2% and used in feed was for collection. Guangxi had the largest collectable quantity of sugarcane
18.8% in 2015; these data are consistent with those reported in this residue (almost 14 Mt), followed by Yunnan (3.16 Mt) and Guangdong
research. (2.69 Mt). The rest of the pooled provinces had under 0.5 Mt of su-
The utilization ratio of different crop residues in China showed that garcane residue (near zero in 16 provinces). Ji [18] also gave a col-
more than 40% of residues of rice, wheat, tubers, and sugar beet were lectable coefficient for the crop residue collectable quantity calculation;
retained in the field, and the corresponding ratios for the other crop however, the coefficient only showed the crop group; for example,
residue types were > 30% (Table 8). The rice, maize, cotton, and ca- wheat, maize and rice, and so on had the same coefficient due to these
nola residue burnt ratios were all > 30%, and the burnt rate of other crops belonging to the cereal group, and no signal crop had a signal
crop residue exceeded 18%. The crop residue for heating and cooking collectable coefficient, as in this study.
was still found and was important. However, the crop residue used for
paper pulp, electricity generation, and other bioenergy production was 3.3. Availability of crop residue for bioethanol production
generally very low for all crops. The residue of maize as feed was
25.68% (Table 8); Shi et al. [50] found a similar value of 29.15%. 3.3.1. Distribution of available crop residue
The available quantity of crop residue for bioethanol production
3.2.2. Collectable quantity of crop residue was estimated as 231.5 Mt annually from 2007 to 2016 (Fig. 5). Clearly,
As Fig. 3 shows, over the period of 2007–2016, all provinces showed this value was greatest in Heilongjiang and Henan. From 2007 to 2011,
a similar variation in this key parameter, except Heilongjiang. The total the maximum amount of available crop residue was in Henan, but
collectable crop residue sustained yearly increases corresponding to the switched to Heilongjiang from 2012 to 2016. The total available crop
increase in growth. In particular, the highest collectable quantity of residue of these two provinces accounted for 26% (55.03 Mt) and 28%
crop residue was in Henan, except for 2013–2015, when the highest (64.10 Mt) of the total available weight in China from 2007 to 2011 and
collectable quantity of crop residue in Henan was slightly surpassed by 2012 to 2016, respectively. In addition to Henan and Heilongjiang,

Table 8
Utilization and ratio values of different field residue types in China.
Crop residue type Retained in field Burnt in field Abandoned (%) Feed (%) Cooking and Paper pulp Electricity Other bioenergy Others (%)
(%) (%) heating (%) (%) generation (%) use (%)

Rice 43.67 34.68 3.49 12.85 3.02 0.99 0.16 0.12 1.02
Wheat 40.49 18.27 2.46 32.41 3.44 1.06 0.53 1.08 0.26
Maize 30.23 30.94 4.77 25.68 6.89 0.34 0.58 0.00 0.57
Other cereals 38.13 27.96 3.57 23.65 4.45 0.80 0.42 0.40 0.62
Beans 39.12 19.76 1.82 26.14 10.51 0.44 1.74 0.05 0.42
Tubers 42.48 18.89 10.29 20.14 6.82 0.38 0.59 0.04 0.37
Cotton 31.30 31.38 11.23 17.48 6.99 0.40 0.46 0.06 0.70
Peanut 30.14 22.03 12.09 20.79 4.39 0.24 0.38 0.03 9.91
Canola 30.62 32.81 9.38 18.10 7.72 0.38 0.59 0.04 0.36
Sesame 30.38 27.42 10.74 19.44 6.05 0.31 0.49 0.03 5.14
Other oil crops 30.38 27.42 10.74 19.44 6.05 0.31 0.49 0.03 5.14
Jute and ambary 30.14 22.03 12.09 20.79 4.39 0.24 0.38 0.03 9.91
Other fibers 30.14 22.03 12.09 20.79 4.39 0.24 0.38 0.03 9.91
Sugarcane 36.63 24.37 13.89 18.20 5.76 0.31 0.49 0.03 0.32
Sugar beet 42.48 18.89 10.29 20.14 6.82 0.38 0.59 0.04 0.37
Tobacco 36.63 24.37 13.89 18.20 5.76 0.31 0.49 0.03 0.32
Total 35.19 25.20 8.93 20.89 5.84 0.45 0.55 0.13 2.83

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Y.R. Fang, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 113 (2019) 109288

Fig. 3. Changes in the annual value of the collectable amount of crop residue in 31 provinces of China from 2007 to 2016.

Fig. 4. Collectable quantity of crop residue production in 31 provinces in 2016 (“Oil crops” includes peanut, canola, sesame, and other oil crops. “Other crops”
includes other cereals, beans, tubers, jute and ambary, other fibers, sugar beet, and tobacco).

more than 15 Mt (average value from 2007 to 2016) of the quantity of production was calculated by summing the burnt and collectable
available crop residue could be found in Jilin, Sichuan, Hunan, and weights of the abandoned part, not unlike the calculations by Ref. [52],
Guangxi. In stark contrast, Shanghai, Beijing, Qinghai, and Tianjin each which also considered the burnt crop residue and its discarded quantity.
had a low quantity of available crop residue, which were all lower than Considering rural economic development and improvements in rural
0.5 Mt for 2007–2016. citizens’ living standards, household use of crop residue for cooking and
In this study, the quantity of crop residue available for bioethanol heating should be added to the quantity of residue available for

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Y.R. Fang, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 113 (2019) 109288

Fig. 5. Changes in the annual available amount of crop residue for bioethanol production in 31 provinces of China from 2007 to 2016.

bioethanol conversion in future years. crop residue, at 0.1 and 0.2 Mt, respectively. Yang et al. [53] also re-
For 2016, the total field residue available for bioethanol conversion ported that Henan and Shandong each had a high available quantity of
was 254.57 Mt in China, and the amount of available field residue in the crop residue for bioenergy production in 2007.
six regions is shown in Fig. 6. This value was highest in Heilongjiang The highest available residue found was maize, with 95 Mt of it in
(with almost 39.79 Mt), followed by Henan and Jilin, with 31.03 and China, which accounted for 37% of the country's total available residue,
22.51 Mt, respectively. Shanghai and Beijing had little total available followed by rice residue (78.90 Mt), at only 16.1 Mt less than the maize

Fig. 6. Available amount of crop residue in China in 2016 (“Other crops” includes other cereals, beans, tubers, jute and ambary, other fibers, sugar beet, and tobacco.
“Oil crops” includes peanut, canola, sesame, and other oil crops).

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Y.R. Fang, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 113 (2019) 109288

Fig. 7. Distribution density maps of the availability of crop residue for bioethanol production in China in 2016 (province name see Fig. 1. “Other crops” includes
other cereals, beans, tubers, jute and ambary, other fibers, sugar beet, and tobacco. “Oil crops” includes peanut, canola, sesame, and other oil crops).

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Y.R. Fang, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 113 (2019) 109288

residue value. The third largest available crop residue was wheat, but following: CSC > NEC > SWC > NC > EC > NWC. Importantly, in
only 18.89 Mt was found, corresponding to only 7.4% of total available the NC, NEC, and NWC regions the greatest amount of bioethanol was
crop residue. Hence, the crop residues of rice, wheat, and maize were produced by maize residue, whereas in the remaining three regions,
still the major feedstock available for bioethanol production, re- rice residue was the major feedstock.
presenting 76% of the entire available crop residue in China. The The bioethanol production potential varied between 0.041 and
highest quantities of available rice and maize residues were found both 19.81 Mt in the 31 provinces in 2016. Heilongjiang, Henan, Jilin, and
in Heilongjiang, at 18.35 and 19.28 Mt, respectively, while Henan had Sichuan exhibited the highest level of bioethanol potential varied be-
the highest value of wheat residue, at 12.79 Mt. Most of the available tween 9.48 and 19.81 Mt. The sum of bioethanol potential in the four
cotton residue was found in Shandong, and most of the available su- provinces accounted for 44.63% of the total, in which Heilongjiang was
garcane residue was found in Guangxi (12.16 Mt). the highest (15%). Shanghai and Beijing exhibited the lowest level of
0.041 Mt and 0.06 Mt, respectively.
3.3.2. Distribution density of available crop residue for bioethanol A total of 96.7 Mt bioethanol came from maize, rice and wheat re-
production sidues (a total of 486.4 Mt of available quantity), which accounted for
The distribution density of the crop residue available for bioethanol 77.8% of the total bioethanol production potential in 2016 (Table 9).
production in 2016 exhibited high in NEC and CSC and southeast The available residues of maize, rice and wheat were also the major
provinces of SWC (Fig. 7). The highest density of available rice residue feedstock for bioethanol production in 2005 in Ref. [54]. Maize residue
found in Hunan, followed by Heilongjiang, Hubei, Jilin, and Liaoning; offered the largest bioethanol production potential, at 46.35 Mt, or
that is, across China, NEC had the greatest density of available rice 37.3% of China's total bioethanol potential. Ranking second in bioe-
residue. The province of Henan had the highest density of available thanol potential was that from rice residue, at 33.1% of the national
wheat residue, which was close to zero in nine provinces. The top four total. The bioethanol potential from maize and rice residues were
provinces regarding the available maize residue density were, in des- greatest in Heilongjiang, at 9.4 and 9.6 Mt, respectively. Henan had the
cending order, Jilin > Henan > Liaoning > Heilongjiang, whereas largest bioethanol potential from wheat residue, at 6.2 Mt, followed by
10 provinces each had a density of < 1 t km−2. The available residues Hubei Province. With respect to cotton and sugarcane residues, their
of cotton and sugarcane reached their highest density in Shandong and bioethanol potential peaked in Shandong and Guangxi, respectively.
Guangxi, respectively. The top five provinces, ranked in descending Bioethanol annual consumption reached over 6 Mt in 2020, which was
order of available total crop residue were Henan > Jilin > the bioethanol project goal of China 13th Five-Year Plan [55]. Only the
Liaoning > Heilongjiang > Guangxi; however, in Tibet and Qinghai, signal residue of maize in China can produce 8-fold greater bioethanol
the corresponding values were < 0.5 t km−2. The amount of crop re- utilization than the target of 2020. Therefore, crop residue is a steady
sidue available for bioethanol differs among the crop types, planting feedstock for bioethanol production in China [54].
regions, plant structures, seasonal variations, and harvesting methods
used [43,53]. 3.5. Practical implications of this study

3.4. Bioethanol potential According to this study, crop residue exhibited high potential for
bioethanol production due to its available amount, most of which was
Theoretical bioethanol production of crop residue followed a assumed to be part of residue burnt in the field. Cellulosic bioethanol
smooth, upward-sloping trend for the 2007–2016 period (Table 9), and produced from crop residue has also been recognized a highly pro-
was 28% higher in 2016 than in 2007. Rice residue generated the mising way to reduce fossil energy consumption and greenhouse house
greatest amount of bioethanol production from 2007 to 2010, after gas emissions [56,57]. Several technological pathways of commercial
which maize residue produced the greatest yield from 2011 to 2016. conversion have been developed and demonstrated [58], and further
The total predicted bioethanol production from rice, wheat, and maize innovations are being researched and intensively demonstrated
residues, as a percentage of China's total, ranged from 76% in 2008 up [59,60]. On the other hand, crop residue management causes great
to 81% in 2015. concern due to the large quantity being open burnt in the field, which
The spatial distribution of bioethanol production in China in 2016 is had significant impacts on air pollution, climate change and potential
summarized in Table 10. The expected bioethanol yield totaled human health in China between 1996 and 2015 [61–63]. The direct
124.3 Mt, and its value per region ranked in descending order, as reason for farmers to burn residue in the field is that the residue cannot

Table 9
Theoretical production of bioethanol produced from different crop residue types in China in the period 2007–2016.
Residue type 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
(Mt) (Mt) (Mt) (Mt) (Mt) (Mt) (Mt) (Mt) (Mt) (Mt)

Rice 35.05 36.53 36.96 37.84 39.31 40.04 40.11 40.65 40.93 41.12
Wheat 8.21 8.28 8.38 8.28 8.55 8.66 8.71 8.98 9.31 9.22
Maize 31.88 35.06 34.43 37.50 40.86 43.59 46.42 45.62 47.87 46.35
Other cereals 1.32 1.27 1.12 1.04 1.15 1.03 1.01 1.09 0.00 1.16
Beans 1.31 1.68 1.57 1.55 1.53 1.30 1.19 1.26 1.20 1.35
Tubers 2.09 2.20 2.27 2.33 2.43 2.46 2.49 2.53 2.55 2.57
Cotton 3.71 3.59 3.11 2.85 3.05 2.76 2.34 2.11 1.79 1.46
Peanut 1.35 1.48 1.51 1.58 1.60 1.65 1.67 1.65 1.65 1.69
Canola 4.76 5.48 6.30 6.12 6.48 6.73 7.02 7.25 7.39 7.30
Sesame 0.24 0.26 0.27 0.26 0.27 0.28 0.27 0.28 0.28 0.28
Other oil crops 0.60 1.03 1.01 1.18 1.18 1.20 1.23 1.26 1.33 1.52
Jute and ambary 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Other fibers 0.35 0.29 0.19 0.15 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.10
Sugarcane 6.17 6.94 6.45 6.21 6.47 6.98 7.28 7.15 6.64 9.62
Sugar beet 0.08 0.08 0.06 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.18
Tobacco 0.33 0.39 0.42 0.42 0.44 0.48 0.47 0.42 0.39 0.35
Total 97.47 104.57 104.06 107.40 113.56 117.39 120.41 120.43 121.49 124.27

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Y.R. Fang, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 113 (2019) 109288

Table 10
Theoretical production of bioethanol from available crop residues in the six regions and 31 provinces in China in 2016.
a b
Region and province Rice Wheat Maize Oil crops Cotton Sugarcane Other crops Total
(Kt) (Kt) (Kt) (Kt) (Kt) (Kt) (Kt) (Kt)

NC 240.49 0.00 7398.01 1088.08 248.58 0.00 287.90 9263.06

Beijing 0.25 0.00 56.37 1.04 0.04 0.00 0.17 57.87
Tianjin 32.54 0.00 149.71 4.68 17.37 0.00 0.54 204.84
Hebei 101.38 0.00 2303.15 255.71 223.31 0.00 86.40 2969.95
Shanxi 0.95 0.00 1315.70 55.74 7.70 0.00 61.93 1442.01
Inner Mongolia 105.37 0.00 3573.08 770.90 0.16 0.00 138.86 4588.38
NEC 14839.79 46.45 21087.21 211.06 0.09 0.00 968.06 37152.67
Liaoning 2246.31 3.75 3811.45 49.11 0.09 0.00 96.75 6207.46
Jilin 3032.07 0.17 7868.58 92.63 0.00 0.00 139.87 11133.33
Heilongjiang 9561.42 42.53 9407.18 69.32 0.00 0.00 731.43 19811.88
EC 2114.49 475.04 1767.21 1498.14 735.09 101.71 563.74 7255.42
Shanghai 29.41 0.97 1.33 1.85 0.32 0.29 6.61 40.78
Jiangsu 656.49 116.48 159.31 271.52 68.52 4.71 214.21 1491.25
Zhejiang 184.87 2.25 19.98 62.66 15.33 32.44 55.68 373.21
Anhui 442.90 114.54 314.66 438.15 171.32 10.58 46.09 1538.23
Fujian 154.37 0.05 13.88 47.51 0.08 19.34 102.15 337.37
Jiangxi 615.19 0.26 8.45 250.35 68.01 34.35 56.60 1033.22
Shandong 31.25 240.48 1249.60 426.09 411.52 0.00 82.41 2441.36
CSC 15132.76 7084.85 9836.67 4001.16 358.67 6459.29 696.95 43570.35
Henan 1070.07 6240.41 6700.58 784.33 67.58 14.54 156.87 15034.38
Hubei 3439.22 830.76 1142.28 1358.36 174.87 23.13 125.72 7094.34
Hunan 5404.28 11.36 823.64 1735.24 113.88 34.59 161.81 8284.81
Guangdong 2399.83 0.53 297.28 101.65 0.00 916.22 154.44 3869.94
Guangxi 2458.97 1.79 872.88 11.73 2.34 5344.10 75.92 8767.73
Hainan 360.39 0.00 0.00 9.85 0.00 126.72 22.18 519.14
SWC 8494.89 1143.53 5664.39 3370.06 9.34 3060.66 2443.66 24186.53
Chongqing 1190.61 29.60 709.89 417.43 0.00 5.07 538.54 2891.14
Sichuan 3871.56 747.47 2138.54 1848.24 8.21 53.89 811.34 9479.26
Guizhou 1285.64 124.41 870.56 672.65 1.13 128.15 420.47 3503.01
Yunnan 2145.64 196.65 1938.61 393.62 0.00 2873.56 486.89 8034.96
Tibet 1.45 45.40 6.80 38.13 0.00 0.00 186.41 278.18
NWC 293.60 465.81 596.28 618.52 107.41 0.07 761.97 2843.66
Shaanxi 131.29 187.37 177.55 96.17 12.99 0.07 142.42 747.86
Gansu 4.08 111.85 184.11 196.19 7.64 0.00 311.12 815.01
Qinghai 0.00 14.36 5.88 29.33 0.00 0.00 62.83 112.40
Ningxia 66.88 23.50 117.66 56.96 0.00 0.00 53.79 318.79
Xinjiang 91.34 128.73 111.08 239.87 86.78 0.00 191.81 849.61
China 41116.02 9215.69 46349.78 10787.02 1459.19 9621.72 5722.27 124271.69

NC: North China, NEC: Northeast China, EC: East China, CSC: Central-South China, SWC: Southwest China, NWC: Northwest China.
a
Oil crops include peanut, canola, sesame and other oil crops.
b
Other crops include other cereals, beans, tubers, jute and ambary, other fibers, sugar beet, and tobacco.

be used for a satisfactory positive economic benefit; whereas burning 4. Conclusions

was the easiest way to clean the field for next cropping without any
cost. Currently, to prevent open burning of residue, governments in China has large amounts of crop residue, which increased at an annual
China have released various policy measures, which heavily primarily rate of 2.63% from 2007 to 2016. Its annual average production was
rely on prohibition and penalties [64]. However, unless a large industry 821.96 Mt composing of 711.46 Mt field residue and 110.50 Mt process
is well developed to find a solution for crop residue with a proper value residue during the 10-year period. The residue produced from maize
chain to satisfy economic requirements, farmers have no way to remove (30.50%), rice (27.64%) and wheat (19.21%) accounting for 77.35% of
the extra residue from the field, except to burn it in the field. To reduce the total crop residue in 2016. The sum of field residue retained in the field
open burning of residue and increase its environmental benefits, it is of (35.19%), burnt in the field (25.20%), and use as animal feed (20.89%)
essential importance that cooperative policy makers from multiple ad- accounted for 81.28% of the total field residue; whereas amount of 0.68%
ministrative departments stimulate the development of cellulosic field residue was used for energy production in 2016. The greatest
ethanol development in scientific areas [65] and industrial areas [56]. quantity of collectable crop residue was produced from maize (30.51%),
The Chinese government has been ambitious in planning how to followed by rice (30.51%) and wheat (17.37%), sum of which re-
apply ethanol-blend gasoline across the whole country by 2020. One of presenting 78.39% of total. Henan province had the highest collectable
the strategies for this plan is to develop commercial cellulosic bioe- quantity (59.45 Mt), followed by Heilongjiang (51.71 Mt) and Shandong
thanol for long-term development. Form 2014 introduced a series of (47.18 Mt). However, the highest value of available crop residue was in
financial and taxation policies, including a subsidy of 800 CNY/toms Heilongjiang (with almost 40 Mt), followed by Henan (31.03 Mt) and Jilin
cellulosic ethanol. However, support for this policy is decreasing, and (22.51 Mt) in 2016. The descending order of the top five provinces re-
the industry cannot survive under the current market conditions, which garding available total crop residue density was Henan > Jilin >
indicates that relatively high financial and taxation support are neces- Liaoning > Heilongjiang > Guangxi. The total theoretical bioethanol
sary to promote cellulosic bioethanol research and industrial use in its yield was 124.3 Mt, of which, 96.7 Mt came from maize, rice and wheat
early stage. residues in 2016. The highest theoretical quantity of bioethanol produc-
tion was found in Heilongjiang, followed by Henan, Jilin, and Sichuan.
The major crop residue for bioethanol production in Heilongjiang and
Sichuan was rice, in Henan and Jilin it was maize, the highest quantity of

13
Y.R. Fang, et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 113 (2019) 109288

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