NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

COURSE CODE: ARA483

COURSE TITLE: ARABIC RHETORIC

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 COURSE
GUIDE

ARA483: ARABIC RHETORIC

Course Team: Dr S. A.Shittu (Developer/Writer)

University of Ibadan
Prof. A. F. Ahmed (Editor/Head of Unit) - NOUN
Course Coordinator: Dr. K. W. Sarumi (Coordinator I)

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

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National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos

Abuja Annex
245 Samuel Adesujo Ademulegun Street
Central Business District Opposite Arewa Suites Abuja

e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

National Open University of Nigeria 2012

First Printed 2012

ISBN:
All Rights Reserved

Printed by………..

For
National Open University of Nigeria

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 CONTENTS PAGE

Introduction…………………………………………… 1
Course Aims…………………………………………. 1
Course Objectives…………..…………………………. 2
Working through this Course…..……………………… 5
Course Materials………………….……………………..5
Study Units………………………………………………6
Textbooks and References ………………………………8
Assignments File…………….…………………………9
Tutor-Marked Assignment….……………………………9
Final Examination and Grading…..………………………9
Course Marking Scheme………….....……………………10
Course Overview and Presentation Schedule …………….10
How to Get the Most from this Course…..…...………….. 11
Facilitators/Tutor and Tutorials………….…………… 12
Summary…………………………………….…………… 13

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Introduction
ARA483: Arabic Rhetoric is a two-unit course to be taken by student of
B. A. Degree Islamic Studies programme of the National Open University of
Nigeria. The course exposes students to the aspect of communication and
expression of Arabic Language that reflects the culture and civilization of the
speakers of that language.
We have broken the course into fourteen units. In a simple and clear style
each unit serves as an effective key with which you will be able to open
discussion on the topic. Further more we brought simplified varieties of example
in prose, especially related verses of the Qur’ān and poetry. Hence, after this
course, the distant student will be very familiar with Arabic expressions in both
primary and secondary meanings.

Course Aims
This course contains 14 units with each unit stating clearly its objectives.
However, the course has its overall aims which include :
‐ Understanding the concept of al-Balāghah and its significance
‐ Ability to comprehend the evolution of al-Balāghah
‐ Appreciation of rhetoric as an important aspect of language
- Knowledge of early Arabic Rhetoricians and their contributions to the science
of Balāghah
- Understanding the concept of al- Bayān
- Comprehension of the ways by which Arabs express their thoughts and
feelings.

Course Objectives
We have packaged this course in such a way that it will give students
the proper grasp of this core aspect of Arabic Language. It is our hope that
after a thorough study of this course, you will be able to:
 evaluate words and expressions that are used in different contexts .
 Judge the appropriateness of speeches delivered in Arabic to their intended
meaning or message.
 Compose fluently in Arabic language with appropriate words that fit the
context.

Working through this Course

To complete this course, you are required to read the fourteen study units
compartmentalized in five Modules. It is mandatory that you work through all if
you wish to enhance your competence and good standing in writing and

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interactions in Arabic language and read recommended books and other materials
provided by the National Open University of Nigeria(NOUN).
Each unit contains self-assessment exercise and at some points in the
course , you are required to submit assignments for assessment purpose. At the
end of this course is a final examination. You will find below list of all
components of the course and what expected to be done

Course Materials

The main components of this course are :

1.0 Course Guide
2.0 Unit Components of Study Modules
3.0 Text-books
4.0 Assignments
5.0 Presentation Schedule

Study Units
Module 1
Unit 1: The Evolution of al-Balāgha and Contributions of Early Arabic
Rhetoricians
Unit 2: al-Bayan and Its’ Components
Unit 3: Kinds of at-Tashbīh and Concept of Haqīqah and Majāz

Module 2
Unit 1 : al- Isti‘ārah and its Components
Unit 2 : The Classes of al-Majāz and al-Kināyah
Unit 3: The Concept of ‘Ilmu `l-Ma‘āni and its Component

Module 3
Unit1: an-Nahy, al-Istifhām, at-Tamannī and their Rhetorical Meaning
Unit 2: an-Nidā’, al-Qasr and their Rhetorical Meaning
Unit 3 ; al-I‘jāz, al-’Itnāb and their Rhetorical Meaning

Module 4
Unit 1: The historical development of ‘Ilmu `l-Badī‘
Unit 2 ; Semantic embellishments in Arabic rhetoric.
Unit 3 ; Semantic embellishments in Arabic rhetoric II

Module5
Unit 1 ; Lexical embellishments I
Unit 2 ; Lexical embellishments II

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Textbooks and References
These books and reading materials are contained in the reference sections
at theend of each unit. Try to get these books and read them so that you can
widen your horizon .
Abubakre, R.D. (1989) Bayān in Arabic Rhetoric: An analysis of the core of
Balagha. Ibadan: Intec Printer Limited.
Jārim, ‘Ali et al(1961): al-Balāgha-l-wādiha. Cairo: Dār-ul-Ma’ārif
Hasan Muhammad (1975) Asrāru-l-Bāyān. Cairo.
As-Sakkākī Yusuf (1983) Miftāhu’l-‘Ulūm.Beirut: Dārul-Kutu
Ibn ‘Abdi Rabbīh (1935) al-‘iqdul-farīd. Cairo:Dar-l-Ma’rif
Lawal, A.I. (1989) ‘Rhetoric (al-Balagha) in Arabic and Yoruba: A preliminary
survey’. LASU; Journal of Humanities. Lagos: Kola Okanlawon Publishers Ltd.
Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric.A Pragmatic Analysis. London &
New York: Routledge.
Cuddon, J. A (1979). A Dictionary of Literary Terms- Penguin Reference.
Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.
EAL (1998)- Encyclopaedia of Arabic Literature (Eds), Julie. S. Meisami and P.
Starkey, 2 vols (London & New York).
Jārim, ‘Ali and Amin, Mustafā (1961), al-Balāgha al-wādiha, 15th edition, Cairo.

Majāzi, Ahmad al-Sayyid (1424AH/2005CE), al-Manhal al-sāfi fi l-balāghah al-

‘Arabiyyah, Cairo: al-Shurūq.

Musawi, Muhsin J. al- (2001). “Arabic Rhetoric”, in Thomas O. Sloane (Ed.),

Oxford Encyclopaedia of Rhetoric, Oxford: pp. 29-33.
Qazwini, al-Khatib (1402AH/1982CE), al-Idāh fi ‘ulum al-balāgha, Cairo: ‘Ali
Subayh & Sons.
Sādiq, ‘Abd al-Ridā (1395AH/1975CE) Editor, al-Balāgha, 4th edition, Baghdad:
Ministry of Education.
Abdul-Raof, Hussein(2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London &
New
York: Routledge, in Middle Eastern Literatures.
Struever, Nancy S. (2009). The History of Rhetoric and the Rhetoric of History,
Surrey, Burlington, VT: Ashgate.
Wahbah, Magdi (1974). Mu‘jam mustalahāt l-adab (A Dictionary of Literary
Terms). Beirut: Libraire Du Liban.

Assessment Exercises
There are three types of assssments in the course.1- the self assessment
exercises, 2- tutor-marked assignment and 3- the written examinations.
You will find the Self - Assessment Exercises after several sub-section of

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 the Units Main Contents. It is advisable you attempt all of them because they
measure your level of understanding the topics discussed; and they will assist you
in doing well in the Tutor Marked Assignments and the final examination.

Tutor-Marked Assignments
Just know that at the end of every unit there are some tutor-marked
assignments.
You will be required to do four of them. It is important that you do do and
submit them for assessment.in accordance with the given deadlines. Your tutor
will assess the four assignments and select the best three which will constitute
30% of your final grade.
At the end of the course, you will need to sit for a final three hour
examination.
This also represents 70% of your total course mark.

Final Examination and Grading

The final examination will be a test of three hours. All areas of the course will
be examined. Find time to read the unit all over before your examination. The
final examination will attract 70% of the total course grade. The examination will
consist of questions, which reflect the kinds of self assessment exercises and tutor
marked assignment you have previously encountered. And all aspects of the
course will be assessed .You should use the time between completing the last unit,
and taking the examination to revise the entire course .

Course Marking Scheme

The following table lays out how the actual course mark allocation is broken
down.

Assessment Marks
Assignment Four assignments, best three marks of the
four count at 30% of course marks
Final Examination 70% of overall course marks
Total 100% of course marks.

Presentation Schedule
The presentation schedule in this Course Guide gives you the important dates
for the completion of tutor-marked assignments and attending tutorial. Remember,
you are required to submit all your assignments in good time, and guard against late
submission.

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Below please find the Course Overview and Presentation Schedule

Unit Title of Work Weeks Assessments

Activity
Course Guide Week1
Module1: Origin of Ilmu `l-Badī‘
1 The Evolution of al-Balāgha an Week 2
Contributions of Early Arabic Rhetoricians
2 al-Bayān and Its’ Components Week 3
3 Kinds of at-Tashbīh and Concept of Haqīqah and Majāz Week 4
Module2:
4 al- Isti‘ārah and its Components Week 5 TMA 1
5 The Classes of al-Majāz and al-Kināyah Week 6

Module3: Peroration
6 The Concept of ‘Ilmul-Ma‘āni and its Component Week 7 TMA 2
7 an-Nahy, al-Istifhām, at-Tamannī and their Week 8
Rhetorical Meaning
8 an-Nidā’, al-Qasr and their Rhetorical Meaning
Module 4: Glossary of Arabic Rhetoric
8 al-I‘jāz, al-’Itnāb and their Rhetorical Meaning Week 9 8 TMA 3
9 Historical Development of Ilmu `l-Badii Week 10
10 Semantic embellishments in Arabic rhetoric I Week11 TMA 4
11 Semantic embellishments in Arabic rhetoric II Week12
13 Lexical embellishments I 12
14 Lexical embellishments II
Total
Revision/Examination

How to get most from this course

In distance learning, the study unit replaces the university lecturer. You can
read and work through specially designed study materials at your own pace, and at a
time and place that suits you best. Think of it, as reading the lecture instead of
listening to lecturer. In the same way that a lecturer might set you some exercises, the
study units provide exercises for you to do at appropriate points.

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 Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an
introduction to the subject matter of the unit and how a particular unit is integrated
with the other units and the course as a whole. Next is set of learning objectives.
These objectives let you know what you should be able to do when you have finished
the units. If you make a habit of ensuring you achieve the objectives, you will
improve your chances of passing this course. The main body of the units contains the
required topics, read them as many times as possible; then consult recommended
reference on it.

Reading section
Remember that your tutor’s job is to help you. When you need help, don’t
hesitate to call and ask your tutor to provide it.
1. Read this course thoroughly
2. Organize a study schedule. Refer to the ‘course overview’ for more details.
Note the time you are expected to spend on each unit and how the assignments
relate to the units. Whatever method you choose to adopt, you should decide
on and write in your own dates for working on each unit.
3. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything you can to
stick to it. The major reason for students’ failure is that they lag behind with
their course work. If you get into difficulties with your schedule, please let
your tutor know before it is too late for help.
4. Turn to unit 1 and read the introduction and the objectives for the unit.
5. Assemble the study materials. Information about what you read in each unit is
given in the “overview” at the beginning of each unit.
6. Work through the unit as arranged to provide a sequence for you to follow. As
you work through the unit, you will be instructed to read sections from your
set books or other articles. Use the unit to guide your reading.
7. Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you have achieved
them. If you are not sure about any of the objectives, review the study material
or consult your tutor.
8. When you are confident that you have achieved a unit’s objectives, you can
then start on the next unit. Proceed unit by unit through the course and try to
pace your study so that you keep yourself on schedule.
9. When you have submitted an assignment for marking, do not wait for its return
before starting on the next unit. Keep to your schedule. When the assignment
is returned, pay particular attention to you tutor’s comments, both on the tutor
marked assignment form and also on what is written on the assignment.
Consult your tutor as soon as possible if you have any questions or problems.
10. After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare yourself for the
final examination. Check that you have achieved the unit objectives (listed at
the beginning of each unit) and the course objectives (listed in the course
guide).

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Facilitator/tutors and tutorials
There are eight hours tutorials provided in support of this course. You will be
notified of the dates, times, and location of these tutorials, together with the
name and phone number of your tutor, as soon as you are allocated a tutorial
group.
Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignment, keep a close watch on
your progress and on any difficulties you might encounter. He will also provide
assistance to you during the course. You must mail you tutor-marked
assignments to your tutor well before the due date (at least two working days
are required). They will be marked by him and returned to you as soon as
possible.
Do not hesitate to contact you tutor if:
 You do not understand any part of the study units or assigned readings.
 You have difficulty with the self-assessment exercises.
 You have a question or problems with an assignment, with your tutor’s
comments on an assignment or with the grading of an assignment.
You try your best to attend the tutorials. This is the only chance to have face t o
face contact with your tutor and to ask questions which are answered instantly.
You can raise any problem encountered in the course of your study. To gain
maximum benefit from the course tutorials, prepare a questions list before
attending them. You will learn a lot from participating in discussion actively.

Summary
ARA483 intends to introduce you to Arabic rhetoric. It exposes students to
various aspects of communication and expression of Arabic Language. Arabic
rhetorical discourse was influenced and partly shaped by the dogma of the
inimitability of the Qur’ān and the problem of correct interpretation of figurative,
elliptical, or any other obliquely referential language in the scripture. You are
expected to comprehend the topics in the Course. This will enable you to improve
your reading ability and have competence of adapting some styles into your own
Arabic writings. Upon completing this course you will be able to comprend the
degree of eloquence that the Qur’ān constituted as the miracle that proved the
prophethood of Muhammad, fully comprehend the intended
messages of poetry and skillful writing of prose writers, adapt word order, word
use, use of metaphors and figures of speech in order to enhance your competence
in speech and writing of Arabic.

We wish you success in the course and hope that you will find it interesting.

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 ‫ البيان‬: ‫الوحدة األولـى‬

MODULE 1: AL- BAYĀN

Unit 1: The Evolution of Al-Balāghah and Contributions of Early Arabic

Rhetorician
Unit 2: Al-Bayān and its Components
Unit 3: Kinds of Tashbīh and Concept of Haqīqah and Majāz

UNIT 1: THE EVOLUTION OF AL-BALĀGHAH AND CONTRIBUTIONS

OF EARLY ARABIC RHETORICIAN

CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Al-Balāghah
3.2 Evolution of Al-Balāghah
3.3 Contributions of Early Arabic Rhetoricians
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 Reference/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Speech is one of the characteristics that place man above other animals while
rhetoric reflects the depth of culture and civilization of the speaker of a language. In
this unit, you will learn the evolution of Arabic rhetoric (al-Balāghah) and the
contributions of early Arabic scholars to the art of Arabic rhetoric.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit student should be able to:
‐ Analyse the concept of al-Balāgha and its importance
‐ Trace the origin of al-Balāgha
‐ Appreciate rhetoric as an important aspect of language
‐ The importance of the Qur’ān to the development of Arabic rhetoric

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 ‐ Know some early scholars and their contributions to the science of Balāghah

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1: Definition of Al-Balāghah
Al-Balāghah (Arabic Rhetoric), has been defined as the art of using languages as to
persuade or influence others. Columbia Encyclopedia defines rhetoric as the “the art
of swaying an audience by eloquent speech”. Webster’s New Encyclopedia
Dictionary defines rhetoric as “the art of speaking or writing effectively. In Arabic,
the word al-Balāghah is derived from the root verb balagha meaning “to reach, to
attain, to arrive at or to get to; and etymologically it interprets the art of reaching the
utmost perfection in the style and context of a composition. Al-Balāgha is therefore,
a science that deals with clarity, correctness and beauty in Arabic writing and oral
expression..
In Nahw (Grammar), as we are concerned with the correctness and
grammaticality of a text, we are in al-Balāgha concerned with the contextual
and appropriateness of a text.

3.2 Evolution of al-Balāghah

Al-Balāghah (Arabic Rhetoric) was not known as an independent
branch of knowledge until the Ummayad period although what reached us from their
literary bequest showed their eloquence. Such has been phrases which were marked
by terseness, striking metaphors and similes and sometimes by rhyme (saj). Their
poets used to gather at the Ukāz market, where they displayed their poetical talents
through the appraisal of the literary work of a poet among others, the best poet of the
time used to be chosen. This act was later developed to what is known today as
Arabic literary criticisms.
The Holy Qur’ān indicates the extent of the eloquence of the Arabs
thus:
‫ك قَولُهُ فِي ال َحيَا ِة ال ﱡدنيَا‬ ِ ُ‫َو ِم َن النﱠاس َمن ي‬
َ ُ‫عجب‬
“there is type of man whose speech about this world’s life may dazzle you’
(Q2: 204)
‫ف َسلَقُو ُكم بِأ َ ْل ِسنَ ٍة حداد‬
ُ ‫ب ْال َخ ْو‬
َ َ‫فَإِ َذا َذھ‬
“When the fear is past, they will smite you with sharp tongues”
The Qur’ān which was revealed in a magnificent rhetorical style played significant
role in the evolution of ‘ilmu `l-balāghah. The Arabs on seeing the pattern of the
revelation of the Qur’ān claimed that they could produce a similar literary piece of its
type. This claims made the Holy Qur’ān to challenge them to produce the like of it,
one that would be as rich as it, in style and rhetorical meaning.
The Quran says:
‫ب ﱢم ﱠما نَ ﱠز ْلنَا َعلَ ٰى َع ْب ِدنَا فَأْتُوا بِسُو َر ٍة ﱢمن ﱢم ْثلِ ِه َوا ْد ُعوا‬
ٍ ‫َوإِن ُكنتُ ْم فِي َر ْي‬
‫ين‬
َ ِ‫صا ِدق‬َ ‫ﷲِ إِن ُكنتُ ْم‬ ‫ون ﱠ‬ِ ‫ُشھَ َدا َء ُكم ﱢمن ُد‬
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 “And if ye are in doubt as to what We have revealed from time to time
to Our Servant, then produce a Sūra like thereunto; and call your witnesses or
helpers (If there are any) besides Allah, if your (doubts) are true
However, the Arabs with all their arts of eloquence and oratory failed to do so as
the Qur’ān prophesized here
َ ُ‫آن َال يَأْت‬
‫ون بِ ِم ْثلِ ِه‬ ِ ْ‫اإلنسُ َو ْال ِج ﱡن َعلَ ٰى أَن يَأْتُوا بِ ِم ْث ِل ھَ ٰـ َذا ْالقُر‬ ِ ‫قُل لﱠئِ ِن اجْ تَ َم َع‬
ِْ ‫ت‬
‫ْض ظَ ِھيرًا‬ ٍ ‫ضھُ ْم لِبَع‬ َ ‫َولَ ْو َك‬
ُ ‫ان بَ ْع‬
"Say: If the whole of mankind and Jinns were to gather together to
produce the like of this Qur’ān, they could not produce the like thereof, even if
they backed up each other with help and support.
As a result of the total failure of mankind to respond positively to this challenge, the
Qur’ān is regarded as containing the unique structural styles of any writing of Arabic
to date. Abū Hilāl ‘al Askarī (1320) says:
“The most worthy of knowledge to undertake and the best of it to
be preserved after realization of Allah whose praise is sublime-is
the study al- Balāghah and knowledge of faşāhah through which the
inimitability of the Book of Allah, the most exalted is affirmed
Abu Ubaydah was asked by one Ibrahim bn Ismā’īl al-Kitāb to
comment on the verse which says
ِ ‫طَل ُعھَا َكأنﱠه ُرؤوسُ ال ﱠش‬
‫ياطين‬
“The shoots of its fruits stalks are like the heads of the devils”

The question was justified by the fact that nobody had ever seen the heads of
the devil to which the shoots of the fruit stalks was compared. So, Abu Ubaydah
replied that Allah speaks in this verse to the Arabs according to their usage. He then
buttressed his claim with a pre-Islamic poetic verse of Imru’l Qays

ِ ‫ب اَغ َو‬
‫ال‬ ٍ ‫َو َمسنُونَ ٍة ُزر‬
ِ ‫ق َكأنيَا‬ ‫اج ِعي‬
ِ ‫ض‬َ ‫أ َيَقتُلنِي َوال َمش َرفِي َم‬

“Would he kill me while my bed flow too was protected by the sword and my
sharpened lance, which is like fangs of the ghouls (masquerade).”

In this poetic verse, Imru’l Qays compared the edges of his lance with the
fangs of the ghouls though he was quite aware that no one had ever seen a
masquerade or its fangs. It was effectively used by the poet for aesthetic effect. This
incidence between Abū Ubaydah and Ibrahim made the Arab scholars to write
books to explain some allegorical expressions in the Qur’ān.

3.3 Contributions of Early Arabic Rhetorician

Ibn al-Mu’tazz (249-296 A.H./863-908 C.E) His full name was Abū Abbās
Abdullah bn al-Mu’tazz bn Mutawakkil. He devoted his life time to literary studies in

14
education and he learnt under some erudite scholars. His book titled Kitāb-al-badī’
was written in 247 AH/887 CE at the age of twenty seven and was published by
Kraschowky in 1935 and was later published in Egypt in 1945. This book contains
interesting materials for study of the characteristics of belles- letters in the ninth
century (Ignatius K/1933:14). Sanni (1991:7) stated that Ibn al-Mu’tazz demonstrated
that new generation of poets who exhibited special fascination with the rhetorical
schemata, had not in fact created them but had only indulged themselves in an
extravagant waste of the artistic devices which older works had used judiciously, and
more significantly, to show that some of these devices may in fact be illustrated from
the Qur’ān and the Hadīth.

Al- Qudāmah bn Ja’far (275-338 A.H./888-98 C.E.) He was famous writer

who authored Naqdu `sh-Shi ‘r (poetry criticisms) and Naqdu ‘n-Nathr (prose
criticisms). He was the person that classified Arabic rhetoric into twenty divisions,
which Ibn Mu’tazz did not attempt. He became famous for evolving a number of
poetic techniques and remedying some poetic standards except that his book has less
impact in the annals of literary criticisms.

Abu Hilāl al-‘Askarī(D.395 A.H.)

He authored many scholarly books among which is Kitāb-Sinā’atayn. This
book deals with prose and poetry. Concerning its richness in content, a translation of
what a poet says on his poetry is as follows:
The best book I have ever read is that of al-‘Askarī, the father of Hilāl
Even if I made an army in commander I would not have fought
save with questions.
Surely people have been conquered and they took patient for the
point of spear.
(Hamid:13)
Abū Hilāl also treated in this book al- Isti‘ārah and Kināyah along with other
branches of al-Balāghah. He was also the first to compile the two concepts of
versification and prosification into one for the purpose of theoretical classification
(Al-‘Askari 1984:237)

Imām Abdul Qāhir al-Jurjānī (471 A.H.) His full name is Abubakr bn
Abdul Qāhir bn Abd-ar-Rahmān al-Jurjānī. He authored several grammatical works,
He also wrote two books, which have become standard in the sphere of Arabic
rhetoric. These are: Dalā’il al-‘Ijāz and Asrār al-Balāgha. The first was which is to
prove that the rhetoric style of Qur’ān is inimitable and in reality it is very subtle
theory of syntactic stylistics. In it, he investigates what kind of delicate change in
meaning are affected by the order of words, syntactic and synthetic expression,
augmentative particles etc. (al-Jurjānī ed. Ritter H:60)

15
 The second book Asrār al-Balāghah contains essentially his teaching on
simile (at-Tashbīh) and analogy(at-Tamthīl). Al-Jurjānī has been recognised by many
Arab rhetorician as one who itemized two branches of the Arabic rhetoric namely
‘ilmu `l-Bayān and Ilmu `l-Ma’āni and in his which is Dalā’il al-‘Ijāz and Ilmu `l-
Bayān is the subject matter of his Asrār al-Balāgha

As-Sakkākī(554-262 A.H.) He was an eminent scholar, well read in other

sciences. He has to his credit a book known as Miftāh-al-Ulūm which comprises
twelve different aspects of Arabic knowledge and distinguished the first part by
identification and definition of technical terms of Arabic rhetoric and its division into
three classes; al-Ma’ānī, al-Bayān and al-Badī’. Hence the evolution of the
traditional Arabic rhetoric reached its zenith with his work.

Az-Zamakhshsharī : was an extremely intelligent person, quick witted. His

popular work known as al-Khashshāf ‘an haqā’iq at -Tanzīl which was compiled in
538 A.H. made him to become a fore runner in Quranic exegesis, Hadith, Grammar,
Linguistic and rhetoric. His other work on rhetoric is ‘Asās-al-Balāgha (principles of
Eloquence).

Self Assessment Exercise

1. Discuss the evolution of al- Balāghah
2. Why has Jurjani been recognised by many Arab rhetoricians
3. Write notes on the scholar who classified Rhetorics into twenty divisions?
.
4. Who is Az-Zamakhshsharī, mention two of his works that relate to
Arabic Rhetoric.

4.0 CONCLUSION
We can conclude this Unit by saying:
‐ Al- Balāghah is as old as Arabic language
‐ Science of al‐  Balāgha is important for the correct understanding of the
Qur’ān
‐ Imām Abdu `l-Qāhir al-Jurjānī (471 A.H.), As-Sakkākī(554-262 A.H.) and
Az-Zamakhshsharī were  some  early  Arab rhetoricians who founded Ilmu `l-
Balaghah.

6.0 SUMMARY
In this unit , Ilmu `l-Balaghah has been defined. It has been shown that al-
Balāgha is a vital aspect of Arabic language and that al- Balāgha was introduced
purposely for the understanding and appreciation of the unique structural style of the
Qur’ān. It has also been shown that al- Balāgha will remain a distinguished subject

16
as long as there is need to grasp the full knowledge of the Qur’ān and to read Arabic
literary genres both old and new.

 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT 

1. Define word al-Balāgha and expatiate on your definition briefly.

2.Elucidate on the importance of ‘ilm-Balāgha to the study of the Holy
Qur’ān .
3. Write a short bio data of the following scholars and their contributions
to the evolution and development of Arabic rhetoric:
Abdul Qāhir Al-Jurjāni , as-Sakākī and Ibn al-Mu’tazz

7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READING

Abubakre, R.D. (1989) Bayān in Arabic Rhetoric: An analysis of the core of

Balagha. Ibadan: Intec Printer Limited.
Al-Jāhiz , Umar bn Bahr(1968) al-Bayān wat-Tibyān. Cairo: Maktabah al-
Khanjī
Jārim, ‘Ali et al(1961): al-Balāgha-l-wādiha. Cairo: Dār-ul-Ma’ārif
Hasan Muhammad (1975) al-Asrāru-l-Bāyan. Cairo
as-Sakkākī Yusuf (1983) Miftāhu’l-‘Ulūm.Beirut: Dārul-Kutub
az-Zamakhshari Muhammad (1982) Asāsul-Balāgha. Beirut: Dār-ul-Ma’ārif

17
 UNIT 2 AL-BAYĀN AND ITS’ COMPONENTS

CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Al-Bayān and Its’ Components
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 Reference/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit clarifies two terms which are very important. In fact they are closely
connected because they both qualify the same object (the speech) in Arabic language;
al-Fasāhah and al -Balāghah. The unit also explains Al- Bayān which basically
means lucidity, distinctiveness, art of expressing and clarifying thought in writng and
speeches. Therefore, the unit deals with introduction to Al- Bayān ,its components
and the treatment of a component that is al-Tashbīh .

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to
 Define and explain the concept of al-Fasāhah and al -Balāgha
 Describe when and who qualifies to be described as faşīħ and balīgh
 analyse the concept of Al- Bayān
 explain the components of Arabic rhetoric and Al- Bayān .

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Al-Bayān and its’ Components

3.1.1 The concept of al-Faşāhah and al –Balāgha

Al-Faşāhah literally means clarity or clearness. The Arabs say;
Afşaħa `ş-Şubh (the morning has been bright); when it is clear
‫ ( وافصح الطفل في منطقة‬the child speech is clear) when the words are manifest.

The word al-balāghah literally means reaching or attaining the greater

height. The Arabs say:
18
 ‫بَل َغ ال ُمسافِ ُرون َال َم ِدينَة‬
(the travelers reached the city) when they reached there.
And they say: ‫بَلَغتُ َغا َيتِي‬
( I reached my peak) when I got there
However, the term al-Balāghah is a verbal noun derived from Arabic word
balagha. The word was originally used to describe an oratory power in a
khatīb (orator/speaker). It is the science of eloquence which suggests
reaching a target from the source. The target of a speaker or a writer is perhaps
tobe articulate, to command good language and of course to be persuasive
enough to reach his audience.
‫احة ال َكلِ َمة‬ َ ‫ص‬َ َ‫ف‬
The Eloquence of a Word

A word is considered eloquent when it is free from the following three

blemishes: :
‫ تنافر الكـلمـة‬cluster of consonants
‫غرابة اللفظ‬ strangeness  of sound 
‐ ‫ مخالفة القياس‬Non conformity with Arabic etymological rules
‫ تَنَافُ ُر ْال َكلِ َمة‬:Cluster of consonants appear in a word that contains consonants of the
same sound or very close articulation because the pronunciation of the word will
be very difficult, whereas an eloquent word should be very light and easy to
pronounce. For example:
‫ ال ُھ ْع ُخع‬meaning shrub eaten by camels, is very difficult
to pronounce because it contains three consonants of the same articulation or
they are all glottal sounds. ‫ه‬, ‫ ع‬and ‫ خ‬have very close places of articulation which makes it
very difficult to articulate.
Using : ‫العشب‬.
which also means grass instead of
‫ال ُھ ْع ُخع‬
Will be considered more eloquent.

Strange words : ‫ظ‬ ِ ‫َغ َرابَةُ الﱠل ْف‬

These are words which are no more in use or a word of ancient time whose meaning is very
difficult to comprehend and is not easy to search for the real meaning is intended of it.
For example:
‫ اِ ْف َر ْنقَ َع‬means َ‫ص َرف‬
َ ‫ ا ْن‬depart
َ ‫( تَ َكأ َكأ‬to gather) has the same meaning with ‫اجْ تَم َع‬.

Also, ْ ‫( ا‬to be hard).

. ‫ الطَ َح َم‬means ‫شتَ ﱠد‬
All these words :
‫ افرنقع ؛ تكأكأ‬and ‫الطحم‬

19
are strange words which are no more in use. The former can be easily understood.

‐ ‫ُم َخالَفَةُ ْالقِيَاس‬

This happens when the etymological rules are not followed in the formation of a
particular word concerned. For example the word ‫ بوقات‬is used as broken plural for
‫ بوق‬in the following poetical line of al-Mutannabī
‫ات لَھَا َوطُبُو ٌل‬ ِ ‫فَفِي النﱠ‬
ٌ َ‫اس بُوق‬ ‫اس َسيفًا لِ َدولَ ٍة‬
ِ ‫إن يَ ﱡك بَعضُ النﱠ‬
ْ ‫َو‬
If some people are sword to a government
people will become whistle and drum for it
According to the etymological rule, the broken plural for
ٌ ‫ ا ْب َوا‬is ‫ق‬
‫ق‬ ٌ ‫بُو‬
The word does not conform to etymological rule.
A speaker is said to be eloquent when he has succeeded in swaying his
audience with his speech. It is ability to use plan, unornamented, and proper
words in his expression. In a nutshell the speaker should refrain from the act of
using artificial ornamentation and verbal jugglery.

3.2 The concept of Al- Bayān

Arabic rhetoric comprises of three main branches that is:
(al-Bayān ,al-Ma’āni and al-Badī’)
Al-Bayān is the first of the three main branches that mean elocution, lucidity
and distinctiveness. It is an art of attaining elucidation and clarification of thoughts,
in expressions and speeches.
R..D. Abubakre refers to it as a body of knowledge which enables the user to
express his mind in different structures which vary as to clarity in expressing the
intended meaning.
The Holy Qur’ān says:
َ َ‫ان َعلﱠ َمهُ ا ْلبَي‬
‫ان‬ َ ‫س‬ ِْ ‫ق‬
َ ‫اإلن‬ َ َ‫آن َخل‬ َ ‫ال ﱠر ْح َمـٰنُ َعلﱠ َم ا ْلقُ ْر‬
‫ان‬
ِ ‫س ُج َد‬ ْ َ‫ان النﱠ ْج ُم َوالش َﱠج ُر ي‬ ْ ‫س َوا ْلقَ َم ُر بِ ُح‬
ٍ َ ‫سب‬ ُ ‫ش ْم‬‫ال ﱠ‬
(Allah) Most Gracious!
It is He Who has taught the Qur'ān
He has created man
He has taught him speech (and intelligence).
The sun and the moon follow courses (exactly) computed;
And the herbs and the trees - both (alike) bow in adoration.(55:1-5)

Allah also said:

َ ‫اب تِ ْبيَانًا لﱢ ُك ﱢل َش ْي ٍء َوھُدًى َو َرحْ َمةً َوبُ ْش َر ٰى لِ ْل ُم ْسلِ ِم‬
‫ين‬ َ َ‫ك ْال ِكت‬
َ ‫َونَ ﱠز ْلنَا َعلَ ْي‬

20
 and We have sent down to thee the Book explaining all things, a
Guide, a Mercy, and Glad Tidings to Muslims. (Q16:89).
Ibn Mu’tazz described al-Bayān as the interpreter of the heart, polisher
of the mind and the dispeller of doubt.
Ibn Abd Rabbīh said “the soul is the pillar of the body, knowledge is
the pillar of the soul and al-bayān is the pillar of knowledge. Al-Bayān teaches
us how to do away with unnecessary complication in our expression.
Al-Bayān comprises of five sub-topics:
(1) At-Tashbīh
(2) (Simile)
(3) al-Isti‘ārah (Metaphor)
(4) al-Majāz al-Mursal (figure of Speech) Majāz al-‘Aqlī (Mental Figure)
(5) al- Kināyah (Metonymy).

At-Tashbīh
The word At-Tashbīh is a verbal noun (maşdar) derived from the verb shabbaha
which means to resemble. According to Abubakre (1989) its root verb is shabiha . In
rhetorical usage it is to relate a concept of similarity shared by two objects or notions
with intent to focus on this common feature to the exclusion of other consideration.

At-Tashbīh contains the following four parts:

(i) ‫ المشبّه‬The object or notion being compared
(ii) ‫ المشبّه به‬The object or notion to which comparism is being made.
(iii) ‫ وجه الشّبه‬The feature of comparison.
(iv) ‫ آداة التشبيه‬The particle of al-Tashbīh
Al-Barūdī said:
‫ين ْال َو َرى لَ َم ٌع‬ َ ‫َوإنّ َما‬
َ َ‫صف َوهُ ب‬ # ‫َوال ﱠدھ ُر َكالبَحْ ِر الَيَنفَ ﱡك َذا َك َد ٍر‬
Time is like a river which does not stop being turbid it is ever
being pure for mankind is a luster.
Ad-dahr (time) in the above poem is Mushabbah while al-bahr (river) is
mushabbah bih. Then Kaf is Adāt – Tashbih and la yanfak dha kadarin, is wajhu-sh-
shabah .
When the parts of tashbīh complete in a sentence it is called at-Tashbīh al-Mursal

Another poet said:

ٌ‫ب تُ َراب‬ َ ‫َو ُكلﱡ الﱠ ِذى فَ ْو‬
ِ ‫ق التﱡ َرا‬ # ‫ك ْال ُو ﱠد فَ ْال َما ُل ھَيﱢ ٌن‬ ُ ِ‫إِ َذا ن‬
َ ‫لت ِمن‬
If I win your love then, money is contempted.
And everything on the earth is dust.
Here the poet compared kullu ladhī fawqa `t-Turāb (every thing on the earth)
to Tarāb (dust), the particle adāt-Tashbīh and aspect of resemblance wajhu-sh-

21
shabah are dropped. Therefore, it is called al-tashbīhu `l-Balīqh (complex simile).
The aspect of resemblance is supposed to be worthlessness (in‘idāmu `l-qīmat).

The purpose of using al-Tashbīh.

There are various objectives of using Tashbīh. Among them are as follow:
Explanation of the possibility of two apparently contradictory َ ‫ان ا ْل ُم‬
‫شبﱠه‬ ِ ‫بَيَانُ اِم َك‬ -
things
One poet said:
ُ ‫َويَدنُ ُؤ ِمنھَا النُو ُر َوال ﱡش َعا‬
‫ع‬ ‫مس تَب ُع ُد أَ ْن تَ َسا ِمى‬
ِ ‫ت َكال ﱠش‬
َ ‫اَ ْن‬
You are like sunlight which is far but
its light and ray are so close to the people
‐ ‫ بَيانُ َحالِ ِه‬Explanation of the situation of like object being compared
Al-Nābighah said:
ُ ‫ك َشمسٌ َو ْال ُملُو‬
ٌ‫ك َك َوا ِكبٌ إِ َذا طَلَ َعت لَم يَب ُد ِمنھُ ﱠن َكو َكب‬ َ ‫َكأنﱠ‬
You are like sun and other kings are stars;
when the sun rises we hardly see the star.
The poet here likens all the kings to star while likening his patron to the sun
whichdwarf the status of all the stars by its appearance. He then enhances and
elucidatesthe status of his patron in contrast with the stars which are insignificant
when compared to the sun.

‐ ‫ار َحالِ ِه‬ ُ َ‫ بَي‬Elucidation of the limitation of the power or weakness given
ِ ‫ان ِمق َد‬
the object being compared
A poet said:
‫ب ْاألَ ْس ُح ِم‬
ِ ‫ُسو ًدا َك َخا فِيَ ِة ْال ُغ َرا‬ # ً‫ون َحلُوبَة‬ ِ َ‫فِيھَا ْاثنَت‬
َ ‫ان َواَرْ بَ ُع‬
There are forty-two she- camels
As black as the underfoot of a black crow.
‐ ‫ تَق ِري ُر َحالِ ِه‬Confirmation or establishment of the permanence of the condition
of the object compared.
The poet says:
‫ِمث َل ﱡ‬
‫الز َجا َج ِة َك ْس ُرھَا الَيُجْ بَ ُر‬ َ ُ‫إِ ﱠن ْالقُل‬
‫وب إَ َذاثَنَافَ َر ُو ﱡدھَا‬
When there is an aversion of love in any heart,
it is like the broken of glass which is un-amendable.

‐ ُ‫ التﱠ ْزيِين‬This is for the purpose of beautification.

‐ ُ ِ‫ التﱠ ْقب‬for the purpose of disfigurement. This is to disfigure the object
‫يح‬
being compared for example: - a poet says:

‫قِرْ ٌد يُقَ ْھقِهُ اَ ْو َع ُجو ٌزتَلَطﱠ َم‬ ُ‫َواِ َذا اَ َشا َر ُم َح ﱢدثًا فَ َكأ َنﱠه‬
When he speaks he appears like a monkey
that laugh extra-ordinarily or like an old man.

22
 Self Assessment Exercises

1. Explain why the words underlined cannot be considered eloquent

‫رب جفنة مثعنجرة وطعنه مسحنقرة تبقى غدا بأنقرة‬ -
‫فالن على سصاصا ه )عجله( من امره‬ -
(‫ھذا فالن ثوروي )نسبة الى الثورة‬ -
(‫ھذا رجل عفضج )صلب قوي‬ -
‫احرنجمت )اجتمعت( السيارات فى الميدان‬ -

2. Explain al-Bayān in Arabic literary tradition

3. “al-Bayān has been accorded with no less degree of importance by the
e earliest scholars of Arabic and Islamic studies”. Discuss
4. What is at-Tashbīh and explain its four elements.
5. Mention four out of the purposes of at-Tashbīh.

4.0 CONCLUSION
We hereby conclude from the foregoing that :
Eloquence of a word, sentence and the speaker are very important for
effective communication between the speaker and the audience.
The term AL- FAŞĀHAH connotes clarity of expression as a result of clarity
of letters and words.
The word AL-BALĀGHAH means reaching or attaining the greater height in
speech, poetry or prose.
Arabic rhetoric comprises of three main branches that is (al-Bayān ,al-
Ma’āni and al-Badī’).
Al-Bayān is one of the three main branches of Arabic Rhetoric. It means
elocution, lucidity. Ilmu `l-Bayān is therefore the by which clarity of thought and
clearness of expression examined or attained.
Al-Bayān comprises of five sub topics namely; At-Tashbīh (Simile), al-Isti
'ārah (Metaphor), al-Majāz al-Mursal (figure of Speech) Majāz al-‘Aqlī Mental
Figure and al- Kināyah (Metonymy).
The word At-Tashbīh in rhetorical usage is a concept of similarity shared by
two objects or notions. At-Tashbīh contains the following four parts: ‫ المشبّه‬The
object or notion being compared; ‫ المشبّه به‬The object or notion to which
comparism is being made; ‫ وجه ال ّشبه‬The feature of comparison; ‫ آداة التشبيه‬The
particle of al-Tashbīh.
The various objectives of using Tashbīh include: ‫شبﱠه‬َ ‫ان ا ْل ُم‬
ِ ‫تَق ِري ُر َحالِ ِه ; بَيانُ َحالِ ِه ; بَيَانُ اِم َك‬
ُ ِ‫التﱠ ْقب‬
ُ‫يح ;التﱠ ْزيِين‬

23
 5.0 SUMMARY
This Unit defines al-Bayān segment of the Art of Rhetoric in the Arabic
Language. It defines the significance of the topic and elucidates its three components
i.e. Bayān, Balāghah, and Fasāhah of words and expressions. Copious examples from
the Qur’ān and Arabic poetical verses and prose are given as illustrations. Self
assessment exercises provide avenue to test comprehension and composition. Tutor
Marked assignments are also given four of which you will attempt and the best three
maks will constitute thirty percent of your total grade.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. When can a word be considered eloquent?
2. Explain the concept of al-Bayān. 
3. Explain the objectives of using at-Tashbīh in an expression
4. With examples explain the element of at-Tashbīh in Arabic rhetoric.

7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READING

al-Jurjānī Muhammad (1981) al Isharat wa ‘t-tanbihat fi’ilmi’l-Balagha,

Tahqiq ‘Abdul-Qahir Husayn. Cairo: Dārun-Nahda.
Bierwisch M (1975) Semantics in John Lyons (ed) New Horizons in
Liguistics. Middlesex: Penguin Books
Dawf Shawqi (1965) al-Balāghatu tatawwurun watārīkh. Cairo
Tabanah Badawi (1956) al-Bayānu `l-‘Arabī. Cairo
Ullman S. (1951) Words and their Use. London
Von Grunebaum E G (1950) Poetry of al-Baqilani and ‘ijaz al-Qur’ān.
Chicago

24
 UNIT 3 KINDS OF TASHBĪH AHD CONCEPT OF HAQĪQAH AND MAJĀZ

CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Kinds of Tashbīh and Concept of Haqīqah and Majāz
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 Reference/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the Unit Two, you learnt the four parts of Tashbīh namely: ‫المشبّه‬, ‫ المشبّه به‬,
‫ وجه ال ّشبه‬, and ‫ آداة التشبيه‬. If these linguistic instruments are expressed in a structure of
simile or dropped, it has its implication of which you will learn in this unit. Further
more, words are either used for direct meaning or indirect meaning. This unit also
intends to familiarize you with what the semantic notion implied.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
‐ Analyse the various kinds of al- Tashbīh
‐ Identify each of the kinds of al- Tashbīh
‐ Give examples of each of the kinds of al- Tashbīh
‐ Identify of the kinds of al- Tashbīh.
‐ Explain the words al-Haqīqah and al-Majāz with examples

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Kinds of tashbīh and concept of haqīqah and majāz

We have various kinds of al- Tashbīh namely :
‫التشبيه المؤكد‬-.4 ‫التشبيه المجمل‬-.3 ‫التشبيه المفصل‬-.2 ‫التشبيه المرسل‬-.1
‫ التشبيه المرسل‬-7 ‫التشبيه التمثيل‬-.6 ‫التشبيه البليغ‬-5

25
 ‫التشبيه المرسل‬
This is a free simile where the particle of Tashbih is mentioned e.g
ُ ‫إِنﱠكَ َكا ْل َمطَ ِر فِى ْا‬
‫لجو ِد‬ (You are like rain in gift)

‫التشبيه المفصل‬
This is a simile whereby the aspect of resemblance (wajhu-sh-shabah) is
mentioned e.g.
‫سيم فِى ال ّرقَ ِة‬
ِ ‫ اَ ْخالَقثكَ َكالنﱠ‬Your conduct is like the breeze in gentleness

‫التّشّبيه المجمل‬
This is a type of simile whereby the aspect of resemblance (wajhu-sh-shabah) is not
mentioned e.g.
We visited the garden which looks like paradise).‫س‬ ِ ‫ُز ْرنَا ا ْل َح ِديقَة َكأنّ َھا ا ْلفِر َدو‬
Here the aspect of resemblance which is supposed to be beauty has been dropped.
‫شبِيهُ ا ْل ُمؤَ ﱠكد‬ْ ‫التﱠ‬
This is an emphatic simile in which the particle of comparison is not
expressed e.g.
(The camel is a dazzling lighting in rapidity ) ٌ‫اطف‬ِ ‫ق َخ‬ ٌ ‫سر َعة بَر‬ ‫الج َوا ُد فِى ال ﱡ‬
َ
Here, the particle of comparison (kāf) is dropped i.e. kal-barqil khātif.
‫التشبيه البليغ‬
This is a condition whereby the adāt tashbīh and wajhu `shabah of simile are
dropped e.g.
We are sprout on mole-hill ‫الربَا‬ ‫نَحنُ نَ ْبتُ ﱡ‬
Allah says;
‫شا‬ َ ‫سا َو َج َعلنَا النﱠ َھ‬
ً ‫ار َم َعا‬ ً ‫َو َج َعلنَا اللﱡي َل لِبَا‬
And we made the night as a covering and the day as a means of subsistence.
Q.76:10-11
‫شبِيهُ ا ْلتﱠ ْمثِيلِى‬
ْ ‫التﱠ‬
This is a kind of simile whereby the aspect of resemblance would be a picture
of something visible e.g.
Al-Mutannabī said;
ُ َ‫احي َھا ال ُعق‬
‫اب‬ َ َ‫ضت َجن‬ َ َ‫يش َحولَكَ َجانِبَي ِه َك َما نَف‬ ُ ‫الج‬ َ ‫يَ َھ ﱡز‬
The troops move its two sides around you
As eagle moves its two wings along with it.
In this line, Al-Mutannabī likens the movement wings of a bird to the
movement of army with the other in middle. The two movements can certainly be
described with different qualities which cannot even be estimated. But to Al-
Mutannabī the movements cannot but do with "force" and this is in fact the most
interesting to him and then make use of it as the feature of comparison.
The Holy Qur’ān says:
‫مثل الذى ح ّملوا التوراة ثم لم يحملوھا كمثل الحمار يحمل أسفارا بئس مثل القوم‬
‫ وﷲ اليھدى القوم الظالمين‬، ‫الذين كذبو بأيات ﷲ‬

26
 The similitude of those who were entrusted with the (obligation of) Taurat, but
who subsequently failed in those (obligation) is that of a donkey which carried huge
tomes (a large book) (but understands them not) Evil is the similitude of people who
falsify the Signs of Allah, and Allah guided not people who do wrong .(chapter 62:5)
In this verse, the children of Israel were chosen as special vehicles for Allah's
message early in history. When their descendants corrupted the message and became
guilty of all the abominations, they merely became like beasts of burden that carry
learning and wisdom on their backs but do not understand or profit by it. The
similarity is here taken from the whole situation in which the donkey finds itself that
is that he carry books of which he understand nothing.
Al- Mushabbah and al- Mushabbah bihi are known as Tarafat-tashbīh and can
be concrete or abstract.

At-Tashbīh Based on Perception

‫س‬
ِ ‫سو‬ُ ‫س بِا ْل َمح‬ ُ ‫شبِيهُ ا ْل َم ْح‬
ِ ‫سو‬ ْ َ‫ت‬
This is a kind of simile whereby both the musshabbah and the mushabbah bihi
are perceived through at least one of the sense e.g.
( I saw the boy. He is as fine as flower ) .‫رايت الولد كأنه ورد فى الجمال‬
The flower which is mushabbah and ( The boy) mushabbah bihi are perceivable
through at least one of the five senses.
(II) ‫ول‬ ِ ُ‫ تشبيه المحسوس بِا ْل َم ْعق‬This is a kind of simile whereby the mushabbah is
perceivable through senses but the mushabbah bihi is seen through
intellect.
Bashshar bn Burd said:
‫صحوت وإن ماق الزمان اموق‬ # ‫وما انا االكالزمان إذا صحا‬
I am nothing but like epoch, if it is bright, I am also awaken.
And when epoch is depressed I am also depressed.
Here Ana (I am) which is al-mushabbah is visible while Az-zamān
(epoch) which is mushabbah bihi is not visible at all.
This is where the mushabbah is ma'qul which the mushabbah bihi is mahsus.
‫الخلق السيّئ يفسد العمل كما يفسد الخ ّل العسل‬
A bad conduct spoils the deed just as vinegar spoils honey.

Concept of Haqīqah and Majāz

Where a word Isti'māl’un haqīqiyun literally used for its meaning, Al-haqīqah is
when a word is used to denote a semantic notion for which it was originally
introduced e.g.‫ ( َكانَ ا ْلبَح ُر َھا ِدئًا‬The sea was calm ) .
The word al-Bahr (The Sea) has been used in the sentence literally.
al- Majāz is Rhetorical term that used to denote a word for a meaning other than
that for which it was originally introduced e.g.
ِ ‫ُھوا ْلبَح ُر يَ ُم ﱡد يَد َذهُ بِا ْل َع‬
ِ ْ ‫ون َو‬
‫اال َعانَ ِة‬
He is the sea that spread its hand with help and generosity.

27
 In this example, we would find out that the words ‫( يده يم ّد‬spread its hands) are the
one which indicate to us that, the literal meaning of al-bahr is not intended. These
words or any other word in a sentence which indicates that the literal meaning of
another word is not intended are known in Bayān as al- Majāz.

Self Assessment Exercise

1. Explain at- Tashbīh ul-Balīgh
2. Expatiate on at- Tashbīh ul-Mu’akkad
3. What is al-Haqīqah and al-Majāz

4.0 CONCLUSION
You have been able to understand each kind of tashbih and their examples
The concept of al- Haqīqah and al- Majāz has been explained.

5.0 SUMMARY
You have been able to know that at- Tashbīh is of various kinds. A place
where wajhu-sh-shabah is expressed in a structure of simile is known as al-Mufassal
where it is not expressed is known as al-Mujmal. If the instrument of at- Tashbīh is
expressed it is known as free simile (al- Mursal) and where it is dropped is known as
emphatic simile. And you have been able to know that same words can be used for
different meaning; its primary and secondary.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1-Explain the following simile in Arabic Rhetoric
‫التشبيه المؤكد‬, ‫ النشبيه التمثيل‬, ‫التشبيه البليغ‬
2-A word has primary and secondary meaning;Discuss in line with al-
Haqīqah and al-Majāz in Arabic rhetoric.

7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READING

al-’Askarī ,Abū Hilāl (1934) Diwānul Ma’ānī. Cairo
al-Jāhiz, ‘Ali et al(1961). Al-Balāghatul-Wādihah. Cairo: Daru ul Ma’ruf
Ibn Qutaybah (1925) ‘Uyūnul- Akhbār. Cairo
Mustafa, Muragi Ahmad (n d) Ulūmul Balāgha wal Bayān wal Badī’. Cairo:
Maktabatul Muhammadiyyah at-tijariyyah.
Nājī, ‘Abdul-Hamid (1976) al-Athārul-‘Ighrīqī fil-Balāgha minal-Jāhiz ila Ibn
Mu’tazz. Baghdād: Jami’atu Baghdad.
Wahabi ‘Abdul-Lah (1968) al-Asās fi n-Naqdi wal- Balāgha. Saudi Arabia:
Wizāratul Ma ā’rif

28
 ‫اﻟﻮﺣﺪة اﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ‬

MODULE 2 : AL- BAYĀN

Unit 1 ; Al- isti’ārah and its components
Unit 2 ; The classes of majāz and al-kināyah
Unit 3 ; The Concept of ‘ilmul-ma‘āni and its conponents

UNIT 1: AL- ISTI‘ĀRAH AND ITS COMPONENTS

CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Al- Isti‘ārah and its Components
3.2 The three Parts of Isti‘ārah
3.3 Kinds of al-Isti’ārah
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6. Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 Reference/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Al-Isti’ārah is a word used in a sense other than its code meaning with a semantic
marker to warn that it should not be given its primary meaning. As a rhetorical term,
it denotes an act of transferring the notion conveyed by the literal meaning of a word
to a metaphorical one.
Al-Isti’ārah is made up of some components. Its components and divisions
will be discussed in this unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to
‐ Analyse the significance of al-Isti’ārah
‐ Explain the components of al-Isti’ārah
‐ Explain the divisions of al-Isti’ārah

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Al- Isti’ārah and Its Components
The word al-Isti‘ārah literally mean 'Borrowing' . As an Arabic rhetorical

29
term, al- Isti’ārah is a word used in a sense other than its code meaning with a
semantic marker to warn that it should not be given its code meaning. As a rhetorical
term, it denotes an act of transferring the notion conveyed by the literal meaning of a
word to a metaphorical one. Both the particle and aspect of resemblance along with
one of the two corners of simile are dropped in our expression.
For example: If we say:
‫س َما ِء ُد َر ٌرتُنِي ُر‬
‫شرتْ فِى ال ﱠ‬ َ َ‫ ا ْنت‬The stars spread in the sky and light.
‫ُد َر ٌر‬ is pearls but it has been used here figuratively to mean stars.
The link between the literal meaning (stars) and metaphorical meaning (pearls) is
originated from simile. This is because the origin of the expression is
‫انشرت فى السماء نُ ُجو ٌم َكال ﱡد َررفِى َج ْذبِھا‬
(The stars spread in the sky like pearls in fascination.)
The thing that is likened ‫ نُ ُجو ٌم‬is dropped along with the particle i.e. Kāf while
the notion to which the comparison is being made is mentioned.
This is known as al-Isti’ārah at- Taşrīhiyyah (explicit metaphor).
So, this is an implicit metaphor because the thing likened to is not explicit
Metaphor.

3.2 The Three Parts of Al-Isti’ārah

     
A semantic sphere from which term is transferred.  ‫مستعار منه‬       
 Semantic sphere to which a term is transferred.‫مستعارله‬ 
It is the component of the thing likened.  
  This is the particular word used metaphorically‫مستعار‬
Example:
ِ ‫ت إِلَى النﱡ‬
.‫ور‬ ‫اس ِم َن ﱡ‬
ِ ‫الظلُ َما‬ َ ‫خر َج النﱠ‬ َ ‫ ِكتَابٌ اَن َز ْلنَاهُ إِلَي‬: ‫قَا َل تَ َعالَى‬
ِ ُ‫ك لِت‬
In this verse, ignorance is likened to darkness while knowledge is likened to light.
The analysis goes thus:
‫ ال َج ْھ ُل َو ْال ِع ْل ُم‬: ‫مستعارمنه‬
‫ضالَ ُل َو ْالھُ َدى‬ ‫ اَل ﱠ‬: ‫مستعارله‬
‫ات َوالنﱡو ُر‬ ‫ ﱡ‬: ‫مستعار‬
ُ ‫الظلُ َم‬
Kinds of al-Isti’ārah
al-Isti’ārah can be further divided into 'Aşliyyah (primary) and Taba'iyyah
(secondary)
al-Isti’ārah 'Asliyyah (Primary metaphor) : This is where the primary borrowed one
is not derived in the morphology of language. It could be from a concrete object like
asad (lion) which is transferred to a man to denote the quality of courage existing in
both objects or abstract noun like when verbal noun qatl (killing) is used to mean
đarb (severe beating) (Abubakre, R.D:121).
al-Isti’ārah Taba'iyyah (secondary metaphor) : This is when the word borrowed is a
derived noun or a finite verb.

30
 Example:

َ‫س َختِ َھا ُھ ًدى َو َرح َمةً لِلﱠ ِذينَ ُھم لِ َربﱢ ِھم يَ ْر َھبُون‬ َ ‫ب أَ َخ َذ ْاأل ْل َو‬
ْ ُ‫اح َوفِى ن‬ َ ‫سى ا ْل َغ‬
َ ‫ض‬ َ ‫ َولَ َما‬: ‫قال تعالى‬
َ ‫س َكتَ َعنْ ُمو‬
"And when the anger of Musa (Moses) was calmed down, he
took up the Tablets; and in their inscription was guidance
and mercy for those who fear their Lord. (Qur’ān 7:154).

The subsiding of Musa's anger is likened to quietness because both

situation result in calmness. Then, the word which refers to quietness is '‫'السكون‬
which is not directly used rather a derivation of it is used which is "‫سكن‬
Therefore whenever a derivative of Mushabah bihi is used, the Isti'ārah is called
Taba'iyyah. This derivative may be a verb or adjective.
ِ ‫عار ِمنهُ َو ُمالئِ ُم ْال ُمستَ َع‬
‫ار لَه‬ ِ َ‫ُمالَئِ ُم ْال ُمست‬
The three categories here are:
i. al-Isti’ārah al-Mutlaqah (absolute.metaphor) This is the one in which no
appropriate reference is made to either the mushabah or mushabah bihi .
An example for this is from the Qur’ān.
ِ ‫أنَا لَ ﱠما طَ َغى ْال َما ُء َح َملنَا ُكم فِى ْال َج‬
‫اريَة‬
ii Isti'arah murashshahah (Fortified metaphor): This is the one in which
appropriate reference is made to the word metaphorically used to enhance the
metaphor by obliterating it.
Quran says:
َ َ‫ضاللَةَ بِ ْالھُ َدى فَ َما َربِ َحت تِ َجا َرتُھُم َو َما َكانُوا ُم ْھت‬
‫دون‬ َ ‫اَولَئِك الﱠ ِذ‬
‫ين ا ْشتَ َر ُوا ال ﱠ‬
These are they who have purchased error for guidance so
their commerce was profitless. And they were not guided
(Qur’ān 2:16)
iii Isti'āratun Mujarradah (Bare metaphor): This is the one in which appropriate
extension is made to refer to the word rather than the metaphor sphere of
meaning.
An example for this is:
ِ َ‫ِم َن ال ﱡد ْنيَا إُلَى ھَلَ ٍك ي‬
‫صي ُر‬ ‫إن يَ ْھلِ ْك فَ ُكلﱡ َع ُمو ِد قَ ْو ٍم‬
ْ َ‫ف‬

iv Isti‘ārah Murakkabah (Complicated Metaphor)

The complicated metaphor is the one which requires strong fanciful
assumption to be able to study the component elements and convert them to a
simile underlying the metaphor expression. For example:
‫اِنﱢى اَ َراكَ تُقَ ﱢد ُم ِر ْجالً َوتُ َؤ ﱢخ ُر أ ُ ْخ َرى‬
I discover that you are putting one leg in front and putting the other backward.
Here, the person draws a comparison in parable between matter and one who
putting one leg in front and putting the other backward.
More examples are: ‫الزالَ ِل‬ ‫يَ ِج ْد ُم ًّرا بِ ِه ال َما َء ﱡ‬ ‫َومنْ يَكﱡ َذافَ ﱢم َم ِري ٍر‬

31
 Whoever has a bitter and diseased mouth, even clear water will taste bitter.
Here, al-Mutannabi loathing the petty poets who criticised his poetry and tried to
discredit him in the eyes of his patron, wishes to say, An ignorant man forms a
wrong idea of the thoughts expressed by a good poet, that which is right appears
to him as wrong.
The aesthetic and psychological effect of this mathal is much greater than the
sample normal expression of thought would be.
A poet who wishes to say that all the hours he has spent with Lailā have been
absolutely fruitless says:
َ َ‫َعلَى ْال َما ِء َخانَ ْتهُ فُ ُرو ُج ْاأل‬
‫صابِ ِع‬ ٍ ِ‫ت ِم ْن لَيلَى ْال َغ َداةَ َكقَاب‬
‫ض‬ ُ ْ‫فَا َصْ بَح‬
“In the morning, I was with Laila like one who would hold water in his hands but
his fingers failed hom (and the water slipped between his fingers).
Here, the tamthil illustrates the completeness of the poet’s disappointment.

‫اراكَ تَ ُخطّ َعلَى ا ْل َما ِء‬

َ I discover that you are writing on water
for somebody who is doing wrong work .
ُ ‫صفﱠ‬
‫ق‬ َ ُ‫يَ ﱞد َالت‬ one hand cannot clap
(for one who wants to do something alone)
‫ما كل مايتمنى المرء يدركه‬
‫تأتى الرياح بما التشتھى السفن‬
Man does not always attain what he wishes.
The winds lead sometime to where the sailor does not wish.
(for one who is unsuccessful in wht he desire)
‫الَتَ ْنثُ ِر ال ّد ﱠر اَ َما َم ا ْل ِخن ِزي ِر‬ don’t spread the pearls in front of the pig
it means don’t admonish the one that will not use it .

Self Assessment Exercises

1. Give three expressions which involves al- Isti’ārah and do their analysis.
2. Explain the components of Isti’ārah
3. Elucidate on primary and secondary metaphor

4.0 CONCLUSION

The word al-Isti’ārah literally means 'Borrowing'.

As a rhetorical term al-Isti’ārah consist of three parts :
 A semantic sphere from which term is transferred. ‫مستعار منه‬

32
 A semantic sphere to which a term is transferred.‫مستعارله‬
It is the component of the thing likened.
   ‫ر‬ ‫ مستعا‬This is the particular word used metaphorically
al-Isti’ārah is of various kinds such as al-Isti’ārah 'Asliyyah ,al-Isti’ārah
Taba'iyya al-Isti’ārah Mutlaqah ,Isti'arah murashshahah, Isti'āratun Mujarradah
and al Isti’ārah Murakkabah.

5.0 SUMMARY
This Unit acquaints you with the meaning of al-Isti’ārah ;its components and
kinds

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What is ‫?اإلستعارة‬
2. Explain the differences between explicit and implicit metaphor.
3. Write a short note on the following;
‫( مستعا ر‬III) ‫( مستعارله‬II) ‫(مستعار منه‬I)
4. Explain the meaning of the following:
Isti’ārah Mutlaqah , Isti'arah murashshahah,
Isti'āratun Mujarradah and Isti’ārah Murakkabah.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

1. al-Jurjānī ‘Abdul-Qāhir (1959) Asrāru `l-Balāgha Cairo: Maktaba

Muhammad ‘Ali Subayh
2. al-Khatīb al-Qazwīnī (1949) al-Talkhīş fī ‘ulumi’l-Balāgha in Majmū’ul-
Mutūn. Cairo: Mustafa al-Babī al- Halabī.
3 Lajnatun fi wizāratit-Tarbiyah (1975) al Balāghah. Iraq: Wizaratu
`t- tarbiyyah.
4. Matlub Ahmad(1980) al-Balāghatu `l-‘Arabiyyah: al Ma’āni wal -Bayān
wal-Badī’. Iraq: Wizāratul t-ta’lim ‘l-‘Ali wal bahthil-‘ilm

33
 UNIT 2: THE CLASSES OF MAJĀZ AND AL-KINĀYAH

ONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Classes of Majāz and Al-Kināyah
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 Reference/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In Module Two Unit One you learnt Isti‘ārah and its components. Try to
recollect some of the examples given from the Qur’ān, Arabic poetry and your
personal sentence constructions. In this unit we are going to treat two other important
aspects of al-Bayān; these are al-Majāz and al-Kināyah. Come on board

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to

 Define al-Majāz and al-Kinayah
 Explain the types of al-Majāz with illustrations
 Explain the meaning of majāzu `l-mursal and its kinds
 Analyse the differences between mental figure and linguistic figure.
 Expatiate on the concept of al-Kināyah with illustration
 Classify al-Kināyah

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of al-Majāz and al- Kināyah
Al-Majāz is of two categories based on the nature of the predicate. If al-Majāz
is the attribution of a predicate to what should not “literally” be its subject, it is
34
classified as al-Majāz ‘aqlī (Mental figure); But if al-Majāz is the transfer of the
meaning of a word to another meaning, in view of semantic connection existing
between the two meanings, it is classified as al-Majāz al-Lughawī.
Al-Majāz al-Mursal applies to a situation where a literal meaning of a word or
phrase is not meant but its figurative meaning. It is different from Isti‘ārah in that
there is no connection between the literal and figurative meaning.
Al-Kināyah in Arabic rhetorics implies a word with an intrinsic meaning. It is
integral to have a semantic connection, which does not preclude the word used for al-
Kināyah.
The Classes of Majāz and Al-Kināyah
Traditional Arabic rhetorician divided al-Majāz into the following two
categories al-Majāz al- ' aqlī – (Mental figure) It refers to cases where one
intended meaning can only be understood by the use of mental reasoning. A verb
phrase or a predicate is attributed to a subject with which it is not literally compatible.
For instance: ‫بَنَى ا ْل َو ِزي ُر ِع ﱠدةَ َم َدا ِرس‬
(The minister built many schools).
This cannot be real, because he is not the one that built the schools, he only ordered
the project and executed by other people such as bricklayers, carpenters and so on.
Another kind of Majāz al-‘Aqlī is the usage of ism-fāi’l in place of ism maf’ūl.
Al- Majāz- al-Mursal (free figure) refers to the use of a word to denote a
meaning other than its original meaning but without any direct resemblance between
the intended meaning and original meaning. The connection therefore, between the
two meanings would be looked for in some other facets of the two meanings. This is
because you can never have al-Majāz which does not have any kind of relationship
whatsoever with the original meaning.
The following are the relationship which may exist between the two

1. َّ ‫ ( َعال َق ُة ال‬being the cause) This is when the literal meaning causes
‫س َب ِب َّية‬
the  figurative meaning to exist.e.g:

35
 ‫رعت االبل الغيث‬ ( The camel grazed the abundant rain)                  . 
In this example the word al- ghayth whose literal meaning is abundant rain, is
used metaphorically to mean green grass. But the literal meaning causes the
figurative meaning green grass to exist, the link between the two is called:
‫عالقة سببية‬
‫( َعالقَةُ ال ُم ﱠ‬being the effect of) This is when the figurative meaning cause
2. ‫سبَبِيﱠة‬
the literal meaning to exist. An example is from the holy Qur’ān.
‫وينزل لكم من السماء رزقا‬
And He (Allah sends for you from the heaven your sustenance
it is obvious that the word sustenance is used instead of rain. There is a connection
between them in that it is the rain that brings about substance. Therefore when the
word used is caused or brought about by the intended meaning it is called
‫ َعالقَةُ ال ُم ﱠ‬:
‫سبَبِيﱠة‬
3. ‫َعالقَةُ ال ُجز ئيﱠة‬
This is when the literal meaning is a part of the figurative meaning .
‫يب َكل َمةً َكانَ لَ َھا َكبِي ُر أَنَ ٍر‬
ُ ‫(أ ْلقَى ا ْل َخ ِط‬The orator made a speech of great influence).
Here the word kalmah (a word) is mentioned where we have meant kalām (speeches).
This is regarded as a class of free figure, in which the semantic connection between
the literal and figurative meaning is ‫( ال ُجز ئيﱠة‬part)
‫( عالقة ْال ُكلِـيﱠة‬whole) : this is when the figurative meaning is a part of the literal
meaning .The Holy Qur’ān says:
ِ ‫ق َح َذ َر ا ْل َمو‬
‫ت‬ َ َ‫يَ ْج َعلُونَ أ‬
‫صابِ َع ُھم فِى آ َذانِ ِھم ِمنَ ال ﱠ‬
ِ ‫ص َوا ِع‬
They thrust their fingers in their ears to keep out
the stunning thunder-clap for fear of death (Q:2:19)
Here the word asābi’( fingers) are used instead of the fingertip. Therefore where the
word is whole of which the intended meaning is a part the link is to be known as:
‫عالقة ْال ُكلِـيﱠة‬
Another example is:
ِ ِ‫س َك ْنتُ فِى ن‬
‫يجي ِريَا‬ َ I am living in Nigeria
36
 . َ‫ إِ ْعتِبَا ُر َما َكان‬considering what used to be.
This is the use of a word which literal meaning describes a present condition whereas
the former status of the condition is intended; The Holy Qur’ān says;
: ‫َوآتُو ا ْليَتَا َمى أَ ْم َوالَ ُھم‬
"And give unto orphans their properties". Qur’ān 4: 2.
Here, the word orphan children had been before they came of age. It is when
they attained the age of maturity that the property left behind by their deceased father
can be given to them in full.
Their former situation is metaphorically used to describe them at a different situation.
ُ‫ا ْعتِيَا ُر َمايَ ُكون‬Considering what will be
It is the usage of a world whose literal meaning connotes a future condition to denote
a present one.e.g
‫ستَ ْوقَ َد نَا ًرا‬
ْ ‫ا‬
Here the word Nāran (fire) is used instead of hatab (wood). This means that
hatab will eventually becomes a fire
Another examples:
ِ ُ‫انﱠكَ اِنْ تَ َذ ْر ُھم ي‬
ِ َ‫ضلﱡوا ِعبَا َدكَ َو َاليَلِ ُدوا اِالﱠ ف‬
'‫اج ًرا َكفﱠا ًرا‬
(Allah) if you leave them (disbelievers) they will; lead your slaves
and : they will beget none but wicked disbelievers. Qur’ān 71:72
َ ْ ‫ستُ أَ ْز َھا ًرا َج ِميالً فِى ا‬
‫لح ِديقَ ِة‬ ْ ‫َغ َر‬ ( I planted beautiful flowers in the garden)
◌ِ َ‫اِنﱠكَ َميﱠتٌ ؤَ ا نﱠھُ ْم َميﱠتُون‬
Verily, You (Muhammad (S.A.W) are 'dead' and they are (also)'dead'
39:30(Qur’ān
- ‫( َعالَقَةُ ْال َم َحلِيﱠة‬being the place of)
In this case intended meaning occupying that place The Holy Qur’ān says;
(‫سا َ ِل ْالقَ ْريَ ِة الﱠتِي ُكنﱠا فِي َھا )اي اھلھا‬
ْ ‫َوا‬
“Ask the village where we have been “(Qur’ān 12:82)
The word al-qaryah which literally means a village is metaphorically used here to
denote its inhabitants ('Ahlu). Examples:

37
The Holy Qur’ān says:
ُ ‫فَليَ ْد‬
(‫ع نَا ِد يَهُ )اي عشير ته ؤنصيره‬
Then let him call upon his council (of helpers)
Qur’ān 97:17
‫َعالَقَةُ ْال َحالِيﱠة‬
al-Hālliyyah (being the occupier of ) It is the use of a word literal meaning of
which indicate the occupier of a place, to mean the place itself. The Holy Qur’ān
says
َ ‫اِنّ ْاألَ ْب َر‬
ٍ ‫ار لَفِى نَ ِع‬
‫يم‬
(the righteous ones are to be in comfort). Qur’ān 83:22
Here. Na‘īm (comfort situation) is metaphorically used to mean Paradise.
Definition of Al-Kināyah and its Classification
The word ‫ كناية‬is derived from ‫ كنى يكنى‬. As a rhetorical term, it is an expression
used to give a figurative meaning where a literal meaning is also possible due to
the absence of a semantic link qarīnah which will prevent us from giving the
literal meaning.
Kināqyah is classified into the following three categories
(i) Kināyatu `s-Sifah
(ii) Kināyatu Mawsūf
(iii) Kināyatu `n-Nisbah
(1) Kināyatu `s-Sifah
This is where the kināyah referential meaning implies the sense of the
possessor of an attribute or adjective.
Examples for this are :
‫شة بَ ِعي َد ةُ َم ْھ َوى ْالقُ ْر ِط‬
َ ِ‫َعائ‬
Aisha has a long space in which an ear-ring hangs
The intended meaning is deeper than the above surface meaning. The intended
meaning is that Aisha has a long neck. Al-Khansā described his brother Şakhr
thus:

38
 َ ‫َكثِي ُر ال ﱠر َما ِد إَ َذا َما‬
‫شتَى‬ ‫طَ ِوي ُل النﱢ َجاد َرفِي ُع ا ْل ِع َما ِد‬
He is of long strings of the sword, high poles of the tent and a lot
of ashes when it is winter period.
There are three Kināyāt of description in this example
‐ ‫ َط ِويل ُ ال ِّن َجاد‬long strings of the sword and the metonymical meaning of which is
he was tall.
‐ ‫ َرفِي ُع ا ْل ِع َما ِد‬High poles of the text signifies the quality of leadership and
rulership over his people.
‐ َّ ‫ َكثِي ُر‬A lot of fire ashes which means he was generous and hospitable
‫الر َما ِد‬
whenever he camped for winters This is termed ‫كناية المو صوف‬

II Kināyatu `s-Sifah
This is where the kināyah’s referential meaning implies the sense of the possessor
of an attribute : Examples:
ِ ‫( قَتَ ْلتُ َملِ ِك ا ْل ُو ُحو‬I killed the chief of wild animal )
‫ش‬
The phrase maliku `l-wuhūsh. Is employed to connote al-Asad ( the lion). One
has mentioned here- something which has the same description as the intended
meaning
Al-Buhturī- is describing how he killed a wolf
ْ َ ‫فَا َ ْتبَ ْعتُ َھا ا ُخ َرى فَا‬
ْ َ‫ضلَ ْلتُ )اخفيت( ن‬
‫صلَ َھا‬
‫عب َوال ِح ْق ُد‬ ‫يث يَ ُكونُ اللّ ﱡب َو ﱡ‬
ُ ‫الر‬ ُ ‫بِ َح‬
I followed it with another (arrow-shot) and I buried its sharpened
(inside the target) wherein is the abode of core fear and envy
So instead of mentioning the heart directly, the poet mentioned things and description
of what the heart harbours; he hereby employed the metonymy to refer to the
possessor of the attributes.
Kināyatu `n-Nisbah ‫كناية النسبة‬
This is where the kināyah whose referential meaning conveys the sense of imputation
An example of this is:

39
 َ‫َوا ْل َك َر ُم بَ ْينَ بُ ْر َد ْيك‬ َ‫اَ ْل َم ْج ُد بَينَ ثَوبَيك‬
Glory is embedded in your dress while generosity is embedded in
your garments (mantles)
Here, instead of attributing glory and generosity to the one being addressed he
ascribed it to him. This therefore is kināyah-n-Nisbah in which instead of directly
ascribing a thing or quality to the person intended it is ascribed to something that
belongs to him.

When a metonymy involves many hints. It is known as Talwīh example

‫ثرةُ ال ﱠر َماد‬
َ ‫َك‬ Someone with plenty of ashes.
The intended meaning can only be grasped after trailing a long process of activities.
Such as frequent feeding of visitors giving rise to frequent cooking ِ ‫ثرةُ الطﱠ ْب‬
(‫خ‬ َ ‫) َك‬
Frequent cooking necessitating abundant burning of firewood and ‫اق‬ َ ‫ثرةُ ا ْ ِإل‬
ِ ‫حر‬ َ ‫ َك‬which
presupposes a possession of a plenty ashes ( (‫ثرةُ ال ﱠر َماد‬
َ ‫) َك‬
If the links are few and concealed the kind of kināyah is known as Ramz .
ْ ‫ فُالَنٌ ِمنَ ا ْل ُم‬as kināyah for laziness and indolence.
Example for this is : َ‫ستَ ِري ِحين‬
Somebody who belongs to those who always rest (to give a sign of a lazy person)
If the kināyah is concise and obvious it is called ‘Īmā’ (signal). For example
‫سالَ َمة‬ ْ َ‫سافَ َر اَ ِخى ت‬
‫ص َحبُهُ ال ﱠ‬ َ
My brother travelled and peace accompanied him.
There is also a kind of metonymy known as Ta‘ rīđ (allusion) when a
statement is made with its opposite meaning intended for the target audience;
e.g. one may say to somebody who is harming the people in form of
ِ ‫س اَ ْنفَ ُع ُھ ْم لِلنﱠا‬
admonition. ‫س‬ ِ ‫( َخ ْي ُر النﱠا‬The best of men is one who is most useful
for mankind.)
Self Assessment Exercise

1. Explain the various types of al-Majāz

2. Compare and contrast between Talwīh ,Imā’ and Ramz

40
 3. Explain the etymological and rhetorical definition of al-kinayyah
4. Discuss the components of al-kinayyah
4.0 CONCLUSION

Arabic rhetorician divided al-Majāz into the following two categories :

al-Majāz al- 'aqlī – (Mental figure) This refers to cases where one intended meaning
only by the use of mental reasoning and al- Majāz- al-Mursal (free figure) which
refers to the use of a word to denote a meaning other than its original meaning but
without any direct resemblance between the intended meaning and original meaning.
The connection between the two meanings would be looked for in some other facets
of the two meanings. This is because you can never have al- Majāz which does not
have any kind of relationship whatsoever with the original meaning such as; As-
sababiyyah, al- Musabbabiyyah, Al-Kulliyyah and so on.
The word kināyah is derived from the verb kanā- yakūn. As a rhetorical term,
it is an expression used to give a figurative meaning where a literal meaning is also
possible due to a semantic link qarinah which will prevent us from giving the literal
meaning. Kināqyah is classified into the following three categories; kināyatu `s-
Şifah, Kināyatu `l- Mawsūf and Kināyatu `n-Nisbah

5.0 SUMMARY
The various types of Majāz have been explained in this Unit. The differences
between mental figurative expression and linguistic figurative expression received
elaborate and adequate discussion. An exposition of al-Kināyah and its’
classifications was also presented to you in the Unit. Copious samples and
illustrations from the Qur’ān Arabic prose and poetry were provided to help you
attain competence in the topic. .
6.2 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Compare and contrast between the mental figure and linguistic figure.
2. Expatiate on al-majāz al-mursal ,mention its various links with samples.

41
 3. Expatiate on the meaning function of al-qarinah and al-alaqah in a
m metaphorical expression
4. Discuss the metonymy in the following:
(1) ‫يقول العرب فالن نقى الثوب‬
            (2) ‫وحملنا ه على ذات الواح ودسر‬

(3)‫وال تجعل يدك مغلولة الى عنقك ؤالتبسطھا كل البسط‬

(4) ‫ كنا ية الصفة‬and ‫كنا ية الموصوف‬
(5) Compare and contrast between

7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READING

al-Jāhiz (1949) Kitābu’l-Bayān wa’t-Tabyīn as-Sandūbī. Cairo

Farhudi Hasan et al (1977) al Balāgha wan- Naqd. Saudi Arabia: Wizāratul Ma’ārif
Hadithi Khadijah and Matlūb Ahmad (1975) al Burhānu `l-kāshif ‘an I‘jāzu `l-
Qur’ān. Baghdad
Hasan Muhammad ‘Ali (1975) Asrāru l-Bayān. Cairo
Jamā’atun minal-Asātidha (1964) al-Uslūbu’s-sahīh fi’l-Balāgha wa l-‘Arūd. Beirut
Al-Khatīb al-Qazwīnī (1904) at-Talkhīs fi ‘ulūmi’l-Balāgha, Abdur-Rahmān al-
Barqufi (ed). Cairo.
Matlub Ahmad(1980) al-Balāghatul-‘Arabiyyah :Iraq: Wizāratul t-ta’līmi-‘Ālī wal-
Bahthil-‘ilm

42
 ‫ علم المعانـى‬: ‫الوحدة الثالثة‬
MODULE 3 AL- MA’ĀNĪ

Unit 1: The Concept of ‘Ilmu `l-Ma‘ānī and Its Conponents

Unit 2: An-Nahy, Al-Istifham, At-Tamanni and Their Rhetorical Meaning

Unit 3 ; An-Nidā’, Al-Qasr and Their Rhetorical Meaning

Unit 4: Al-I‘Jāz, Al-’Itnāb and Their Rhetorical Meaning

UNIT 1: THE CONCEPT OF ‘ILMUL-MA‘ĀNI AND ITS CONPONENTS

CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
THE CONCEPT OF ‘ILMUL-MA‘ĀNI AND ITS CONPONENTS
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Self Assessment/Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 Reference/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
‘Ilmul-Ma’ānī is the second branch of Arabic rhetoric which deals with the semantic
significance of words and expressions. It has to do principally with the art of
conveying intended ideas or meaning successfully by skilful combination of words in
a sentences or phrase.
‘Ilmul-Ma’ānī protects speakers or writers from using an expression which
may not suit the situation for which the expression is meant by providing him
guidance in knowing different usages of Arabic words. It explains the original
meaning of a word and some other possible meanings which the word may convey in
various situations. For example, a word can originally be imperative al-Amr and can
equally be used in some situations for request al-Iltimās; wish al-Tamannā;
threatening at-Tahdīd; option al-Takhyīr; weakness at-Ta’jīz and so on . In this Unit,

43
the concept of ‘Ilmul-Ma’ānī and its’ conponents will be expaciated upon. Inshā’ is
of two types. Inshā’- talabī and Insha’ ghayrul-talabī. Inshā’- talabī is the one that
contains the meaning of request. Inshā’ ghayru talabī is the one that does not contain
the meaning of a request. In this unit, you are also going to learn about the different
kinds of Inshā’ and its subdivisions. Also, the concept of ‘Amr and its metaphorical
meaning will be discussed.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this Unit, you should be able to :
- Relate the meaning of ‘Ilmil-Ma’ānī
- Analyse the kinds of sentences fom the thetorical perspectives
- Analyse the semantics and rhetorical terms Insha’ `t-Talabī of al-Amr
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Concept of ‘Ilmu `l-Ma‘ānī and its Conponents

‘Ilmul-Ma’ānī is the study which ensures that a speech agrees with what
situation requires. According to A`s-Sakkāki, "It is an art of conveying intended ideas
by skillful combination of precise words at relevant or suitable context of situation"
It is in line with this that the Arabs have said:
‫لِ ُك ﱢل َمقَ ٍام َمقَا ٌل‬ (Every situation has its own specific style of
expression)
Kinds of Arabic Sentences from the perspective of ‘Ilmu `l-Ma‘ānī
Sentences are of two kinds
1.‫اَ ْل َخبَ ُر‬: which literally means information but referred to by Arabic
as a statement which is possible to be proved true or false.
َ ‫ اَ ِإل ْن‬which literally means origination but referred to by Arabic
2. ‫شاء‬
rhetoricians as an origination sentence and to which falsehood or truthfulness
cannot be applied because the action is going to be originated after the speech has
been uttered.

44
 The purpose of al-khabar was stated to be primary and secondary. The primary
purpose could be Fā'idatu `l-Khabar when the listener is hearing the information for
the first time or Lāzimu `l-fā'idah when one wants to show the listener that he has
been aware of the information.
It is pertinent to mention that an information may be given rhetorically for certain
purpose other than the two mentioned above. Some of these purposes are :
(1) ‫ التأسف التحسر‬Sadden / Regret One poet says:
‫ ذھب الشباب فماله من عودة‬The youth went away but could not return .

‫ وأتى المشيب فأين منه المھرب‬The grey arrived then, where is the escape (from death) ?
(2) ‫( اظھار الضعف‬To show ones weakness)
This is when the speaker gives the information for the purpose of making the
gathering know about his weakness.
For example:
ّ ‫مق ّرا‬
‫بالذنوب وقد دعاكا‬ ‫الھي عبدك العاصى اتاكا‬
My lord, your sinful servant comes to you confessing
the sins and supplicate to You (Asking for mercy and blessing
(3) ‫اإلسترحام واإلستعطاف‬  

This is when the speaker gives the information in order to ask for mercy and
the speaker has said this to ask for Allah's mercy.

‫فأعف عنى يامن يقيل العثارا‬ ‫رب إنّى ال استطيع اصطبارا‬

ّ
Oh Allah I have no capacity of patience, Have mercy
on me, Oh who wipes away the lapses.
(4) ‫الفخر‬
Boasting: This is when the speaker gives the information to boast his or her
tribe's glory. For example:
‫مأوى الكرام ومنزل األضياف‬ ‫ومكارمى عدد النجوم ومنزلى‬

45
 My honour amount to the number of stars and my position is
the shelter of the honourables and home of the visitor.
(5) ‫التوبيخ‬
(Reprimand) This is information given by the speaker to condemn the action
of an audience who has neglected his duties. For example:
‫أنت رسبت فى االمتحان‬ You had failed the examination.
Display of happiness e. g. ‫اظھار الفرح‬
‫أنت نلت الجائزة األولى فى المباراة الكتابية اإلنشائية‬
(You won the first prize in the essay written composition.)
‫( انواع الخبر‬Kinds of Information)
The person to be given information may not have any foreknowledge. This person
is empty minded (Khāliyat-adh-Dhihn). Hence the information is given without
any emphasis. For example:
‫المسافرون رجعوا من سفرھم امس‬
The travellers returned from their journey yesterday.
The person spoken to may have some doubt about the truthfulness of
information. In addressing such person, it is necessary to put the particles of
emphasis in order to convince him. This is al-khabar a`t-Talabī e.g.
‫إنَ المسافرين رجعوا من سفرھم امس‬
The person spoken to may be in a state of rejecting information. In
addressing, such a person we will need many particles of emphasis as much to
convince him. For example:
‫إنّ المسافرين قد رجعوا من سفرھم بالأل مس‬
It is pertinent to mention that every sentence, whether khabar or inshā’
is made up of two components parts: musnad ilayh (the subject) and musnad
(the predicate). The former is also called mahkūm ’alyh (the topic) and the
latter mahkum bihi (the command). All other lexical items in the sentence
beside muđāf (the possessive or the second noun of the genitive construction)
or şillah (the relative) are regarded as restriction.

46
Kinds of Inshā’, Amr and Its Metaphorical Meaning
There are two kinds of al-inshā
al-Inshā’ a`ţ-Ţalabī (Request) : This is the one that consists the meaning of
request e.g; ‫النشرب‬ Don't drink
al-inshā ghayru `ţ-Ţalabī (Non-requistional):- This is the one that does not
contain the meaning of request e.g
‫ ما أجمل الصدق‬How beautiful is the truthfulness
Kinds of Inshā’ al-Talabī
There are five kinds of al-Inshā’ al-Talabī.
(Command)‫األمر‬
(Prohibition) ‫النھى‬
(Interrogation) ‫اإلستفھام‬
(Optative) ‫التمنى‬
(Vocative)‫النداء‬

‫األمر‬ COMMAND
Al-‘Amr is to command someone to do an action that follows shortly, or near
future: Among the forms of al-‘Amr are:
‫ ( صيغة األمر‬Imperative which is used to command the second person)
‫( اجلس يا ضيف‬Oh! Guest, sit)
Imperfect verb with Lām of command. This is used to command the third person.
‫ليأ كل الولد‬ (Let the boy eat)
Usage of Ism fi'l-Amr
let us pray ‫ح ّي على الصالة‬
1. Usage of certain verbal nouns ‫ مصدر‬that have the force of imperative verb
‫سقيا فى الخير‬
Metaphorical Meaning of al-‘Amr
Al-‘Amr can be used metaphorically as a:

47
 Supplication:- ‫ الدعاء‬This is usually when the request is directed from the inferior
to the superior. For example: When a man requests from Allah to pardon and have
mercy on him.
Prophet Musa said:
‫سان‬ ْ ‫س ْر لِي أَ ْم ِري َو‬
َ ‫احلُ ْل ُع ْق َدةً ﱢمن لﱢ‬ ‫ص ْد ِري َويَ ﱢ‬ ‫قَا َل َر ﱢ‬
َ ‫ب اش َْر ْح لِي‬
"O my Lord! expand me my breast, "Ease my task for me , And remove the
impediment from my speech .
Guidance :- ‫ اإلرشاد‬Al-‘Amr can be used to advise and guide someone.
Imam Ali advised his son and said:
‫"( أن يحسن إليك أحسن كما تحب‬Do good as you want others to do unto you").
Continuity :- ‫ الدوام‬Al-‘Amr can be used for continuity
This is usually when it is directed to someone who has already performed an
action by the time of the request e.g. ‫اجلس‬
" this means continue sitting. When you tell someone who is sitting " Another
example of continuity is in the Qur’ān 4 vs. 136, when Allah says:
‫يأيھا الذين آمنوا آمنوا با ورسله‬
O you who believe, believe in Allah and His Apostles.
Wishful Thinking: ‫التمنى‬
This is a statement used to express the desire for something which is not
possible to happen. ‘Antarah bn. Shaddād said :
‫وعمى صباحا دار عبلة واسلمى‬ ‫يادار عبلة بالجواء تكلّمى‬
Oh! Talk, the house of Ablata in Jawā’;
Goodmorning house of ablata and be with peace.
Selection: ‫التخيير‬
It is used in choosing one thing from the other e.g;
Bash-shār bn. Burd said
‫مقارف ذنب م ّرة ومجانبه‬ ‫فعش واحدا أو صل أخاك فانّه‬
You either leave lonely or join brother and certainly (your brother)
he is a committer of sin at one time or abstain from it (atimes).

48
Threatening: ‫التھديد‬
This is given order in a threatening form to do something unsatisfactorily
in a tone that shows fright and warning.
Prophet Muhammad (SAW) said:
‫اذا لم تستحى فاصـنع ما تشـاء‬
(“if it does not cause you to be ashamed, then do whatever you like).
The aim of the above tradition is not to order the shameless person to do
whatever he likes but to warn him against shameless acts.
Another example: A poet said:
‫ولم تستحى فاصنع ما تشاء‬ ‫إذا لم تخش عاقبة اللّيالى‬
(If you do not fear the wrath of the night and you do not feel shy, do whatever you
like).
The Holy Qur’ān says:
‫قل تمتعوا فإن ّمصيركم إلى النار‬
(Tell, the disbelieving folks continue your enjoyment certainly your end is
hellfire).
In the above verse, Almighty Allah is not commanding the disbelievers to
enjoy but he is threatening them with a painful chastisement after their enjoyment in
this world.
Equality:- ‫التسوية‬
This is to show that two things which are apparently different from one
another are the same in effect due to the prevailing circumstances.
Buhtūri said:
‫فمن شاء فليبخل ومن شاء فليجد‬
‫كفانى نداكم عن جمبيع المطالب‬
Anyone that likes may be a miser or generous
I am satisfied with your generosity
ِ َ‫آﻣﻨُﻮا ﺑِ ِﻪ أَو َﻻ ﺗُـ ْﺆِﻣﻨُﻮا ۚ◌ إِ ﱠن اﻟﱠ ِﺬﻳﻦ أُوﺗُﻮا اﻟ ِْﻌﻠْﻢ ِﻣﻦ ﻗَـﺒﻠِ ِﻪ إِ َذا ﻳـ ْﺘـﻠَ ٰﻰ َﻋﻠَﻴ ِﻬﻢ ﻳ ِﺨ ﱡﺮو َن ﻟِ ْﻸَ ْذﻗ‬
‫ﺎن ُﺳ ﱠﺠ ًﺪا‬ ِ ‫ﻗُﻞ‬
َْ ْ ُ ْ َ َ ْ ْ

49
 Say: "Whether ye believe in it or not, it is true that those who were given
Knowledge beforehand, when it is recited to them, fall down on their
faces in humble prostration, (Q 17 vs 107)
The above verses means that their belief or disbelief does not matter
because people are greater and more righteousness than them did actually
believe prostrate whenever Quran is recited to them.
Weakness:-‫التعجيز‬
When you tell somebody who lost his father
‫سل أباك حقيقة األمر‬ "Ask your father about the reality of the matter."
The Holy Qur’ān says:
... ‫وان كنتم فى ريب مما ن ّزلنا على عبدنا فأتوا بسورة من مثله‬
And if ye are in doubt as to what we have revealed from time to time to
our servant than produce a surah like thereunto….(Q 2 vs 23).
‫ﻴﻦ‬ِ ِ ‫ت إِن ُﻛﻨﺘُﻢ‬
َ ‫ﻗُ ْﻞ ﻓَﺎ ْد َرءُوا َﻋ ْﻦ أَﻧ ُﻔ ِﺴ ُﻜ ُﻢ اﻟ َْﻤ ْﻮ‬
َ ‫ﺻﺎدﻗ‬
َ ْ
Say: "Avert death from your own selves, if ye speak the truth." (Q 3 vs 168)
‫( الوجوب‬making obligatory)
Allah says : ‫ﺼ َﻼ َة َوآﺗُﻮا اﻟ ﱠﺰَﻛﺎ َة‬
‫ﻴﻤﻮا اﻟ ﱠ‬ ِ
ُ ‫َوأَﻗ‬
and establish regular Prayer and give regular Charity (Q73 vs 20)
(Humiliation):‫التحقير‬
This is to give a command to the addresses in order to humiliate and ridicule
him. Allah says:
ِ ِ ‫ﺸ ِﺮ اﻟْﻤﻨَﺎﻓِ ِﻘ‬
ً ‫ﻴﻦ ﺑﺄَ ﱠن ﻟ َُﻬ ْﻢ َﻋ َﺬاﺑًﺎ أَﻟ‬
‫ﻴﻤﺎ‬ َ ُ ‫ﺑَ ﱢ‬
Give the glad tidings to the Hypocrites that there is for them (but) a grievous
penalty (Q4 vs 138)
‫اإلكرام‬ (Honour)
This is using to command inorder to give honour to the addressee. Allah says:
‫ادخلوھا بسالم امنين‬ (Enter ye here (paradise) in peace and security)

50
Self Assessment Exercise

1. Explain the differences between al-khabar and al-‘inshā’

2. Expatiate the differences between fā’idat-l-khabar and lazim-ul-fa’dat
3. Expatiate on al-musnad and al-musnad ilayh
4. What is inshā’ at-talabī and inshā’-at-Talabī
5. Explain the various kinds of inshā’-at-Talabī
4.0 CONCLUSION
The concept of ‘ilmi l-Ma‘ānī has been introduced. Different kind of
sentences has been explained. Also, the importance of rhetorical information has been
elucidated. Different kinds of AL-Khabar and al-Inshā’ with their examples have
been fully discussed. While explanation the various forms and metaphorical meaning
of al-‘Amr ended the unit.
5.0 SUMMARY

‘Ilmu `l-Maānī teaches us how to take precautions in our statement so that people
do not misunderstand what we have in mind. It is a study which ensures that speech
agrees with what a particular situation requires. Understanding the metaphorical
meaning of various kinds of insha’-at-talabi and insha’ ghayr at- talabi ..And how
crucial is it in correct understanding of meaning of the Qur’ān.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Write short notes on the following:

ّ ‫ خالي‬، ‫متردد‬
‫ منكر‬، ‫الذھن‬
2. Explain the rhetorical purpose of al-Khabar
3. Explain the differences between ‫ الخبر‬and ‫اإلنشاء‬
4. Enumerate the forms of al-‘Amr
5. Expatiate on the metaphorical meaning of al-‘Amr

51
7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READING

al-Jurjani Muhammad (1981) al-Ishārāt wa ‘t-tanbihāt fi’ilmi’l-Balāgha, Tahqīq

‘Abdul-Qahir Husayn. Cairo: Dār-un-Nahda.
‘Atīq ‘Abdul-Azīz (1970) Fi’l-Balaghatil-‘Arabiyyah ‘ilmul Bayān. Beirut: Daru
n-nahdah
‘Awnī Hamid (1965) al-Minhaju ‘l wadihu lil-Balāgha. Cairo:Dārul-Ma’ārif
Ibn ‘Abdi Rabbīh (1935) al-‘iqdu ‘l-farid. Cairo:Dar-l-Ma’rif
Lawal, A.I. (1989) ‘Rhetoric (al-Balagha) in Arabic and Yoruba: A preliminary
survey’. LASU; Journal of Humanities. Lagos
Tabana Badawi (1956) al-Bayanu’l-‘Arabi. Cairo
Wahabi ‘Abdul ‘l-Lah (1968) al-Asās fin-Naqdi wal-Balāgha. Saudi Arabia:
Wizāratul Ma’ārif

52
UNIT 2: AN-NAHY, AL-ISTIF-HĀM, AT-TAMANNĪ AND THEIR
RHETORICAL MEANING
CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 An-Nahy and Its Metaphorical Meaning
3.2 Al-Istif-hām and Its Metaphorical Meaning
3.3 at-Tamannī and its metaphorical meaning
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 Reference/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION

An-Nayh is the second type of Inshā’ Talabī, it is used to give negative

command under the same circumstances similar to those of positive command.
It can be used metaphorically to denote another meaning which can be
understood through a circumstantial evidence. al-Istifhām (interrogation) is the
third type of Inshā’ Talabī. It is to inquire about something which was unkown
to the inquirer. However, interrogation may be used out of its original meaning
according to the structure of the expression and circumstances. at-Tamannī is
the fourth aspect of Insha’ at-Talabi which refers to wishes which one feel
cannot be achieved. It can be expressed for two purposes: impossibility of
realisation and possibility but without access to it. This unit treats the concept
of An-Nayh, al-Istifhām and at-Tamannī with their various metaphorical
semantic connotations.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to :
- Relate the implication of Nayh in expression,speech or writing

53
 - Relate metaphorical significance of al-Istifhām, its particles and functions
- Analyse at-Tamannī, its particles and purposes for which at-Tamannī can
be expressed in writing and speeches.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 An-Nahy and Its Metaphorical Meaning

This is the mode used to give negative command. It is used in
circumstances similar to those of the positive command such as when a superior
order the inferior not to do something e.g: a mother prohibits her son from leaving
home until she returns. Unlike ‘Amr, there is only one form of expressing this. It is to
place the imperfect jussive verb after Lā of prohibition
ِ َ‫( الَ تَخ ُر ْج ِمنَ ال ﱠدا ِر َحتﱠى ا‬Do not leave the house until I return )
‫رجع‬
Almighty Allah says in the Holy Qur’ān
:‫صالَ ِح َھا‬
ْ ِ‫ض بَ ْع َد ا‬ ِ ‫َو َالتُ ْف‬
ِ ‫س ُدوا فِى األ ْر‬
Do not make mischief in the earth after it has been refined
3.1.1 ItsMetaphorical Meaning
An-Nahy can be used metaphorically to denote another meaning which can be
understood through the circumstantial evidences (al-qarā'in) as a:
Supplication ‫ الدعاء‬: This is when the prohibition is directed from the inferior to
the superior e.g : The Qur’ān says; ‫ش ِمتْ بِ َى ْاأل ْع َداء‬
ْ ُ‫َر ﱢب الَت‬
My Lord, do not let my enemies make jest of me. (Says Prophet Musa)
In the above verse, servant of Allah cannot be imagined commanding Him to
do or not to do something. It should be understood that the prohibition is used to
supplicate
Request ‫اإللتماس‬: This is when it is directed from someone to his friend.
e. g. ‫( الَتُ َغا ِد ِر ا ْلبَيتَ َحتﱠى آتِ َى إِلَ ْيك‬Don't leave the house till I come to you.)
Guidance ‫ االرشاد‬e.g. One poet said:
‫فَ َخ ْي ٌر ِمن اِ َجابَتِ ِه ال ﱡ‬
ُ‫س ُكوت‬ ُ‫سفِيهُ فَالَ تُ ِج ْبه‬ َ َ‫اِ َذا نَط‬
‫ق ال ﱠ‬
When the foolish person talks, don't answer him,

54
 silence is better than answering him‫ز‬
The poet in the above verse is forbidding answering a stupid person when he is
talking. Silence in that situation is better than replying him. This kind of prohibition
is known as al-Irshād.
Optative ‫التمنى‬ e.g. one orator said: ‫ون أَيﱡ َھا ا ْلقَ َم ُر‬
ِ ُ‫التَ ْحتَ ِجب َع ِن ْال ُعي‬
Oh! Moon , do not be covered from the sight.
Threatening ‫ التھديد‬e.g. as a teacher addresses his speech to one of his students
َ ْ‫ َوالَ تَقلَ ْع َعن‬، َ‫َالتَ ْنتَ ِه َعنْ َغيّك‬
who has gone astray : َ‫ضالَلِك‬
(Don't keep away from your astray and don't shift from your misguide.)
Reprimand/Censure ‫ التوبيخ‬Allah says in the Holy Qur’ān:
َ‫َالتَعتَ ِذ ُروا ا ْليَو َم إِنَ َما تُ ْجزَ ونَ َما ُكنتُ ْم تَ ْع َملُون‬
‘Make no excuses this day, ye are being requited for all ye did’. (Q 66 vs 7)
Debasement ‫ التحقير‬e.g. Al- Mutannabi’s in his satire for Kāfūr said:
ٌ ‫اِنّ ا ْل َعبِي َد َأل ْن َج‬
‫اس َمنَا ِكي ُد‬ َ ‫شتَ ِر ا ْل َع ْب َد اِالﱠ َوا ْل َع‬
ُ‫صا َم َعه‬ ْ َ‫الَت‬
Donot buy the slave except with a staff
Certainly, the slaves is a dirty person with Iittle the goodness.
3.2 Al-Istifhām and its’ functions

al-Istifhām is to inquire about something which was unknown to the inquirer.It has
particles they are:
al-Ħamzah : It is used to ask about the truthfulness of a statement and the response
will either be yes or no e.g ; ‫أأنت شاعر‬ (Are you a poet)
It is also used to inquire about specific state which needs a specific answer e.g;
‫( أأكلت أم شربت‬Did you eat or drink)
Hal is also used to ask about truthfulness of a statement and the response may be in
affirmative or negative.
‫( ھل سافر أخوك‬Did your brother travel)
Man is used in order to ask about the personality of a human being e.g:
‫ من أنت‬who are you? The answer may be ‫ أنا عبد البارى‬I am Abdul Bari

55
It is also used to ask attribute of the person concerned.
‫ من أنت‬The answer may be ‫ أنا طبيب‬who are you. I am a doctor ‫( أنا محاضر‬I am
a lecturer)
Mā It is used to inquire about the kind or attribute of non-human being or used for
human being to ask for the substance of something e.g; ‫ماھذا‬ (what is this)
‫( ما اسمك‬what is your name?)
‫( اين‬where ) It is used to ask about the place e.g;. ‫اين الكتاب‬ (where is the
book)
‫اين المعلم‬ (where is the teacher?)
‫ كم‬How many/ much). It is used to ask about the quantity of something e.g;. ‫كم‬
‫( قلما اشتريت‬How many pen did you buy) ‫( كم تلميذا فى الفصل‬How many pupil in
the class)
‫ متى‬It is used to ask about the time e.g; ‫( متى دخلت امس‬when did you enter
yesterday)
‫ ايّان‬it is used to ask about the time. It is like‫ متى‬when one does not know the
specific time of ‫أيّان يوم القيامة‬ (when is the day of judgment)
‫( كيف‬How) It is used to ask about the condition, time or place. e.g. ‫كيف جئت إلى‬
‫( المدرسة‬How did you come to the school) ‫جئت ماشيا‬ I came by trekking.
‫( أنى‬from where/ how) it is used to ask about condition, time or place.
‫ وقد عھدتك فقيرا‬،‫ أنى لك ھذا المال‬From where is this wealth, certainly I knew you as a
destitute
ُ َ‫ت أَنﱠ ٰى يَ ُكونُ لِي ُغ َال ٌم َولَ ْم يَ ْم َس ْسنِي بَ َش ٌر َولَ ْم أ‬
‫ك بَ ِغيًّا‬ ْ َ‫قَال‬
She said;how shall I have a son, seeing that no man has ever touched me
and I am not Unchaste (Q 19.20)
‫ى‬
ّ ‫ ا‬It is used in asking what can differentiate a particular thing out of the two
ّ ‫( ا‬Who of the two parties is more clever in
or more things.‫ى الفريقين أمھر لعبا‬
playing?)

56
Metaphorical Meaning of al-Istifhām

Interrogative particles are used rhetorically in sentence so as to impress or

persuade somebody on an action done or to be done respectively. Therefore the
interrogative particles are rhetorically used differently to perform other functions.
These functions include:
Negation ‫ النفى‬: This implies when the question tends to negate the fact
instead of asking for information e.g;. Allah says:
‫ – وأن ليس لإلنسان إال ماسعى‬Nothing is for man except what he did. (Q53: 39)
Here "an" negate the idea of a man’s thinking. about what he does not do.
‫ ھل‬Is used to mean ‫ما‬
Denying ‫ اإلنكار‬: ‫ھل يضر البحر امسى زاخرا ان رمى فيه غالم بحجر‬
“the fact that a boy threw a stone to the filled sea can not affect it”
Confirmation ‫ التقرير‬: It is a way of re-confirming and emphasizing the truthfulness
of an action or information about a particular person.
‫ألست اعمھم جو دا وأزكاھم عودا وامضاھم حساما‬
Are you not the most generous among them and giant of them in stern with a
very sharp sword.
The Qur’ān says: ‫ال أَلَ ْم نُ َربﱢكَ فِينَا َولِي ًدا‬
َ َ‫ق‬
(Pharaoh) said: "Did we not cherish thee as a child among us, (Q 26 vs 18)
Exaltation ‫التعظيم‬
This is praising somebody extra-ordinarily to be the best among his members in
something or general affair of man. ‫من ذا الذى يقوم بھذا المشروع ا لعظيم غيرك؟‬
who else can do this big project beside you. "‫ "من‬here is rhetorically used for
‫التعظيم‬
Condemnation/Censure ‫ التوبيخ‬e.g. Allah says:

‫أتأمرون الناس بالب ّر وتنسون أنفسكم‬

What! you are enjoining the righteousness upon mankind and forgetting yourselves?

57
 ‫التحقير‬Humiliation : This is talking about somebody to be little or no
importance or about thing to be less significant. ‫ أھذا الذى أطنبت فى مدحه‬Is this is the
one you praise extensively?
Quran says : ‫أَلَ ْم ت ََر َك ْيفَ فَ َع َل َربﱡكَ بِ َعا ٍد‬ Have you not seen how your Lord dealt
with the 'Ad (people) (Q89 vs 6)
‫(التشويق‬encouragement) Is this is the one you praise most Allah says;
‫فقُلْ ھَل لﱠكَ إِلَ ٰى أَن تَزَ ﱠك ٰى‬
"And say to him, 'Wouldst thou that thou shouldst be purified (from sin)-
(Q79:18)
‫ التعجب‬Interjection. This is a way of expressing strange things that happen
‫من بعد ما عرف الخالئق شانى‬ ‫فعالم يلتمس العد ّو مساءتى‬
What make the enemy to be requesting for my bad deed
after the people has known my good affairs
The poet expresses his surprise on work that will not be of benefit for his enemy
‫( التحسر‬Grief and Regrets) This implies when a question depicts regret and
grief on the one or thing the question is about. Allah says;
‫اإلن َسانُ يَوْ َمئِ ٍذ أَ ْينَ ْال َمفَرﱡ‬
ِ ْ ‫يَقُو ُل‬That Day will Man say:Where is the refuge? (Q75 vs 10)
‫التھديد‬/‫( الوعيد‬Threat) This implies when the addressee understands from the
question something that might discourage him. Allah says: ‫الم نھلك األولين ث ّم نتبعھم‬
‫ األخرين‬Did we not destroy the man of the old? So we shall make latter follow
them
‫(التھويل‬Frightening) This implies when the question in all about is full of
terror.
Allah says: ِ َ‫﴾ َو َما أَ ْد َراكَ َما ْالق‬٢﴿ ُ‫ار َعة‬
ُ‫ار َعة‬ ِ َ‫﴾ َما ْالق‬١﴿ ُ‫ار َعة‬
ِ َ‫ْالق‬
The (Day) of Noise and Clamour , What is the (Day) of Noise and Clamour?
And what will explain to thee what the (Day) of Noise and Clamour is (Q101: 1-
3)

58
 3.3 at-Tamannī and metaphorical meaning
It basically referred to wishes which one feels cannot be achieved. For
example
Ibn Rūmī said in the month of Ramadan.
‫ومرّنھاره م ّر السّحاب‬ ‫فليت الّليل فيه كان شھرا‬
I wish the night in it is to be one month, and its day to be passed like the
cloud.
The poet in the above verse is wishing the night" of Ramadan to be a month and its
day to be quickly passed like the cloud so as to avoid the hunger and thirsty of days
of Ramadan which is impossible to happen.
Quran says: ‫ﻆ َﻋ ِﻈ ٍﻴﻢ‬
‫ﺎرو ُن إِﻧﱠﻪُ ﻟَ ُﺬو َﺣ ﱟ‬ ِ ِ َ ‫ﻳﺎ ﻟَﻴ‬
ُ َ‫ﺖ ﻟَﻨَﺎ ﻣﺜْ َﻞ َﻣﺎ أُوﺗ َﻲ ﻗ‬ ْ َ
"Oh! that we had the like of what Qārūn has got!
for he is truly of mighty good fortune!" (Q28 vs 79)
It is possible for the people of Qārūn to have what Qārūn had but did not have an
access to such a big fortune and they are aware of that fact, so they only expressed the
wish.
Layta is the only basic particles of at-Tamannī. However, some other
particles may be used instead of layta for rhetorical purpose. ‫ لو‬and ‫لع ّل‬
‫ھل‬.They are used for Tarajī (anticipational) For example: 
ّ ‫فلو‬
‫أن لنا كرّة فنكون من المؤمين‬
(The disbeliever will say on the Day of Judgement) “if it is possible to come
back to the world, then we shall among the believers” (but it is possible)
Here ‫ لو‬is used to imply an optative statement in place of ‫ ليت‬for a rhetorical
purpose.
The person on the day of judgment will say (we wish we have a chance to
return so that we shall truly be of those who believe (Q. 26: 102)

59
 However, a wish may sometimes be expressed for a thing which may occur i.e.
not absolutely impossible. The particle often used for expressing this type of ‫ لع ّل‬and
‫ عسى‬For example : ‫عسى ربنا ان يبدلنا خير منھا انا الى ربنا راغبون‬
It may be that our Lord will give us in exchange a better garden than this. For
we do return to Him (in repentance).
Self Assessment Exercise
1. Explain the meaning of an-Nayh
2. With examples, expatiate on the contextual meanings of an-Nayh
1 3 . What is istifham?
2 4. Mention the particles of interrogation and use them in sentences.
3 5. Can interrogation be used out of its original meaning?
4 6. Explain some of the contextual meaning of interrogative particles
5 7. What is at-tamanni
6 8. Mention the particles of at-tamanni and use them in sentence.

4.0 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, there are different metaphorical meanings for an-Nayh. Its
importance to the understanding of the Qur’ān cannot be overemphasized. The usage
of any kind of interrogatory particle is largely determined by the condition/state of
the question and the inquirer.
Istifhām is simply seeking information about what the speaker is ignorant of
with the use of certain particle such as Hamzah, Hal, Mā, Matā, Kam, Ayyu, Ayyana,
Kayfa and so on
At-tamannī in Arabic rhetoric is used to express impossible wishes and
possibility without an access to it. The most common particle to express it is Layta.
Other particles rhetorically used for its purpose are Hal and La’ala. Another particle
that gives the meaning of at-tamanni is law while ‘asā and la ‘alla are used for
anticipation.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this Unit, the various metaphorical meaning of an-Nayh has been explained and

examples were given for clarification and illustration. Different particles of

interrogation ( istifhām )have been explained with instances given for clarification. Its

60
metaphorical meaning which is out of its original meaning according to the structure
and circumstances was discussed. The Particles of at-tamannī which express
impossibility of realisation and for possibility without access to it were also
discussed.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Explain the metaphorical meaning of an-Nayh in the following;

- ‫ال تنه عن خلق وتأتى مثله عار عليك اذا فعلت عظيم‬
- ‫ال تعتذروا اليوم انما تجزون ما كنتم تعملون‬
- ‫ربنا ال تـؤاخذنا ان نسينا او اخطأنا‬
2. Discuss the metaphorical meaning of al-Istifham
3. ‫ك ّون ثالث جمل استفھامية بحيث يدل اإل ستفھام فى األولى على نفى وفى الثانية على‬
. ‫اإل نكار وفى الثالثة على التوبيخ‬
4. What do you understand by al-Istifham
5. Expatiate on the particles of al-Istifham with example
6. Expatiate on at-Tamanni in Arabic rhetoric
7. Use the following particles of at-tamanni in sentences
‫ليت‬, ‫لو‬, ‫عسى‬, ‫ھل‬, ‫لعل‬
7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READING

al-Jāhiz, ‘Ali et al(1961). Al-Balāgha l-wādiha. Cairo: Dārul- Ma’ārif

Mustafa ,Muragi Ahmad (n d) U lūmul- Balāgha wal Bayān wal Badi’i. Cairo:
Wahbī, ‘Abdul-Lahi(1968) al-Asās fi naqd wal Balāgha. Saudi Arabia: Wizāratul
Ma’ārif
Farhudi, Hasan et al (1977) al Balāgha wa naqd. Saudi Arabia: Wizāratul Ma’ārif
Jamā’atun minal-asātidha (1964) al-Uslūbus-Sahīh fil-Balāgha wa l-‘Arūd. Beirut
Abubakre, R.D. (1989) Bayān in Arabic Rhetoric: An analysis of the core of
Balagha. Ibadan: Intec Printer Limited.
al-Jāhiz, Umar bn Bahr(1968) al-Bayān wat-Tibyān. Cairo: Mukhtabah l-Khanji
Jārim ‘Ali et al(1961): al-Balāgha-l-wādiha. Cairo: Dār-ul-Ma’ārif

61
Yousuf Alarape Sule (1999) “A rhetorical study of al-Inshā’ at-Talabī in suratul
Baqarah” An unpublished B.A. project submitted to the department of Arabic and
Islamic Studies University of Ibadan. Ibadan Nigeria
Hadithi Khadijah and Matlub Ahmad (1975) al Burhānu ‘l-kāshif ‘an i’jāzu’-l
Qur’ān. Baghdad: al-Āni
al-Jahiz (1949) Kitābu’l-Bayān wa’t-Tabyīn as-Sandūbī. Cairo
az-Zamakhsharī, Muhammad(1966) Tafsiru ‘l-Kashshāf ‘an haqā’iqi at-tanzīl
wa
‘uyūnul’l aqwāl. Cairo: Mustafa al-Bābī al-Halabī

62
UNIT 3: AN-NIDĀ’, AL-QASR AND THEIR RHETORICAL MEANING
CONTENT

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 An-Nidā’and Its Rhetorical Meaning
3.2 Al-Qasr and Its Rhetorical Meaning
4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary
6.0 Self Assessment/Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 Reference/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

An-Nidā’ is the expression used by the speaker which serves the purpose of a
verb. It is also used for rhetorical purposes to mean calling from a long distance. It is
the fifth and last kind of Inshā’ at-Talabī. Different particles of an-Nidā’ and its
rhetorical meaning will be discussed. al-Qasr literally means restriction,
confinement, restraint and immurement. The rhetoricians define it as restricting
something to something else in a special way. It can be formed by negation with
exceptional particles and by using innamā, Lā, Lākin and Bal. There are three things
to be noted which include something restricted (shay-un or amrun), something
restricted to (shay-un) and special way or method Tarīqun makhsūsun This is the
method stipulated by the rhetoricians which must be followed when making al-Qasr
which is negation (mā) and exceptional particle illā . This unit ends with the
classification of al-Qasr.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to
- Relate the meaning of an-Nidā’ and its particles

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 - Give the different metaphorical meaning of an-Nidā’
- Define the meaning of al-Qaşr
- Analyse the formation of al-Qaşr
- State the classification of al-Qaşr with examples.
- Discuss various types of al-Qaşr

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 An-Nidā' and Its rhetorical significance

An-Nidā' is an expression used by the speaker which serve the purpose

of a verb i.e. I am calling. ‫أدعو‬
There are eight particles of A `n-Nidā’ (The Vocative)
‫وا‬ ‫يا الھمزة اى آ آى ايا ھيا‬
The particles of vocative are subdivided into two categories
( i) Hamzah and Ay are both used to call one from a closer distance .
( ii) the remaining six particles are used to call one from a long distance.
For rhetorical purpose, however, the particles meant originally for calling from a
short distance may be used for calling from a long distance and vice versa.
For instance we use ‫يــا‬for Allah saying (Oh! Allah ‫ ) يا أ‬even though He is very
close to us than our jugular vein in order to show our respect to Him.
One poet said while composing poem of condolence for his dead child
‫ح ّي ومن تصب المنون بعيد‬ ‫أأب ّي ال تبعد وليس بخالد‬
Oh my father, don’t move far, no human being can avert death,
the far people are the dead ones.
Here the poet called his dear father who is far away as if he were close just to show
that he is constantly remembered, although he is out of sight, he is not out of mind.
Another example can be seen in a letter sent by Walid to his son
‫اي بني عليك باإلستقامة وترك المعاصى‬
(O my son! Be steadfast and refrain from disobedience (to Allah)

64
 The particle used here ‫ اى‬is for those close to one, but it has been used for the
distant just to give the impression that he is constantly remembered.
Metaphorical Meaning of An-Nidā’
An-Nidā’ can be used metaphorically to denote another meaning which can be
understood through the circumstantial evidence and good taste in literary
appreciation as:
‫التحسّر‬Sadness/Grief For example: Hāfis Ibrahīm
‫فأصبحت حلية فى تاج رضوان‬ ‫يادرة نزعت من تاج والده‬
Oh Gold that has been taken from the crown of her father and
it became an ornament in the crown of Ridwan
One poet said:
.‫وقد كان منه الب ّر والبحر مترعا‬ ‫اياقبر معن كيف ورأيت جوده‬
Oh grave of Ma'ni, how did you find his wealth.
Certainly, the land and sea was filled from his wealth.
The poet said the above verse when ma'ni' the generous person died. He was
calling the grave in a great condition.
Qur’ān says: (to a person, that accompanied with bad friend) on the Day of
Judgement that the person will say in grief.
‫َﻢ أَﺗﱠ ِﺨ ْﺬ ﻓَُﻼﻧًﺎ َﺧﻠِ ًﻴﻼ‬ ِ
ْ ‫ﻳَﺎ َوﻳْـﻠَﺘَ ٰﻰ ﻟ َْﻴﺘَﻨﻲ ﻟ‬
"Ah! Woe is me! Would that I had never taken such one for a friend
(Q 25 vs 28)
‫التّحيّر والتضجر‬ Confusion
One poet said:
‫أم استحالت ثسمسه إلى القمر‬ ‫ياليل قد طلت فھل مات السحر‬
Oh night, you are long, has midnight died
or its sun has changed to the moon.
Weeping ‫الندبة‬
‫على نظرة من تلكم الّنظر ات‬ ‫فوا لھفى والقبربينى وبينه‬

65
 Oh my sorrow that the grave may be between me and him
So as to avoid even a glance from that looking.
‫ اإلغراء‬Encouragement : like what you told a brave soldier in attacking : (Oh
a brave (man) come forward) ‫يا شجاع تقدم‬
‫ الزجر‬Warning against Mischief
.‫لما ارتميت وال اتقيت مالما‬ ‫يا قلب ويحك ما سمعت لناصح‬
Oh, the heart, sorry for you, you don’t listen to admonisher when you felt
unconcern and you didn’t abandon bad character.
‫( التوبيخ‬Reprimand): Allah says : ‫آﻣﻨُﻮا ﻟِ َﻢ ﺗَـ ُﻘﻮﻟُﻮ َن َﻣﺎ َﻻ ﺗَـ ْﻔ َﻌﻠُﻮ َن‬ ِ‫ﱠ‬
َ ‫( ﻳَﺎ أَﻳﱡـ َﻬﺎ اﻟﺬ‬O ye who
َ ‫ﻳﻦ‬
believe! Why say ye that which ye do not? (Q61 vs 2)
‫( اإلستغاث‬seeking protection) : For example ‫ يا ﷲ اغثني‬Oh Allah protect me.
‫( المدح‬commendation) Allah says in many parts of the Qur’ān
‫يا أيّھا الرسول‬,‫ يا أيّھا النبي‬O prophet O messenger
‫ ( الذم‬blameworthy) for example :
‫ ياأيھا الذين ھادوا‬,‫يا أيھا الذين كفرو‬
Oh you unbelievers, Oh you Jewry

‫( التنبيه‬warning) for example: ‫ ياأيھا اإلنسان‬,‫ يا أيھا النّاس‬Oh human being, Oh

mankind
‫( الفشل‬Disappointment). e.g. ‫قال يا ھارون مامنعك إذا رايتھم ضلوا‬
(Oh Aaron what kept you back when you saw them going wrong.)
‫( التعجب‬exclamation) , for example:
‫قال فما خطبك يا سامرى‬
 (Moses) said “what then is your case oh Samiriyyu”

3.2 Al-Qasr literally means restriction or confinement. The Holy Qur’ān says :
‫حورمقصورات فى الخيام‬
(Maidens restrained ( as to their glances) in goodly pavilion) Q. 55: 72.
It is define among the rhetorician as ‫تخصيص شئ بشئ بطريق مخصوص‬
(Restricting something to something else in a especial way)
66
 ‫ما نجح إال المجتھدون‬
(No body passed except the industrious ones).
In this statement pass has been restricted to the industrious students.
Formation of al-Qasr
There are four ways of forming ‫القصر‬
Negation with exceptional particle
‫ ما فاز إال على‬No one won but ‘Ali
‫ ما المرء إال ھالل‬No human being but crescent
‫ ليس فى البيت عدا فاطمة‬No one in the house except Fatimah
(after it is) ‫مقصور عليه‬.

al-Qaşr by using ‫ إنما‬e.g. ‫ إنما الحياة تعب‬Life is nothing but trouble

In this case what ever come last in the sentence is ‫ مقصور عليه‬When al-Qaşr is
formed by using innamā there will be no need the usage of particles such as illā,
siwā, khalā, ghayra. So it will be wrong to say for example ‫انما زيد اال طالب‬ (indeed
Zaid is except a student)
al-Qaşr is formed by the help of conjunction such as ‫ ال‬،‫ لكن‬or ‫ بل‬In the case of
conjunction with ‫ المقصور عليه ال‬should be the opposite of what comes immediately
after ‫ال‬
For example:
‫ األرض متحركة ال ثابتة‬The earth is moving not stagnant.
But if al-qaşr is with al-maqşūr alayh come last in the sentence. ‫ لكن‬or ‫بل‬
‫ما سافر صالح لكن سعيد‬ Şālih did not travel but Sa'īd
‫ما أنا كاتب بل قارئ‬ I am not a writer but in a reciter.
It is pertinent to mention that when Bal and Lākin are used for the purpose of al-
Qaşr the sentence should begin with a particle of negation and the last clause should
be in affirmative.

67
 Al-qaşr with ‫ ال‬must begin with affirmative sentence and the restricted thing
that comes after should not be included in the general meaning of what come before it
i.e the thing restricted to.
Al-qaşr by a way of mentioning first what is supposed to mention last.
Example: ‫إيّاك نعبد وإيّاك نستعين‬
(It is only You (Allah) that we worship and You (alone) we ask for help (Q1:5)
Other examples include:
‫ على الرجال العاملين ن‬We are praising the working people
‫ وﷲ بك ّل شئ عليم‬And Allah is All knower of everything

3.3 Classification of al-Qaşr into two: ‫ القصر الحقيقى‬and ‫القصر اإلضافى‬

Al-Qaşr al-Ħaqīqī - authentic restriction is when the thing restricted to is totally
possible and realistic because the restricted attribute is meant for that thing alone. It
cannot exceed it to another thing. Example:
‫إنّما الرّزاق ﷲ‬ There is no provider but Allah.
‫ ال إله إال ﷲ‬There is no deity but Allah.
‫ ال كاتب فى المدينة إال عمر‬There is no writer in the town except Umar i.e.
When there is no writer in the town except him is when it is assumed that the
attribute is meant only for the person concerned.

‫القصر اإلضافى‬ Al-Qaşr al-Iđāfī in reality, it is possible for another person to

share the attribute with him. Also when we consider only one of the attributes of the
person whereas the person possesses other qualities. For example:
‫ما أنا إال قارئ‬ ( I am not but a reader) This does not mean I don’t possess other
qualities apart from reading. The Qur'ān says:
‫إنما يخشى ﷲ من عباده العلماء‬ Only those who fear Allah from among His
servants are those who have knowledge. Q.35:-28
Furthermore, by reconsidering the person whom the speech is directed to,al- Qaşr
al-idāfī is also divided into three. They are:

68
 (i) ‫ قصراإلفراد‬: This is when the speech is directed to one who thinks ‫المقصور‬
‫ عليه‬possesses two attributes. ‫ ما زيد إال خاطب‬Zayd is nothing but orator .
We say: to some one who thinks that Zayd combines the quality of oratory
with that of writing.
(ii) ‫ قصر القلب لمن اعتقد العكس‬: This is when the speech is directed to one who
thinks the opposite of that quality was possessed. For example: ‫ماسافر اال المعلم‬
No one travelled but the teacher). This is said to some one who thinks that the
teacher did not travel by himself, he only sent one to represent him.
(iii) ‫ قصر غيرمعين لمن اعتقد واحدا – قصرالتعيين‬: This is when one is not sure of which of
the qualities that someone who is not sure of what book Sulayman has read whether
is the Qur'ān or any other book. (Sulayman did not read but the Qur’ān) ‫ما قرأ‬
‫سليمان إال القران‬ Another example is ‫ما شاعر إال زيد لمن اعتقد أن الشاعر إما زيد أوعمر أو‬
،‫ ابوبكر‬The poet is none but Zayd for somebody who is not sure of the right poet,
whether Zayd or Umar or Abubakr
Self Assessment Exercise

1. What is an-Nidā’
2. ‫كم ھي ادوات النداء‬
3. What is al-Qasr?
4. Use the particles of al-Qasr in sentences of your own
5. Outline and expatiate on the classification of al-Qasr
6. Expatiate on ‫ القصر التعيين‬in Arabic rhetoric

4.0 CONCLUSION
The metaphorical meaning of an-Nidā’ can be undertood through
circumstantial evidence and good taste in literary appreciation. In term of usage an-
Nidā’ are divided into two groups. The first one are Hamzah and Ay which are used
to call who is close while others are for distant person. The formation of al-Qasr is
treated in this Unit. When Lākin and Bal are used for the purpose of al-Qasr, the
sentences should begin with a particle of negation and the last clause should be in

69
affirmative. Al-Qar is also formed by mentioning first what is supposed to mention
last. Or a concise way of saying things. It also explained its classification. Each
classification was also discussed.
5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, the various particles of an-Nidā’ has been mentioned and the
various metaphorical meaning of an-Nidā’ has been explained with examples. Some
contextual meaning includes stimulation, grief, reprimand, commendation,
exclamation, seeking protection and expression of surprise. It also discussed the
literal definition of al-Qasr as well as its rhetoric explanation.. Its metaphorical
meaning and classification were clearly explained with various examples.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

 1. Expatiate on an-Nidā’ in Arabic rhetoric
2. Discuss the metaphorical meaning of an-Nida
3. Discuss the various ways of forming a-Qas -
4.‫ھات جملة تفيد نجاح اسماعيل وعدم نجاح نبيل بواسطة إنما‬                  

5. Discuss the differences between the following in Arabic rhetoric

‫ القصر اإلضافى‬and ‫القصر الحقيقي‬
6. Write notes on the following ‫قصر اإلفراد‬        ‫قصر القلب‬         ‫قصر‬ ‫التعيين‬            

7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READING

al-Jurjānī ‘Abdul-Qāhir (1959) Asrārul-BalāghaH Cairo: Maktabat ‘Ali. Subayh

Hasan Muhammad ‘Ali (1975) Asrāru l-Bayān. Cairo: Hay’ahul-Misriyah
Khatīb al-Qawzīnī (1949) at-Talkhis fi ulumi’l-Balagha in al- Majmu’ul-
Mutun. Cairo: Mustafa’l-Babi’l Halabi.
Nāji ‘Abdul-Hamid (1976) al-athārul-‘ighrīqī fil-Balāgha minal-Jāhiz ilā Ibn
Mu’tazz. Baghdad University Press

70
UNIT 3: AL-I‘JĀZ (CONCISENESS), AL-’ITNĀB AND THEIR
RHETORICAL MEANING
CONTENT

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Al-Ījāz (Conciseness) and Its rhetorical Meaaning
3.2 Al-’Itnāb and Its Rhetorical Meaning
4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 Reference/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit treats al-Ī‘jāz (Conciseness) and al-Iṭnāb (Elaboration).

Al-Ī‘jāz connotes the usage of brevity in the construction of sentences to convey
one’s ideas. This is achieved by means of using very few words to convey very long
ideas. It is also where a part of the narration can be deliberately omitted.
Al-’Itnāb on the other hands implies elaboration where the wording exceeds the
meaning for useful purpose. It is used by mentioning specifics after generalization.
Generalisation can also be mentioned after specifications. The same word can also be
repeated. It is also used to expatiate upon a point after being ambigious.
2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to

- Relate the meaning of al-‘Ījāz
-Analyse the different kinds of al-I‘jāz
- Relate the meaning of al-‘Itnāb
- Discuss the purposes they serve.

71
 3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Al-Ī‘jāz (conciseness) and Its rhetorical significance.
3.1 Al-‘Ijāz implies being brief in the construction of sentences to convey one's ideas
with the use of the barest minimum number of words. For example:
‫ولكم فى القصاص حياة يأولى األلباب لعلّكم تتّقون‬
"In retaliation there is life for you. O ye men of understanding that you may
restrain yourselves.
This is so because; it will serve as a deterent for others to commit murder.
Normally, such a sentence will need many words to explain its meaning such as if a
murderer is killed in retaliation for murder, this would spare the lives of others who
could have fallen as victims of this murder. In other words, if a person knows that if
he kills another person, he would be killed, this will make him to refrain from killing
and there by he had been able to protect his life and the life of others. Aother example
ُ ‫أَالَ لَهُ ْالخَ ْل‬
from the Qur’ān is: ‫ق َواألَ ْم ُر‬
And to him belongs the creation and the matter (Q7 54).
The word ‫ الخلق‬include all the creatures of Allah. There is also al-Ījāz in the
word ‫( األمر‬affairs).
Kind of al-‘Ijāz
There are two kinds of al-Ījāz: Ījāz qaşr and Ījāz Ħadhf
‫يجا ُزقَص ٍر‬
َ ِ‫ إ‬: This is the brevity achieved by means of the use of very few words to
convey a very long ideas, many wise sayings and proverbs fall into this category. For
ِ ‫ض ِعيفُ أَ ِمي ُر ال ﱠر ْك‬
example: ‫ب‬ ‫ ال ﱠ‬: (The weak one is the leader of the caravan)

ٍ ‫يجا ُز َح ْذ‬
‫ف‬ َ ِ‫ إ‬: This is the Ījāz in which a part of the narration is deliberately omitted in
order to achieve brevity. The omitted part may be just a consonant or a single word
left out of the context.For example:

‫بت( َما ًء‬ ُ ‫ أَ َك‬:

ُ ‫لت فَا ِكھَةً ) َو َش ِر‬ I ate fruits and (drank) water

The omitted part is sharibtu (drank)

72
 َ ‫َوإنْ يُ َك ّذ بُونَكَ فَقَ ْد ُك ﱢذبَت ُر‬
َ‫س ًل ِمنْ قَبلِك‬

( ‫ فَالَ تَجْ زَ ْع‬do not quive) has been dropped.

It is essential that omitted word or words must be early identifiable from

the trend or structure of the narration and that it should not be a very essential
part of the narration, the omission which leaves a glaring gap or defect in the
narration.

3.2 al-’Itnāb:This is when the wording is more than the meaning for useful
purposes. It is a commendable feature of Arabic rhetorics when it is used in its
appropriate place. It may be to emphasize or explain the meaning or to
obliterate the ambiguity.

Example of al-’Itnāb for emphasis.

‫إنّ مع العسر يسرا فإنّ مع العسر يسرا‬

Verily with every difficulty, there is a relief. So verily, with every difficulty
there is a relief

Method of Using al-’Itnāb

Al-’Itnāb is used by

Mentioning the Specific after the Generality : ‫ص بَع َد ْال َع ِام‬ َ ‫ِذ ْك ُر ْا‬
ِ ‫لخا‬
َ ‫س‬
‫طى‬ ْ ‫صالَ ِة ا ْل ُو‬ ‫َحافِظُوا َعلَى ال ﱠ‬
ِ ‫صلَوا‬
‫ت َوال ﱠ‬
In this Quranic verse, the prayers have been mentioned generally before
the middle one is specifically mentioned.

‫وح فِي َھا بِإ ِ ْذ ِن َربّ ِھ ْم ِمن ُك ﱢل أَ ْم ٍر‬ ‫تنَ ﱠز ُل ا ْل َمالَ ئِ َكةُ َو ﱡ‬
ُ ‫الر‬
Therein, came down the angels and the spirit by Allah’s permission,

on every errand

‫وس ُك ْم َوالل َغ ِة ا ْل َع َربِيﱠ ِة‬

ِ ‫اِ ْجتَ ِھ ُدوا فِى ُد ُر‬
Struggle in the course of your study especially the Arabic language.

Generalization after specification ‫اص‬

ّ ‫ذكرالعام بعد الخ‬

‫ت‬ ّ ‫ب ا ْغفِ ْرلِى َولِ َوالِ َد‬

ِ ‫ى َولِ َمنْ َد َخ َل بَ ْيتِ َى ُمؤ ِمنًا َولِ ْل ُمؤ ِمنِينَ َوا ْل ُمؤ ِمنَا‬ ‫َر ﱢ‬

73
 My Lord; forgive me and my parents and him who entered my house believing
and believing men and believing women Q71:28

In this verse, Prophet Nuh supplicates to Allah to forgive every one who
entered his house as a believer and then he prays for all believers, males and females.

Repetition of the same word ‫ التﱠ ْك َرار‬for the purpose of emphasis or as a warning.

For example

َ َ‫سوفَ تَ ْعلَ ُمونَ ثُ ﱠم َكال‬

َ‫س ْوفَ تَعلَ ُمون‬ َ ‫َكال‬
(Nay, but you will come to know) Then, nay you will come to knowQ.102:3-4

ِ ْ ‫يضا ُح بَ ْع َد‬
Expantiating a Point after being Ambiguous ‫اإل ْبھَام‬ َ ‫ِاإل‬
For example:

ٍ ‫أ◌َ َم ّد ُك ْم بِ َما تَعلَ ُمونَ أَ َم ّد ُك ْم بِأ َ ْم َو‬

َ‫ال َوبَنِين‬

The verse further explained what mankind knew; wealth and children

(‫اإل ْحتِ َراس‬

ِ ) Caution
This is when a word or words are put in parenthesis in order to ensure that a
wrong impression which may have been conveyed in the first part of the sentence
is corrected. For example:

‫ان ا ْلقُ َرى‬ ُ ‫ص َعلَى‬

ِ ‫س ّك‬ َ ‫ب ا ْل ُجنُو ُد )ال ُمعتَ ِدينَ ( َوابِالً َمنَ ال ّر‬
ِ ‫صا‬ ‫ص ﱠ‬
َ
The soldiers pour bullets on the aggressors that were dwellers of the village

If we erase the word aggressors it may have a wrong impression about, bad
attitude of the dwellers.

Parenthesis ‫اض‬
ُ ‫اإل ْعتِ َر‬
ِ
( it is the putting of some word in a sentence which can not tamper with the
advantages of the sentences even if it is removed.)

ِ ِ‫باركَ ﷲُ فِيكَ ( تُ ِعينُ َعلَى نَ َوائ‬

‫ب ال ﱠد ْھ ِر‬ َ ) – َ‫إِنﱠك‬
Verily, you (may Allah bless you) are assisting others on the calamity of epoch.

If we erase (may Allah bless you) which is al-I’tirād the advantage of the sentence
still remain.
74
Appendix /Subjoinment ((‫التﱠ ْذيِي ُل‬This is the affixment of a sentence to the former one
for the purpose of emphasis.

(‫اط َل َكانَ زَ ُھوقًا‬

ِ َ‫اط ُل )إِنﱠ ا ْلب‬
ِ َ‫ق ا ْلب‬ ‫ َوقُ ْل َجا َء ا ْل َح ﱡ‬4.0 CONCLUSION
َ ‫ق َوزَ َھ‬
Few words can be used to convey very long ideas which may be aphorisms and
proverbs. Consonants or single words can be left out of the context. Using al-’Itnāb
for useful purposes is allowed.

Self Assessment Exercise

What is ‫?اإليجاز‬
Explain the differences between ‫ ايجاز خذف‬and ‫ايجاز قصر‬
What is al-Itnab?
Differentiate between al-Ihtrās and at-Takrār in Arabic rhetoric

5.0 SUMMARY
This unit acquaints you the usage of brevity in the construction of sentences. It
identifies two kinds of al- I’jāz which are I‘jāz qasr and Hadhf. It is essential that
omitted word(s) should not be a very essential part of the narration. The Unit also
stipulates that Itnab may be used by way of emphasy or to obliterate ambiguity. It
could be specification after generalization.

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain the purpose of al-I’jāz
2. Discuss the kinds of a l-I’jāz

3. Discuss the various ways by which al-Itnāb can be used

4. Explain the differences between the two terms in Arabic rhetoric

‫ التذييل‬and ‫اإلعتراض‬

75
7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READING

al-Jurjānī ‘Abdul-Qāhir (1959) Asrārul-BalāghaH Cairo: Maktabat ‘Ali. Subayh

Hasan Muhammad ‘Ali (1975) Asrāru l-Bayān. Cairo: Hay’ahul-Misriyah
Khatīb al-Qawzīnī (1949) at-Talkhis fi ulumi’l-Balagha in al- Majmu’ul-
Mutun. Cairo: Mustafa’l-Babi’l Halabi.
Nāji ‘Abdul-Hamid (1976) al-athārul-‘ighrīqī fil-Balāgha minal-Jāhiz ilā Ibn
Mu’tazz. Baghdad University Press

76
 Module 4: a l - B a d ī ‘ ‫اﻟﻮﺣﺪة اﻟﺮاﺑﻌﺔ‬

Module 3

Unit 1: The Evolution of al-Badī‘ and Contributions of Early Arabic

Rhetoricians
Unit 2: Semantic Embellishment in Arabic Rhetoric I
Unit 3: Semantic Embellishment in Arabic Rhetoric II
Unit 4: Lexical Embellishment in Arabic Rhetoric I
Unit 5: Lexical Embellishment in Arabic Rhetoric II
Module 4 Peroration
Unit 1: Concluding Remarks 1: Classical Scholarship and Ilmu ‘l-Balāghah
Unit 2: Concluding Remarks II: Significance of Ilmu ‘l-Balaghah
Glossary of Arabic Rhetoric

UNIT 1: THE EVOLUTION OF AL-BADĪ‘ AND CONTRIBUTIONS

OF EARLY ARABIC RHETORICIANS

CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of al-badī‘
3.2 Objective of Badī‘ studies
3.3 Early Beginnings
3.4 Categories of badī‘ tropes
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Self Assessment/Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 Reference/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The Arabic term for rhetorical figures is known as badī‘, and the discipline
dealing with them is thus called ‘ilm al-badī‘. (Science of Discourse of
Embellishment). It is the third of the tripartite structure called ‘ilm al-balāgha
77
(Science of Rhetoric), according to the classification in al-Khatīb al-Qazwīnī's (d.
739/1338) influential epitome, namely, his Talkhīs al-Miftāh. The other two are
ma‘ānī (semantics), and bayān (notion). The present course is a detailed account of
badī‘. The student is introduced in the present discussion to the linguistic and
rhetorical definition of badī‘, their rhetorical functions, the historical development of
badī‘ studies together with major rhetoricians and poets and prose writers in whose
works aspects of badī‘ discussed are illustrated.
This unit also provides a brief analysis of the two categories of badī‘ in
Arabic: semantic and lexical. In other words, the figures are divided into two kinds,
as they are anchored either in the meaning (ma‘nawī) or in the wording (lafzī). This
fine classification is to be attributed to al-Sakkākī (d. 626/1228). In this course,
‘embellishment(s)’ is also to be used as an English equivalent for badī‘ features and
tropes. It must be stated, however, that standard works in English on Arabic rhetoric
are all but lacking, except for Abdul-Raof (2006) which is the principal source for the
current course material, its deficiencies notwithstanding (Cf. Sanni: forthcoming).
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit student should be able to:
- Relate ‘ilm al-badī‘ as the third of the tripartite structure called ‘ilm al- balāgha  

- give linguistic and rhetorical definition of badī‘and their rhetorical functions

- narrate historical development of Badī‘ studies
- analyze the two categories of badī‘ in Arabic .
- discuss the two kinds of figures: ma‘nawī or lafzī.
- expatiate the role of A`s-Sakkākī in the classification of Badī‘ studies.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Definition of al-badī‘
In Arabic rhetorical studies, al-badī‘ is an independent rhetorical discipline
through which we appreciate the mechanisms of beautifying the discourse (wujūh
tahsīn al-kalām) that is required to be linguistically unambiguous and compatible
with context. Rhetorically, therefore, al-badī‘ refers to the discipline by which we
appreciate the linguistic features that give discourse decorative elegance and
acceptability provided it does not violate contextual or linguistic criteria.
78
Rhetorically, embellishments are also referred to as al-muhassināt al-badī‘iyyah
(beautifiers).
3.2 Objective of Badī‘ studies
An embellishment is a linguistic and stylistic devise that aims to provide
ornamentation to Arabic discourse. An effective communicator employs various modes
of embellishments in his or her discourse to achieve a 'beautiful' and sublime style in
order to influence the auditor or reader. Stylistically, in order to achieve this rhetorical
function of embellishments, an effective text producer should attempt to avoid
unfamiliar and inappropriate figures. However, there is no harm in employing calques
which are loan translations of foreign words as they are considered eloquent
expressions and enjoy linguistic and morphological congruity.
3.3 Early Beginnings
Historically, pre-Islamic and early Islamic poetic discourse has featured some of the
badī‘ aspects. However, it was ‘Abdullah b. al-Mu`tazz (d. 296/908) who made badī‘ an
independent rhetorical discipline in its own right. His approach has been supported by Abū
Hilāl al-‘Askari (d. 395/1004). Both rhetoricians, however, have confused some features of
bayān with those of badī‘. For instance, they have opted for including isti‘ārah (metaphor) and
kināyah (metonymy) with badī‘. However, badī‘ has not been without supporters who have
recognized its independent status and did not fall into the confusion of mixing up tropes
related to the different branches.
We present herewith a chronological account of rhetoricians who have made
contributions in the development of badi‘ as a discipline in its own right within
Arabic rhetoric.. The rhetoricians are listed here:

Ibn al-Mu‘tazz ; the founder of badī‘ as an independent arm of rhetoric and

wrote his book al-badī‘ in 274/887. In it, he lists 18 badī‘ features and argues that
the rhetorical features of the discipline have already been known to the Arabs since
the pre-Islamic period. He is, therefore, critical of his contemporaries for their over-
use of these features in their discourse.

Qudāmah b. Ja‘far (d. 337/948) is among rhetoricians who have investigated

badi‘ features. In his book Naqd al-Shi‘r, Qudāmah lists fourteen features of which
he introduces nine new ones different from those of Ibn al-Mu‘tazz. Abū Hilāl al-
‘Askarī (d. 395/1004) also lists in chapter nine of his book al-Sinā‘atain twenty-seven
badī‘ features, 14 of which are not dealt with by Ibn al-Mu‘tazz and Qudāmah.

Al-Watwāt Rashīd al-Dīn al-‘Umarī (d. 573/1177) wrote Daqā’iq al-Shi‘r

which is mainly an account of al- badī‘ and is written in Persian and translated into
Arabic by Ibrahim al-Shawaribi. Al-Watwāt provides examples from both Arabic and
Persian prose and poetry as well as from his own poetry in Arabic.

Usāmah b. Munqidh (d.584/1188) wrote al- Badī‘ fi naqd al-shi‘r which is an

exclusive account of the rhetorical features of badī‘ in which he provides a detailed
list of embellishments.
79
 Al-Sakkāki (d. 626/1228) deals with badī‘ features in his book Miftāh al-‘ulūm
but does not recognise them as constituents of an independent rhetorical discipline.

Ibn al-Athīr (d. 637/1239) provides a detailed account of both semantic and
lexical badi‘ features in his book al-Mathal al-sā'ir. However, he does not recognize
badī‘ as an independent rhetorical subject but rather as part of bayān.

Ibn Abī al-Işba‘ (d. 654/1256) has two books on badī‘ to his credit, namely,
Tahrir al-tahbir which is a list of badī‘ tropes in Arabic, and the second one is Badī‘
al-Qur'ān which is a list of rhetorical tropes of the Qur'an.

Badr al-Dīn b. Malik al-Ta’ī (d. 686) makes in his al-Misbāh fi ‘ulūm al-ma‘ānī
wa-l-bayān wa-l -badī‘ an intuitive reference to badī‘ as a separate discipline of
Arabic rhetoric.

Al-Qazwīni (d. 739/1308) in his Talkhīs al-Miftāh deals with badī‘ as an

independent rhetorical discipline and refers to it as a stylistic mechanism through
which Arabic speech acts and writing can be decorated by various kinds of
ornamentation if the context of situation is taken into consideration and ambiguity is
avoided.

3.5 Categories of badi‘ tropes

There are two major categories of badi‘ features in Arabic rhetoric are
semantic embellishments and lexical embellishments. Each of these two categories
has several forms. However, in both categories, different labels have been applied
in certain instances by rhetoricians to the same embellishment. For our purpose,
however, we shall employ the most common label for the specific badi‘ features
treated.

Semantic embellishments; Beautifying a given discourse through semantic

embellishments is attributed not only to the signification of the lexical items
employed but also to the stylistic techniques employed by the communicator. The
distinctive feature of the mode of semantic embellishment entails that the
beautifying feature will not disappear if we change the lexical item concerned by a
synonym, as in:.‫اﷲ ﻳﻌﻠﻢ ﻣﺎ ﻳُﺴﺮون وﻣﺎ ﻳُﻌﻠﻨﻮن‬

“God knows what they conceal and what they declare” Q2:77.

In this example, we have the semantic embellishment of antithesis (tibāq)

which is represented by the words (yusirru- to conceal) and (yu‘linu - to declare).
This rhetorical feature of antithesis will still be maintained even if we substitute
synonyms for the antithetical words used words.

80
Self Assessment Exercises
1. Discuss the contribution of Qur’ān to the emergence of rhetorical studies.

2. Identify key contributors and their works to badī‘ studies from the 3rd /9th

to 7th/14th centuries

3.Identify the two types of embellishment

4.0 CONCLUSION

The unit explained the linguistic and rhetorical definition of badī‘and their
rhetorical functions. It gave full account of its historical development and featured
the two categories of badī‘ in Arabic . The figures are divided into two kinds ;
ma‘nawī or lafzī. Fine classification of Badī‘ studies was attributed to al-Sakkākī.

5.0 SUMMARY
This unit is a detailed account of badī‘. It introduced the linguistic and
rhetorical definition of badī‘, their rhetorical functions, the historical development of
badī‘ studies together with major rhetoricians and poets and prose writers in whose
works aspects of badī‘ discussed are illustrated. It also provided a brief analysis of
the two categories of badī‘ in Arabic: semantic and lexical.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Discuss the detailed account of ‘ilm al-badī‘ in Arabic rhetoric
2. Explain the historical development of ‘ilm al-badī‘ in Arabic and
identify the two types of embellishment
3. Give a detailed account of the contributors and their works to badi‘
s studies from the 3rd/9th to 7th/14th centuries

7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS

Jārim, ‘Ali et al(1961): al-Balāgha-l-wādihah. Cairo: Dār-ul-Ma’ārif
Atīq ‘Abdul-Azīz (1970), Fi’l-Balaghah al-‘Arabiyyah ‘ilmul Bayān. Beirut-
‘Awnī Hāmid (1965) al-Minhāju `l- Wādih li `l-Balāghah. Cairo: Dārul-Ma’ārif
Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis.
London & New York: Routledge. (Specifically pp. 239ff from which
this course material draws substantially).
Musawi, Muhsin J. al- (2001). “Arabic Rhetoric”, in Thomas O. Sloane (Ed.), Oxford
Encyclopaedia of Rhetoric, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 29-33.

81
UNIT 2: SEMANTIC EMBELLISHMENTS IN ARABIC RHETORIC 1

CONTENT

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
Semantic embellishments in Arabic rhetoric.I
4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 Reference/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
As stated in the concluding parts of Unit 1, there are two major categories
of badī‘ features in Arabic rhetoric: semantic embellishments and lexical
embellishments. Each of these two categories has several forms. However, This
unit employs the most common label for the specific badi‘ features treated in
Semantic embellishments.

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit student should be able to:

- define semantic embellishments

- analyse the lexical items employed

- appreciate stylistic techniques employed by communicators

- identify distinctive features of the mode of semantic embellishment

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1Semantic embellishments; Beautifying a given discourse through
semantic embellishments is attributed not only to the signification of the lexical
items employed but also to the stylistic techniques employed by the communicator.
The distinctive feature of the mode of semantic embellishment entails that the
beautifying feature will not disappear if we change the lexical item concerned by a
synonym .The features are;

82
 1. Affirmed dispraise (Ta’kīd al-dhamm bi-mā yushbihu l-madħ). This is
where a negative attribute is established with such an expression that seems to portray
it in a good light. An example is the following:

‫زﻳﺪ ﻻ ﺧﲑ ﻓﻴﻪ إﻻ أﻧﻪ ﻳﺘﺼﺪق ﲟﺎﻳﺴﺮق‬

There is nothing good about Zaid except that he pays as charity what he steals.

‫ﺴﻴﺊ إﱄ ﻣﻦ أﺣﺴﻦ إﻟﻴﻪ‬

ُ ً‫ﺳﺎﱂ ﻻ ﺧﲑ ﻓﻴﻪ إﻻ أﻧﻪ ﻳ‬
There is nothing good about Salim but he treats badly whoever does a favour to him.

In the two examples, the positive feature (khayrun-good) is negated but the
negative features ( y a s r i q u - to steal) and (yusī’u - to treat badly) occur in the latter
part of the sentence that begins with the exception particle (illa- except).

The other form of affirmed dispraise is to employ two negative features in the
same speech act without using negation, as in:

‫ﻓﺎﺳﻖ إﻻ أﻧﻪ ﺟﺎﻫﻞ‬

ٌ ‫زﻳ ٌﺪ‬
Zayd is defiantly disobedient but he is ignorant.
where the negative feature (fāsiqun- defiantly disobedient) is not negated but
is followed by another negative feature (jāhilun- ignorant) that occurs after
the particle of exception.

2. Antithesis (Tibāq). Linguistically, antithesis means the combination of two

things. Rhetorically, however, it means the combination of two opposing attributes
whether they are figurative or literal. The two kinds of antithesis are:

i- Non-negated antithesis: This applies to the occurrence of two antonyms in a

statement as in: .‫ وﻻ اﻟﻈﻠﻤﺎت وﻻ اﻟﻨﻮر‬.‫وﻣﺎ ﻳﺴﺘﻮي اﻷﻋﻤﻲ واﻟﺒﺼﻴﺮ‬

Not equal are the blind and the seeing, nor are the darkness and the light,
Q35:19-20.
The non-negated antithesis is represented by the antonyms (al-a‘mā- the blind)
and (al-baīr- the seeing) in the first sentence, and by the antonyms (al-zulumūt- the
darkness) and (al-nūr- the light) in the second sentence.

ii Negated antithesis: This semantic embellishment occurs when we employ two

expressions that are directly antonymous as in:

‫ﻓﻼ ﲣﺸﻮا اﻟﻨﺎس واﺧﺸﻮن‬

83
 “Do not fear the people but fear me” Q5:44.

The negated antithesis is achieved through the opposite significations of the

lexical items (lā-takhshaw-do not fear) and (akhshaw- fear).

. ‫ﻳﺴﺘﺨﻔﻮن ﻣﻦ اﷲ وﻻ ﻳﺴﺘﺨﻔﻮن ﻣﻦ اﻟﻨﺎس‬

“They conceal (their evil intentions and deeds) from people, but they cannot
conceal them from God.” Q4:108.

Where negated antithesis is represented by the opposite significations of the

verbs (yastakhfūna - to conceal) and (wa lā-yastakhfūna - do not conceal).

3- Apostrophe/Pathetic Fallacy (Mukhātabat ghayr al-‘āqil)

This mode of semantic embellishment is a form of personification. In

apostrophe, the communicator addresses a non-human object that cannot respond to
or even hear the speech act. It creates an unreal speech situation and the object we are
speaking to is made to share our human ability of responding to our message.
Apostrophe usually occurs with the vocative particle, as in the following:

.‫اﻟﻘﺼﺎب ﰲ اﻧﺘﻈﺎرك‬
ّ ,‫ﺧﺮوف ﻻ ﺗﻔﺮح‬
ُ ‫ﻳﺎ‬

O lamb, do not be joyful. The butcher is waiting for you.

‫ﺗﺘﻜﱪ ﻓﺒﻴﺘﻚ أﻫﻮن اﻟﺒﻴﻮت‬

ّ ‫ﻋﻨﻜﺒﻮت ﻻ‬
ُ ‫ﻳﺎ‬

O spider, do not be snobbish. Your house is the most flimsy.

4- Asteism (Ta’kīd al-madh bi-mā yushbihu dhamm). This is the opposite of affirmed
dispraise. (See above). In this case, the positive feature is affirmed with what looks
like negative attribute as in the following statement of the Prophet Muhammad:
. ‫ﻧﱯ إﻻ أﻧّﲏ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺮﻳﺶ‬
ّ ‫أﻧﺎ‬
I am a Prophet except that I am from the Quraysh tribe.

.‫ﺣﺴﻨﺖ أﺧﻼﻗﻪ ﻏﲑ أﻧّﻪ ﻻ ﻳُﺒﻘﻲ ﻣﻦ اﳌﺎل ﺷﻴﺌﺎ إﻻ ﺗﺼ ّﺪق ﺑﻪ‬

ُ ‫ﺷﺨﺺ‬
ٌ ‫ﻫﻮ‬

He is of sublime character except that he spares no resources when comes to generosity

5- Chiasmus (al-muqābala al-‘aksiyya).

This form of semantic embellishment occurs when we have two parts of the same
proposition in which the word order of the first part is reversed and placed together as

84
 a single expression as in: .‫ﻋﺎدات اﻟﺴﺎدات ﺳﺎدات اﻟﻌﺎدات‬
The habits of the masters are the masters of the habits.

.‫اﳊﻲ‬
ّ ‫وﳜﺮ ُج اﳌﻴّﺖ ﻣﻦ‬
ُ ‫اﳊﻲ ﻣﻦ اﳌﻴّﺖ‬
ّ ‫ُﳜﺮ ُج‬
He brings the living out of the dead and brings the dead out of the living, Q30:19.

In the first and second examples, chiasmus is achieved through the reverse word
order of the first parts (- the habits of the masters), (- the living out of the dead)
respectively.

6- Conceit (Husnu `ta‘līl). This form of semantic embellishment expresses a

personal evaluation of something. Conceit is employed when the communicator
intends to reject explicitly or implicitly a familiar fact. To achieve this, he offers an
unfamiliar reason to establish a fact, and the reason he so adduces may not
necessarily be true as in the following:

‫أﺛﺮ اﻟﻠﻄﻢ‬
َ ‫وﻟﻜﻨّﻬﺎ ﰲ وﺟﻬﻪ‬ ٌ‫وﻣﺎ ُﻛﻠﻔﺔ اﻟﺒﺪر اﳌﻨﲑ ﻗﺪﳝﺔ‬
ُ
“ The dodgy spot of the shining moon is not old
but it is, as seen on her face, the trace of a slap.”

In this example, the communicator denies the fact that the dodgy spot on the full
moon had been there since creation, but rather, he attributes it to the effect of
slapping on its face.

6- Epanodos (al-laff wa-l-nashr). In this form of semantic embellishment, we

have reference to two entities followed by an elaboration of each as in:

‫وﻣﻦ أﻳﺎﺗﻪ ﺟﻌﻞ ﻟﻜﻢ اﻟﻠﻴﻞ واﻟﻨﻬﺎر ﻟﺘﺴﻜﻨُﻮا ﻓﻴﻪ وﻟﺘﺒﺘﻐﻮا ﻣﻦ ﻓﻀﻠﻪ‬

“Out of His Signs, He made for you the night and the day that you
may rest therein and by the day seeks from His bounty”. Q28:73.

Where the two entities are represented by the noun phrase al-layl wa-l-nahār
(the night and the day), and this is followed by an explanation of the details
appropriate to each in the same order of mentioning; (- to rest therein) refers to the
night and (- to seek from His bounty) refers to the day. The addressee is expected to
discern the reference of each description.

7- Epistrophe (takrār al-nihāya).This is concerned with the repetition of the

same word or expression at the end of the sentence as can be illustrated with the
following which occurs thirty-one times in the whole of the Sūra:

85
 .‫ﻓﺒﺄي أﻻء رﺑّﻜﻤﺎ ﺗُﻜ ّﺬﺑﺎن‬
ّ
8- Epitrope (al-taslīm al-khitābī). This form of semantic embellishment is a
linguistic technique that can be employed in argumentation and debate. The
communicator accepts the thesis of his or her opponent and then employs it skillfully
as ammunition in the anti-thesis against the opponent, as in:

‫ وﻟﻜﻦ اﻷﻣﻮال اﻟﱵ أﻧﻔﻘﺘﻬﺎ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﰲ ﺑﻨﺎء اﳌﺴﺘﺸﻔﻴﺎت واﳌﺪارس‬, ‫ﺻﺤﻴﺢ‬

ٌ ‫ ﻧﻌﻢ ﻫﺬا‬. ‫أﻧﺖ ﺗﺘّﻬﻤﲏ ﺑﺘﺒﺬﻳﺮ ﻣﻴﺰاﻧﻴﺔ اﻟﺪوﻟﺔ‬
.‫اﻟﻄﺮق ﳑﺎ ّأدي إﱄ ﲢﺴﲔ اﳋﺪﻣﺎت اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ واﻧﺘﻌﺎش اﻹﻗﺘﺼﺎد واﳔﻔﺎض اﻟﺒﻄﺎﻟﺔ‬ُ ‫و‬
“You have accused me of wasting the country's budget. Yes, this is true.
However, the money that has been spent was in building hospitals, schools,
and roads and this has led to the improvement of public services, the revival of
the economy, and drop in unemployment.”

The opponent's thesis is (- wasting the country's budget) which is employed as

a weapon against the opponent by the communicator's antithesis when he admits (-
yes, that is right) and then starts his rebuttal with the conjunctive element (lākin- but)
to refute the opponent’s thesis by listing the positive achievements for which the
money had been spent.

9- Epizeuxis (al-takrār al-tawkīdī). In this mode of semantic embellishment,

the communicator repeats a word or an expression for affirmation. The repeated
lexical item can appear anywhere in the sentence, as in:

.‫ إ ّن ﻣﻊ اﻟﻌﺴﺮ ﻳُﺴﺮا‬.‫ﺴﺮا‬
ً ُ‫ﻓﺈ ّن ﻣﻊ اﻟﻌُﺴﺮ ﻳ‬
“Verily, with every difficulty, there is relief. Verily,
with every difficulty, there is relief”. Q94:5-6.

Here the notion of 'relief' after difficulty is affirmed through repetition. The example
given above in respect epistrophe, that is, the expression “so which of the favours of
your Lord would you deny?” can equally be regarded as a type of epizeuxis.

10- Euphemism (al-tahwīn). This mode of semantic embellishment designates

the employment of an implicit reference to something unpleasant to avoid
embarrassment and to express respect to the addressee, as in:‫إﻧﺘﻘﻞ زﻳﺪ إﱄ اﻟﺮﻓﻴﻖ اﻷﻋﻠﻲ‬

Zayd moved to the most high companion, i.e. (he passed away).

.‫إﻧﺘﻘﻞ زﻳﺪ إﱄ رﲪﺔ رﺑّﻪ‬

Zayd moved to the mercy of God, i.e. (he passed away).

86
 Here euphemism is represented by the expressions (- moved to the most high
companion) and (- moved to the mercy of God) in the two sentences respectively
meaning (māta- to die) which is not a pleasant word.

11- Evasive response (uslūb al-hakīm). This is also called the 'riddle in
response', i.e. to provide an ambiguous answer. In this mode of semantic
embellishment, the text producer does not answer the question but gives a different
answer as a rhetorical technique to surprise the questioner, as in:

‫ ( ﻛﻢ ﺗﻌُﺪ ّ◌ ُ◌ ؟‬How old are you? (Literally, how far can you count?)

ٍ ‫( ﻣﻦ و‬From one to a thousand or even more.)

‫اﺣﺪ إﱄ أﻟﻒ وأﻛﺜﺮ‬

Because the questioner A employs the word (ta‘udd) which is polysemous

whose meaning is either relatable to age or counting capacity, the addressee B avoids
the answer, pretends that he or she has misunderstood the question, and provides an
answer which is uninformative to the questioner A who is interested in knowing the
age of speaker B rather than his mathematical skills.

12- Exordium (al-istihlāl). This kind of semantic embellishment is used in the

prefatory part of a speech in which the communicator sets the scene for the addressee
by referring to the major areas he is going to speak about. The pragmatic function of
this technique is to draw the addressee's attention to the speech. Exordium is like a
brief introduction to a speech or an essay outlining what the text producer intends to
discuss.

13- Hyperbole (al-mubālagha). The communicator attempts through this mode

of semantic embellishment to describe the state of someone or something in an
exaggerated manner, often exceeding the familiar and reasonable limit as in:

‫اﻷرض ﻣﻦ ﺳﺠﺪﺗﻪ‬
ُ ‫وﺗﺴﺘﻌﻴ ُﺬ‬ ‫ﺗﺒﻜﻲ اﻟﺴﻤﻮات إذا ﻣﺎ دﻋﺎ‬

“The heavens cry when he supplicates and the earth seeks refuge against him
(from Allah) for his (lengthy) prostration.”

Here hyperbole is conveyed through the expressions ( the heavens cry) and (the
earth takes refuge).

14- Litotes (al-ithbāt bi-l-nafy). In this mode of semantic embellishment, the

communicator establishes a meaning or an attribute by negating its positive synonym
as in: ‫ﻣﻬﻤﺔ زﻳﺪ ﻟﻴﺴﺖ ﻫﻴّﻨﺔ‬
ّ . (Zayd’s task is not easy)

‫ ﺳﻠﻤﺎن ﻻ ﻳُﻜﺮم ﺿﻴﻔﻪ‬Salmān is not generous towards his guest.

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Here litotes is represented by the negated expressions (- not easy) meaning ‘difficult’,
and (not generous towards his guest) meaning ‘miserly’, respectively.

15- Multiple antithesis (Muqābala). This semantic embellishment is a form

of antithesis which consists of two or more meanings whose opposite meanings occur
respectively, as in:

.‫“ ﻓﻠﻴﻀﺤ ُﻜﻮا ﻗﻠﻴﻼ وﻟﻴﺒﻜﻮا ﻛﺜﲑا‬Let them laugh a little and then weep much” Q9:82.
‫وﳛّﺮم ﻋﻠﻴﻬﻢ اﳋﺒﺎﺋﺚ‬
ُ ‫ُﳛ ّﻞ ﳍﻢ اﻟﻄﻴّﺒﺎت‬

“ He enjoins upon them what is right and forbids them what is wrong.” Q7:157.

Multiple antithesis is achieved by the employment of two sets of antonyms: the

lexical item ‘to laugh’ is the antonym of ‘to cry’, the item ‘little’ is the antonym of
‘much’. In the second illustration, we have three sets of antonyms: ‘to allow’ is the
antonym of ‘to forbid’, ‘for them’ is the antonym of ‘against them’, and ‘ the good
things’ is the antonym of ‘ the wrong things’.

Self Assessment Exercise

1. Illustrate with at least two examples any five of semantic

embellishments.
2. Give the Arabic equivalents of the following: antithesis, asteism
hyperbole and evasive response
3 Identify the two types of embellishment

4.0 CONCLUSION
Semantic embellishments; Beautifying a given discourse through semantic
embellishments is attributed not only to the signification of the lexical items
employed but also to the stylistic techniques employed by the communicator. The
distinctive feature of the mode of semantic embellishment entails therefore,some of
these features were explained in this unit.

5.0 SUMMARY
Semantic embellishments; Beautifying a given discourse through semantic
embellishments is attributed not only to the signification of the lexical items
employed but also to the stylistic techniques employed by the communicator. This
unit discussed fifteen out of twenty five distinctive features of the mode of
semantic embellishment such as; Affirmed dispraise Antithesis (Tibāq).
Linguistically, antithesis means the combination of two things. Rhetorically,
however, it means the combination of two opposing attributes whether they are
figurative or literal. The two kinds of antithesis are:

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 i- Non-negated antithesis: ii Negated antithesis: This semantic embellishment
occurs when we employ two expressions that are directly antonymous . Asteism
(Ta’kid al-madh bi-mā yushbihu dhamm). This is the opposite of affirmed dispraise.
Chiasmus (al-muqābala al-‘aksiyya). when we have two parts of the same
proposition in which the word order of the first part is reversed and placed together as
a single expression and so on.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Explain the following terms in Arabic rhetoric
(Tibāq) antithesis and its two kinds , Asteism (Ta’kid al-madh bi-mā
yushbihu dhamm). and Chiasmus (al-muqābala al-‘aksiyya).
2. Illustrate with at least two examples any four semantic embellishment.
3. Give and explain the Arabic equivalents of the following: antithesis,
epitrope, hyperbole, paronomasia and, evasive response.

7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READING

Jārim, ‘Ali et al(1961): al-Balāgha-l-wādihah. Cairo: Dār-ul-Ma’ārif
Atīq ‘Abdul-Azīz (1970), Fi’l-Balaghah al-‘Arabiyyah ‘ilmul Bayān. Beirut-
‘Awnī Hāmid (1965) al-Minhāju `l- Wādih li `l-Balāghah. Cairo: Dārul-Ma’ārif
Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis.
London & New York: Routledge. (Specifically pp. 239ff from which
this course material draws substantially).
Musawi, Muhsin J. al- (2001). “Arabic Rhetoric”, in Thomas O. Sloane (Ed.), Oxford
Encyclopaedia of Rhetoric, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 29-33.

89
UNIT 3: SEMANTIC EMBELLISHMENTS IN ARABIC RHETORIC. II

CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
Semantic embellishments in Arabic rhetoric.
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 Reference/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION

As discussed in the last unit that, there are two major categories of badi‘
features in Arabic rhetoric they are; semantic embellishments and lexical
embellishments. Each of these two categories has several forms. However, This
unit employs the remaining of the most common label for the specific badi‘
features treated in Semantic embellishments.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit student should be able to :
- more stylistic techniques employed by the communicator
- the remaining distinctive features of the mode of semantic embellishment

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Semantic embellishments in Arabic rhetoric.II

16- Observation (al-Irshād/al-Tas-hīm). The addressee can be a vigilant

linguistic observer able to predict what the communicator is going to finish his or her
statement with before the end of the statement. This is called observation which is
another mode of semantic embellishment that occurs when the initial part of a given
speech act provides clear contextual and linguistic clues that enable the addressee to
predict what the next part of the proposition is. For instance, a teacher talking to a
student who was absent in the examination and failed the module as a result can say:
. . . ‫ﻛﺎن ﺑﺈﻣﻜﺎﻧِﻚ اﻟﻨﺠﺎح ﰲ ﻫﺬﻩ اﳌﺎدة وﻟﻜﻨّﻚ‬
You could have passed this course but you...

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 At this stage, and even before the teacher has finished his or her statement, the
student has got enough contextual and linguistic clues that enable him or her to

predict the next part of the teacher's speech act which is ( - you were absent). Thus,
the full statement is:
.‫ﻛﺎن ﺑﺈﻣﻜﺎﻧِﻚ اﻟﻨﺠﺎح ﰲ ﻫﺬﻩ اﳌﺎدة وﻟﻜﻨّﻚ ﻛﻨﺖ ﻏﺎﺋﺒﺎ‬
You could have passed this course but you were absent

Another example is:

‫ ومنھم من أخذ ْته الصيحة‬,‫ فمنھم من أرسلنا عليه حاصبًا‬, ‫ف ُكالّ أخذنا بذنبه‬
‫ وما كان ﷲ ليظلمھم‬,‫ ومنھم من أغرقنا‬,‫ومنھم من خسفنا به األرض‬
“So each We seized for his sin; and among them were those upon whom We sent a
storm of stones, and among them were those who were seized by the blast, and
among them were those whom We caused the earth to swallow, and among them
were those whom We drowned. And God would not have wronged them.” Q29:40.

When the communicator stops at this point, the addressee should be able to predict
the conclusion of this proposition which is:

‫ولكن كانوا أنفسھم يظلمون‬

(but it was they who were wronging themselves).
17- Oxymoron (al-Irdāf al-khalfī). This is achieved when the communicator places
two antonyms next to each other, as in: ‫ﺳﻴﺠﻌﻞ اﷲ ﺑﻌﺪ ُﻋﺴ ٍﺮ ﻳُ ْﺴًﺮا‬
ُ
“God will grant ease, following hardship.”, Q65:7.

Here oxymoron is represented by the antonym expressions (‘usr - hardship)/ (yusr -

ease).

18- Paronomasia (Tawriyah). The semantic embellishment of paronomasia occurs

when a polysemous lexical item is used in a given speech act. The word employed
has two meanings: one is the surface meaning and the other is the underlying
meaning which is the intended signification by the communicator. Thus, paronomasia
takes place because the addressee overlooks the underlying meaning and takes into
account the surface meaning only. An illustration is provided with the following:

. ‫وﻳﻌﺎم ﻣﺎ ﺟﺮﺣﺘُﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻬﺎر‬

ُ ‫ﻫﻮ اﻟﺬي ﻳﺘﻮﻓّﺎﻛﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻴﻞ‬

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 “It is He who takes your souls by night and knows what you have committed
by day.” Q6:60.

Paronomasia is represented by the word (jarahtum) which has the surface meaning
“to cut/to injure” and an underlying meaning “to commit sins” which is the intended
signification in this example. Yet another example is:

. ‫ﻳﺴﺠﺪان‬
ُ ‫اﻟﻨﺠﻢ واﻟﺸﺠﺮ‬
“ The stars and trees prostrate.” Q55:6.

Where the lexical item (an-Najm) is polysemous whose surface meaning is (stars) but
its intended underlying meaning is (herbage or any plant that does not have a stem).
Thus, the accurate translation should be (the herbage and trees prostrate).

19- Personification (al-Tashkhīş/al-Tajsīd). In personification, the characteristics of

a human entity are transferred to an inhuman entity. In other words, in this mode of
semantic embellishment, non-human, inanimate, and abstract entities are given
human features, as in:‫ﻋﺮﺿﻨﺎ اﻷﻣﺎﻧﺔ ﻋﻠﻲ اﻟﺴﻤﻮات واﻷرض واﳉﺒﺎل ﻓﺄﺑﲔ أن ْﳛﻤﻠﻨﻬﺎ‬
ْ ‫إﻧﺎ‬

“Indeed, We offered the trust to the heavens, the earth, and the mountains, but they
declined to bear it and feared it. But man undertook to bear it. Indeed, he was unjust
and ignorant.” Q33:72. Another example is:

. ‫وﺗﺒﺴﻢ اﻟﺜﻌﻠﺐ ُﳏﺎوﻻ ﻛﺴﺐ ﺛِﻘﺔ اﻟﺪﺟﺎﺟﺔ اﻟﱵ أﺧﱪﺗﻪ ﲟﺎﺟﺮي ﻷ ُّﻣﻬﺎ‬
ّ
“The fox smiled trying to win the chicken's trust but the chicken informed him
of what has already happened to her mother.”. Ye another example:

. ‫ﻳﺴﺘﻨﻜﺮ ﻫﺬا اﳉﺮاﺋﻢ اﻟﺒﺸﻌﺔ‬

ُ ‫اﳊﺠﺮ‬
ُ ‫ﺣﱵ‬
“ Even stones denounce these horrible crimes.”

Personification is achieved through the lexical items (al-samāwāt wa- l-ard - the
heavens and earth), (al-tha‘lab- the fox), (al-dajājah- the chicken), and (al-hajar -
the stones) in the above examples respectively. Human actions denoted by the verbs
are attributed to non-human entities.

20- Quotation (al-Tađmīn). This semantic embellishment refers to quotations taken

from various sources, as in:

. ‫أﺿ ُﻊ اﻟﻌﻤﺎﻣﺔَ ﺗﻌﺮﻓﻮﱐ‬

َ ‫ ﻣﱵ‬, ‫ﻻ ﺗﺴﺘﻬﻴﻨﻮا ﺬﻩ اﳌﺎدة اﻟﺪراﺳﻴﺔ‬
Do not take this course lightly. You will know me when I put on my turban.
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The communicator has used the quotation ( - you will know me when I put on my
turban) which is a famous threatening expression said by the notorious ruler al-Hajjāj.
Thus, the communicator has employed implicit threat through this quotation.

21- Rhetorical question (al-Istifhām al-balāghī). This is a mode of semantic

embellishment in which the communicator asks a question to which he or she is not
expecting an answer, as in:. ‫ أﻟﻴﺲ اﷲ ﺑﺄﺣﻜﻢ اﳊﺎﻛﻤﲔ‬Is not God the most just of judges?

ُ ‫أﻟﻢ أُﻧﺒّﻬﻚ ﻋﻠﻲ ذﻟﻚ ﻣﻦ‬

‫ﻗﺒﻞ ؟‬ Did not I warn you about that before?

where the addressee is not expected to provide a yes or no answer to the commu-
nicator's question. In other words, the rhetorical question is meant to produce an
effect upon the addressee rather than to get an answer.

22- Sarcasm (al-Istihzā’). This is an indirect way of rebuking someone by saying a

positive feature by which the communicator means the opposite, that is, sarcastic, as
in: ُ‫“ذُ ْق إﻧّﻚ أﻧﺖ اﻟﻌﺰﻳﺰ اﻟﻜﺮﱘ‬Taste it, you were such a powerful nobel!, Q44:49.
Sarcasm is represented by the adjectives (. ‫ العزيز الكري ُم‬a powerful noble) as a rebuke
to the evil doer.

‫أﻋﺪﻟﻚ ؟‬
ْ ‫ ﻣﺎ‬What a just person you are.
When this speech act is said to an unjust person, its underlying signification is the
opposite and is sarcastic.

23- Scholastic approach (al-Madhhab al-kalāmi). This mode of semantic

embellishment is known as dialectical mannerism and is related to argumentation and
debate. It is common scholastic speeches in which the communicator attempts to
provide substantiating cognitive evidence to prove his point of view and rebut the
opponent's views, as in: ‫“ﻟﻮ ﻛﺎن ﻓﻴﻬﻤﺎ آﳍﺔٌ إﻻ اﷲ ﻟﻔﺴﺪﺗﺎ‬
Had there been within them (i.e. the heavens and earth) gods besides God, they both
would have been ruined, Q21:22.

The substantiating evidence given by the text producer here is ( l a -

f a s a d a t ā - they would have been ruined). Thus, the rebuttal is implicit because
neither the heavens nor the earth are ruined. Therefore, they could not have been
regulated and maintained by many false gods. By logical conclusion, the address
discerns the premise that they must have been regulated and governed by one God.

24- Shift (al-Iltifāt) The semantic embellishment of shift takes different forms whose
major pragmatic function is to achieve heightened vividness and stylistic diversity.
The different forms of shift are: shift in tense, as in:

93
 ‫وﻳﺼ ّﺪون ﻋﻦ ﺳﺒﻴﻞ اﷲ‬
ُ ‫ﻛﻔﺮوا‬
ُ ‫إ ّن اﻟﺬﻳﻦ‬
(Those who have disbelieved and avert people from the way of God, Q22:25.

where there is a shift from the past tense ‫( كفرُوا‬disbelieved) to the present tense .
‫ص ّدون‬
ُ ‫ وي‬to avert).

shift in verbal sentence to nominal sentence, as in:

‫ واﷲ‬. . . ‫ﻚ ﳍﻢ رزﻗًﺎ‬ ِ ٍ ‫ﻓﻀﻞ ﺑﻌﻀﻜﻢ ﻋﻠﻲ‬

ُ ‫وﻳﻌﺒﺪون ﻣﻦ دون اﷲ ﻣﺎ ﻻ ﳝﻠ‬
ُ . . . ‫ﺑﻌﺾ‬ ّ ‫ واﷲ‬. . . ‫واﷲُ ﺧﻠﻘﻜﻢ‬
. ‫أﺧﺮﺟﻜﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺑُﻄﻮن ّأﻣﻬﺎﺗﻜﻢ‬
“God created you . . .and God has favoured some of you over others . . . and
they worship besides God that which does not possess for them provision . . .
God presents an example ... and God extracted you from the wombs of your
mothers... Q16:70-78.

where the first and second sentences are nominal, i.e. noun-initial, beginning with the
noun (God), the third and fourth sentences are verbal, i.e. verb-initial, beginning with
a verb ( - to worship) and (- to present), and the fifth sentence is nominal beginning
with the noun (-God).

iii person shift, as in:

‫ﻓﻘﻀﺎﻫﻦ ﺳﺒﻊ ﲰﻮات ﰲ‬

ّ , ‫ُﰒ اﺳﺘﻮي إﱄ اﻟﺴﻤﺎء وﻫﻲ ُدﺧﺎ ٌن ﻗﺎل ﳍﺎ وﻟﻸرض إﻳﺘﻴﺎ ﻃﻮﻋﺎ أو ﻛﺮﻫﺎ ﻗﺎﻟﺘﺎ أﺗﻴﻨﺎ ﻃﺎﺋﻌﲔ‬
ٍ ‫ وأوﺣﻲ ﰲ ﻛﻞ‬,‫ﻳﻮﻣﲔ‬
.‫ وزﻳّﻨﺎ اﻟﺴﻤﺎء اﻟﺪﻧﻴﺎ ﲟﺼﺎﺑﻴﺢ وﺣﻔﻈًﺎ‬, ‫ﲰﺎء أﻣﺮﻫﺎ‬ ّ
“Then He directed Himself to the heaven while it was smoke and said to it and
to the earth: 'Come (into being) willingly or by compulsion'. They said: 'We
have come willingly'. And He completed them as seven heavens within two
days and inspired in each heaven its command. And We adorned the nearest
heaven with lamps and as protection.” Q41:11-12.

The third person singular pronoun (huwa- He) referring to God has been
employed in the verbs (istawā- to direct), (qāla - to say), (qadā- to complete), and
(awhā- to inspire). However, shift in person takes place when the first person plural
(nahnu- We) is used in the verb (wa-zayyanā- to adorn).

It is interesting to note that shifts in both tense and person may occur in the same
proposition, as in:

.‫ﺖ‬ ٍ ‫اﷲ اﻟﺬي أرﺳﻞ اﻟﺮﻳﺎح ﻓﺘﺜﲑ ﺳﺤﺎﺑﺎ ﻓﺴﻘﻨﺎﻩ إﱄ‬

ٍ ‫ﺑﻠﺪ ﻣﻴ‬ “God sends the winds and they
ّ ُ ُ ُ
-
stir the clouds, and We drive them to a dead land.” Q35:9.

94
where tense shift is represented by the occurrence of the past tense verb (arsala -
sent) and the present tense verb (tuthir- to stir), and the person shift is represented by
the occurrence of the third person noun (Allah- God) sentence-initially followed by
its pronoun in the first person plural (nahnu - We) implicitly employed in the verb
(suqnāhu - to drive).

25- Tapinosis (al-Tahqīr). This mode of semantic embellishment is employed in

order to depreciate and belittle someone/something as an implicit dispraise and
sarcasm, as in: . ‫وﺻﻌﺪت اﻟﺮﺑﻮة ﰲ اﻟﺸﻤﺎل‬
ُ ‫زرت ﺑﻼدﻛﻢ اﻟﺸﻬﺮ اﳌﺎﺿﻲ‬
ُ I
visited your country last month and climbed the hill in the north.

◌ٌ ‫ﰲ ﺑﻼدي ٌﺮ وﻋﻨﺪﻛﻢ ﺟﺪول‬

In my country, there is a river and you have got a stream.

Tapinosis is represented by the employment of rabwa- hill in the first sentence,

instead of jabal, and by the use of jadwal-stream in the second example which
s h o u l d have been nahr- river.
Self-Assessment Exercise
1. Illustrate with at least two examples any five of semantic embellishment.
2-Explain the Arabic terms of the following: Shift (al-Iltifāt) Sarcasm (al-
Istihzā’). Observation (al-Irsād/al-Tashīm). Oxymoron (al-Irdāf al-khalfī).
Paronomasia (Tawriyah).

4.0 CONCLUSION
As we are aware that semantic embellishments is attributed not only to the
signification of the lexical items employed but also to the stylistic techniques
employed by the communicator. The remaining distinctive features of the mode of
semantic embellishment were explained with copious illustrations in this unit.
5.0 SUMMARY
The remeaning part of distinctive features of the mode of semantic
embellishment as employed in Arabic rhetoric are highlighted as follow:

Observation (al-Irsād/al-Tashīm). The addressee can be a vigilant linguistic

observer able to predict what the communicator is going to finish his or her statement
with before the end of the statement. Tapinosis (al-Tahqīr). This mode of semantic
embellishment is employed in order to depreciate and belittle someone Shift (al-
Iltifāt) whose major pragmatic function is to achieve heightened vividness and
stylistic diversity. It has different forms of shift they are:

I shift in tense, ii shift in verbal sentence to nominal sentence& iii person shift,

95
 Sarcasm (al-Istihzā’). This is an indirect way of rebuking someone by saying a
positive feature by which the communicator means the opposite, Observation (al-
Irsād/al-Tashīm). The addressee can be a vigilant linguistic observer able to predict
what the communicator is going to finish his or her statement Oxymoron (al-Irdāf
al-khalfī). is when the communicator places two antonyms next to each other.

Paronomasia (Tawriyah). Is a polysemous lexical item used in a given

speech act. The word employed has two meanings: one is the surface meaning and
the other is the underlying meaning - the intended signification by the communicator
and so on.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Explain the following terms in Arabic rhetoric Shift (al-Iltifāt) Sarcasm

(al-Istihzā’). Observation (al-Irsād/al-Tashīm). Oxymoron (al-Irdāf al-
khalfī). Paronomasia (Tawriyah).
2. Illustrate with at least an example any four of semantic embellishment.
3. Give and then explain the Arabic equivalents of the following:
Shift , Sarcasm, Observation ,Oxymoron and Paronomasia .

7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READING

Jārim, ‘Ali et al(1961): al-Balāgha-l-wādihah. Cairo: Dār-ul-Ma’ārif
Atīq ‘Abdul-Azīz (1970), Fi’l-Balaghah al-‘Arabiyyah ‘ilmul Bayān. Beirut-
‘Awnī Hāmid (1965) al-Minhāju `l- Wādih li `l-Balāghah. Cairo: Dārul-Ma’ārif
Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis.
London & New York: Routledge. (Specifically pp. 239ff from which
this course material draws substantially).
Musawi, Muhsin J. al- (2001). “Arabic Rhetoric”, in Thomas O. Sloane (Ed.), Oxford
Encyclopaedia of Rhetoric, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 29-33.

96
Unit 4: Lexical Embellishment in Arabic Rhetoric I
Unit 5: Lexical Embellishment in Arabic Rhetoric II
UNIT 4: LEXICAL EMBELLISHMENT IN ARABIC RHETORIC I
CONTENT

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Lexical embellishments I
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Self Assessment/Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 Reference/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Each of the two major categories of badi‘ features in Arabic rhetoric has
several forms as you have seen in Units 2 and 3 above. However, this unit employs
the most common label for the specific badi‘ features treated in lexical
embellishments which is attributed to a given lexical item employed in the
proposition. The distinctive feature of this mode of lexical embellishment is that
the beautifying feature will disappear if we change the lexical item by a synonym.
Come on board and see this as we go through this Unit 4.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit student should be able to :

- give the meaning of lexical embellishments

- expound the signification of the lexical items employed

- appreciate the stylistic techniques employed by the communicator

- identify the distinctive feature of the mode of lexical embellishments

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Lexical embellishments I

Beautifying a given discourse through lexical embellishments is attributed to

a given lexical item employed in the proposition. The distinctive feature of this mode
of lexical embellishment is that the beautifying feature will disappear if we change
the lexical item by a synonym, as in:

. ‫وﻳﻮم ﺗﻘﻮم اﻟﺴﺎﻋﺔُ ﻳُﻘﺴﻢ اﳌﺠﺮﻣﻮ َن ﻣﺎ ﻟﺒﺜﻮا ﻏﲑ ﺳﺎﻋﺔ‬

ُ
“On the day the Hour appears the criminals will swear they had remained
but an hour, Q30:55.

In this example, we have the lexical embellishment of pun which is

represented by the lexical items ( a l - s ā ‘ a h - the Hour, that is, the day of
judgement) and (s ā ‘ a h - an hour, i.e. the time unit). This beautifying
rhetorical feature of pun will disappear if we provide a synonym. Thus, the
lexical embellishment of pun is eliminated if we say:

.‫وﻳﻮم ﺗﻘﻮم اﻟﺴﺎﻋﺔُ ﻳُﻘﺴﻢ اﳌﺠﺮﻣﻮ َن ﻣﺎ ﻟﺒﺜﻮا ﻏﲑ ﺳﺘﲔ دﻗﻴﻘﺔ‬

ُ
- On the day the Hour appears the criminals will swear they had remained
but sixty minutes.

Or: . ‫ويوم تقوم القيامة ُ ي ُقسم ال ُمجرمونَ ما لبثوا غير ساعة‬

-When the day o f j u d g e m e n t appears the criminals will swear they had
remained but an hour.

The most common lexical embellishments in Arabic are explained below:

1- Alliteration (al-Mujānasāt al-istihlāliyyah). The communicator may

employ a number of words whose initial letters are successively identical, as
in:

. ‫وﻣ ﻜ ﺮُ وا ﻣ ﻜ ﺮً ا وﻣ ﻜ ﺮﻧ ﺎ ﻣ ﻜ ﺮً ا‬

They planned a plan, and We planned a plan, Q. 27 :50.

Here alliteration is represented by the initial letter (mim) of the words in the
above example. Another example is:

. ‫ﻓﻮزا ﻋﻈﻴﻤﺎ‬ ِ
ً ‫ورﺳﻮﻟﻪ ﻓﻘﺪ ﻓﺎز‬
ُ ‫وﻣﻦ ﻳُﻄﻊ اﷲ‬

98
Anyone who obeys God and His messenger will achieve a splendid triumph,
Q33:71.

Alliteration is achieved through the initial letter (fa) of the lexical items ( ‫ﻓﻘﺪ ﻓﺎز‬
‫ﻓﻮزا‬
ً

2- Assonance/Rhyming (al-Saj‘). This mode of lexical

embellishment refers to the agreement in the last letter(s) of two propositions,
as in:

. ٌ‫اب ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻋﺔ‬
ٌ ‫ وأﻛﻮ‬, ٌ‫ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ُﺳ ٌﺮر ْﻣﺮﻓُﻮﻋﺔ‬
“Within it are couches raised high, and cups put in place.” Q88:13-14.

. ‫اﻟﻴﺘﻴﻢ ﻓﻼ ﺗﻘﻬﺮ وأﻣﺎ اﻟﺴﺎﺋﻞ ﻓﻼ ﺗﻨﻬﺮ‬

َ ‫وأﻣﺎ‬
“So as for the orphan, do not oppress, and as for the petitioner, do not repel.”
Q93:9-10.

. ◌ٍ ‫وﻇﻞ ﳑﺪود‬ ٍ ٍ ‫ﰲ ﺳﺪ ٍر‬

ّ ,‫وﻃﻠﺢ ﻣﻨﻀﻮد‬
ٍ , ‫ﳐﻀﻮد‬

“They will be) among lote trees with thorns removed, and trees layered with
(fruit) and shade extended, and water poured out, Q56:28-31.

In the first example, assonance is achieved by the sentence-final lexical items

marfū‘ah- (raised high) and mawdū‘ah- (put in place) where the last three
radicals and their vowels are identical. In the other examples, assonance is
achieved by numerical symmetry between the lexical items that produce
assonance. In the second and third examples, for instance, the constituent
words consist of the same number of letters among the units of the speech act.

3- Head-tail (Radd al-sadr ‘alal-‘ajuz). This mode of lexical

embellishment is indicated by the occurrence of a lexical item at the end of a
statement which same word comes at beginning of the second statement. The
first word of the second sentence is called the 'head' and the last word of the
first sentence act is called the 'tail', as in:

. ‫ واﷲ ﻳﺴﻤﻊ ﲢﺎورﻛﻤﺎ‬, ‫وﺗﺸﺘﻜﻲ إﱄ اﷲ‬

“(The woman) complaining to God. God hears whatever you both discuss.”
Q58:1.

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The head lexical item (Allah- God) is at the beginning of the second sentence; the
same word is the tail word (Allah- God) is at the end of the first sentence. Another
example is:

. ‫ واﳉﺎﻣﻌﺎت ﻻ ﺗُﺪﻳﺮﻫﺎ إﻻ اﻷﺳﺎﺗﺬة‬.‫ﻳﺘﻄﻮر ﺑﺪون اﳉﺎﻣﻌﺎت‬

َ ‫اﻟﺒﻠﺪ ﻻ‬
“The country will not develop without universities, and the universities can
only be run by lecturers.”

Here the head word is (al-Jāmi‘āt- the universities) at the beginning of the second
sentence and the tail word is (al-Jāmi‘āt –the universities) which has occurred at the
end of the first sentence.

4- Jinās (Pun). The word jinās is a nominalised noun derived from the verb (jānasa
- to be homogeneous with something else, i.e. two entities that are of the same kind).
The different forms of jinās in Arabic discourse are illustrated below.

i - Complete jinās: (jinās tāmm). This is also referred to as ‘pun’. This lexical
embellishment involves two words which are identical in orthographic form and
pronunciation but semantically different, as in:

. ‫وﻳﻮم ﺗﻘﻮم اﻟﺴﺎﻋﺔُ ﻳُﻘﺴﻢ اﳌﺠﺮﻣﻮ َن ﻣﺎ ﻟﺒﺜﻮا ﻏﲑ ﺳﺎﻋﺔ‬

ُ

“When the day the Hour appears the criminals will swear they had remained
but an hour.” Q30:55.

Here complete jinās is represented by the lexical item (al-sā‘ah) that has a double
signification: (the Day of Judgment) and (the time unit that is made of 60 minutes).
Another example is: . ‫أﻣﺴﻚ وﻗﺲ ﻳﻮﻣﻚ ﺑﺄﻣﺴﻚ‬
ْ ‫ﻳﺎ ﻣﻐﺮور‬

“O you who is snobbish, slow down and compare your (present) day with your
(past) day.”

Complete jinās is represented by the lexical item (amsik ) which has two
distinct meanings in the same proposition: “to slow down” and “yesterday”.

.‫ ﻳﻘﻠﺐ اﻟﻠﻴﻞ واﻟﻨﻬﺎر إن ﰲ ذﻟﻚ ﻟﻌﱪة ﻷوﱄ اﻷﺑﺼﺎر‬. ‫ﻳﻜﺎد ﺳﻨﺎ ﺑﺮﻗﻪ ﻳﺬﻫﺐ ﺑﺎﻷﺑﺼﺎر‬

100
 “The flash of its lightning almost takes away the eyesight. God alternates the
night and the day. Indeed, in that is a lesson for those who have knowledge.”
Q24:43-44

The complete jinās in this example is realized through the two orthographically
identical but semantically distinct lexical items (absār -eyesight) and (absār -
knowledge).

ii- Incomplete jinās (jinās ghayr tāmm) This form of lexical embellishment is
achieved when two lexical items are different from each other in one letter only, as
in: .‫ﻛﺎن زﻳﺪ ﻳﻘﺮح وﳝﺮح دون ُﻣﱪر‬

“Zaid used to exult and behave insolently without a good reason.”

Here incomplete jinās is achieved through the two lexical items (yafrahu - to
exult) and (yamrahu - to behave insolently) which are dissimilar from each other in
the second letter (fa) and (ma) respectively.

iii- Reverse jinās (al-tajnīs bi l-qalb). This mode of lexical embellishment is also
referred to as an ‘anagram’ in which the two lexical items consist of the same number
of letters but have their order of letters different. In other words, reverse jinās
involves the rearrangement of letters of a given lexical item that leads to a different
lexical item of the same constituent letters, as in:

‫ ﻛﱪ رﺑﻚ داﺋﻤﺎ‬- Always glorify your Lord .

The lexical embellishment of reverse jinās is represented by the two words

(kabbir- glorify) and (rabbaka- your Lord) which have a reverse order of letters (k-b-
r) and (r-b-k).

iv- Morphological jinās: (jinās al-ishtiqāq). This mode of lexical embellishment is

also referred to as ‘polyptoton' in which two lexical items that have different
grammatical categories are morphologically related, as in:

. ‫أﻋﺒﺪ‬
ُ ‫“ ﻻ أﻧﺘﻢ ﻋﺎﺑﺪون ﻣﺎ‬You are not worshippers of what I worship, Q109:3. –

. ‫ﻨﺸﺮ ﻫﺬا اﻟﻜﺘﺎب ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒَﻞ ﻧﺎﺷﺮ ﺟﻴَﺪ‬

ُ ُ‫“ ﺳﻴ‬The book will be published by a good
publisher.”

‫ﻳﺒﺤﺚ ﰲ ﻣﻮﺿﻮع ُﻣﻔﻴﺪ‬

ُ ‫اﻟﺒﺎﺣﺚ اﳉﻴّﺪ‬
ُ . ‫اﻵﺧﺮﻳﻦ‬
َ ‫وﻳﻬﺘﻢ ﺑﺒﺤﺜﻪ ﳌﻨﻔﻌﺔ‬
ّ
“The good researcher researches in a useful subject and takes
care of his research to benefit others.”

101
 In the first example, we have the active participle (‘ābidun- worshipper)
that is morphologically related to the verb (a‘bud - to worship). Similarly, in
the second example, the verb (yunshar- to be published) is morphologically
related to the active participle (nāshir- publisher). In the third example, the
active participle (bāhith- researcher), and the verbal noun/nominalised noun
bahth (research) are all morphologically related.

v- Fabricated jinās (al-jinās al-mulaffaq). This kind of lexical embellishment

consists of two expressions. Each expression consists of two different words.
When the two words of an expression are pronounced together, they sound
exactly the same as the other two words of the other expression when it is
pronounced together as in:

‫ﻓﻼ ٌن ﻗﺪ رﺷﺎﱐ‬: ‫ﺗﻀﻊ اﻷﻋﺎدي ﻗﺪر ﺷﺄﱐ وﻻ ﻗﺎﻟﻮا‬

َ ‫ﻓﻠﻢ‬
“My enemies could not undermine my value neither did they say:
I had bribed him.”

Fabricated jinās is achieved through the two expressions (qadr sha’nī - the
value of myself) and (qad rashānī- has bribed me) which sound alike when their
constituent words are pronounced together.

‫أري ﻗﺪﻣﻲ أراق دﻣﻲ‬ ‫إﱄ ﺣﺘﻔﻲ ﺳﻌﻲ ﻗﺪﻣﻲ‬

“To my own death my foot walked I can see my foot has spilt my blood.”

The lexical embellishment of fabricated jinās is achieved through the two

expressions (arā qadamī - I see my foot) (arāqa damī- and spilt my blood) which
phonetically sound alike when the two words are pronounced together as one unit.

vi- Resemblance jinās (al-jinās al-mudāri‘). This type of lexical embellishment

involves two lexical items that are identical in all the constituent letters except for
one letter whose place of articulation is identical to that of the other letter word, as
in:

.‫وﻫﻢ ﻳﻨﻬﻮن ﻋﻨﻪ وﻳﻨﺄون ﻋﻨﻪ‬

“They prevent others from him and they are keeping distance from him.”
Q6:26.

Here resemblance jinās is achieved by the words ( y a n h a w n a - to prevent)

and ( y a n ’ a w n a - keeps distance) which resemble each other orthographically
except for one letter in each word: (ha) and (hamza).

102
 However, the place of articulation of each of the two letters resembles each
other; therefore, the two letters are phonetically similar. The (ha) and the (hamza)
are both glottal sounds, except that the latter is voiced while the former is voiceless.
Yet another example is the following:.

. ٌ‫ إﱄ ر ﺎ ﻧﺎﻇﺮة‬، ٌ‫ُوﺟﻮﻩٌ ﻳﻮﻣﺌﺬ ﻧﺎﺿﺮة‬

“Some faces, that day, will be radiant, looking at their Lord, Q75:22-23.

Resemblance jinās is realized through the two words (nādiratun- radiant) and
(nāziratun - looking) which are different, one has the letter dad, the other letter za.

vii- Non-resemblance jinās (al-jinās l-lāhiq). This form of lexical

embellishment involves two lexical items whose constituent letters are the same
except for one letter in each word. The place of articulation of the two different letters
does not resemble each other, as in:

.‫ وإﻧﻪ ﳊُﺐ اﳋﲑ ﻟﺸﺪﻳ ٌﺪ‬، ‫إﻧﻪ ﻋﻠﻲ ذﻟﻚ ﻟﺸﻬﻴ ٌﺪ‬

“Indeed, he is to that a witness. Indeed, he is intense in love of wealth.”

Q100:7-5.

The non-resemblance jinās has been attained through the two words (shahīdun-
witness) and (shadīdun- intense) whose different letters (ha) and (dal) have distinct
places of articulation. The former is a glottal sound while the latter is an alveolar
sound. Yet another example is the following:

. ‫وﻳﻞ ﻟﻜﻞ ُﳘﺰة ﻟُﻤﺰة‬

ٌ - Woe to every scorner and mocker, Q104:1.
Here non-resemblance jinās is represented by the two lexical items (humazat-
scorner) and (lumazat- mocker) whose distinct letters (ha) and (lam) have different
places of articulation. The former is a glottal sound while the latter is an alveolar
sound.

viii- Distorted jinās (al-jinās l-muharraf): This mode of lexical embellishment

takes place when two lexical items are orthographically similar but are distinct in one
case ending of one of the letters. This distinction in case ending leads to a semantic
difference, too, as in:
ِ ‫وﻟﻘﺪ أرﺳﻠﻨﺎ ﻓﻴﻬﻢ‬
. ‫ ﻓﺎﻧﻈﺮ ﻛﻴﻒ ﻛﺎن ﻋﺎﻗﺒﺔ اﳌﻨ َﺬرﻳﻦ‬، ‫ﻣﻨﺬرﻳﻦ‬
ُ
“We had already sent among them warners. Then look how was the end of
those who were warned.” Q37:72-73.

103
 The lexical embellishment of distorted jinās is represented by the two lexical
items: The active participle (mundhirīn- warners) and the passive participle
(mundharīn - those who were warned) which are semantically different due to the
different case endings of the letter (dh ). In the active participle word the letter (dh)
is in the genitive case, while in the passive participle word the letter is in the
accusative case.

.‫ط‬ ٌ ‫اﳉﺎﻫﻞُ إﻣﺎ ﻣُ ْﻔ ِﺮ‬- The ignorant is either excessive or negligent.

ٌ ‫ط أوﻣُ َﻔ ّﺮ‬

Here distorted jinās is achieved by the two lexical items (mufrit- excessive) and
(mufarrit- negligent) which, although are both active participles, are different in the
status of the letter ra. In the first word, the letter is single while in the second it is
double. Another example is:

‫اﻟﱪد‬
َ ‫ اﻟﺒُـ ْﺮُد ُﺟﻨّﺔٌ ﻣﻦ‬.- Dress is a protection from cold.
In this example of lexical embellishment of distorted jinās, we have two words
which are orthographically identical (burd- dress) and (bard- cold weather) - but
which are semantically distinct. This difference in meaning is attributed to the
different case endings of the letter (ba) which occurs in the nominative and
accusative case for the two words respectively.

4.0 CONCLUSION
Two major categories of badi‘ features in Arabic rhetoric; they are semantic
embellishments and lexical embellishments. The distinctive feature of lexical
embellishment is that the beautifying feature will disappear if we change the lexical
item by a synonym. Such as Alliteration (al-Mujānasah al-istihlāliyyah)-where the
communicator may employ a number of words whose initial letters are successively
identical 2- Assonance/Rhyming (al-Saj‘). This mode of lexical embellishment
refers to the agreement in the last letter(s) of two propositions, Head-tail (Radd al-
sadr ‘alal-‘ajuz). This mode of lexical embellishment is indicated by the occurrence
of a lexical item at the end of a statement which same word comes at beginning of the
second statement. Complete jinās: (jinās tām)-‘pun’. This lexical embellishment
involves two words which are identical in orthographic form and pronunciation but
semantically different. Incomplete jinās (jinās ghayr tāmm) when two lexical items
are different from each other in one letter only, Reverse jinās (al-tajnīs bi l-qalb)-an
‘anagram’ in which the two lexical items consist of the same number of letters but
have their order of letters different. In other words, reverse jinās involves the re-
arrangement of letters of a given lexical item that leads to a different lexical item of
the same constituent letters. Morphological jinās: (jinās al-ishtiqāq) - ‘polyptoton' in
which two lexical items that have different grammatical categories are
morphologically related. Fabricated jinās (al-jinās al-mulaffaq)- consists of two
expressions. Each expression consists of two different words. When the two words of
104
an expression are pronounced together, they sound exactly the same as the other two
words of the other expression when it is pronounced together. Resemblance jinās (al-
jinās al-mudāri‘)- involves two lexical items that are identical in all the constituent
letters except for one letter whose place of articulation is identical to that of the other
letter word.Non-resemblance jinās (al-jinās l-lāhiq)- involves two lexical items
whose constituent letters are the same except for one letter in each word. The place of
articulation of the two different letters does not resemble each other. Distorted jinās
(al-jinās l-muharraf)- place when two lexical items are orthographically similar but
are distinct in one case ending of one of the letters. This distinction in case ending
leads to a semantic difference

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit dealt with the second part of major categories of badi‘ features in
Arabic rhetoric- The distinctive feature of lexical embellishment which is the
beautifying feature that disappears when we change the lexical item by a synonym.
Copious examples cited clarified the features to the reader.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Illustrate with at least two examples any five of lexical embellishment.
2.Give and explain the Arabic equivalents of the following:
Assonance/Rhyming, Head-tail, alliteration.
3. Illustrate with at least two examples, Complete jinās and Incomplete jinās

7.0 REFERENCES & FURTHER READINGS

Jārim, ‘Ali et al(1961): al-Balāgha-l-wādihah. Cairo: Dār-ul-Ma’ārif
Atīq ‘Abdul-Azīz (1970), Fi’l-Balaghah al-‘Arabiyyah ‘ilmul Bayān. Beirut-
‘Awnī Hāmid (1965) al-Minhāju `l- Wādih li `l-Balāghah. Cairo: Dārul-Ma’ārif
Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis.
London & New York: Routledge. (Specifically pp. 239ff from which
this course material draws substantially).
Musawi, Muhsin J. al- (2001). “Arabic Rhetoric”, in Thomas O. Sloane (Ed.), Oxford
Encyclopaedia of Rhetoric, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 29-33.

105
 UNIT 5: LEXICAL EMBELLISHMENTS II

CONTENT

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
Lexical embellishments II
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 Reference/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit employs the most common label for the specific badi‘ features
treated in lexical embellishments which is attributed to a given lexical item
employed in the proposition. The distinctive feature of this mode of lexical
embellishment is that the beautifying feature will disappear if we change the
lexical item by a synonym .

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit student should be able to:

- define lexical embellishments

- expatiate on the signification of the lexical items employed
- evaluate the stylistic techniques employed by the communicator
- discuss the distinctive feature of the mode of lexical embellishments

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Lexical embellishments II

5-Metabole (al-Takrār). In this mode of lexical embellishment, the communicator

employs two or more lexical items modifying another lexical item. In other words, the verb
or the noun is modified by a series of modifiers, as in:
. ‫وﺟﺎء اﻟﺸﻴﻮﻋﻴﻮن ﺑﺴﻴﻮﻓﻬﻢ وﻧﲑا ﻢ وﻋْﻨﻔﻬﻢ ﻟﻴﺤﻤﻠﻮا اﻟﻨﺎس إﱄ ﺟﻨّﺘﻬﻢ اﳌﻮﻋﻮدة‬
- The communists came with their swords, fire, and violence to carry
people to their promised paradise.

‫ب وﻣﻮﺛﻮ ٌق ﺑﻪ‬
ٌ ّ‫زﻳ ٌﺪ وﰲّ وﻛﺮﱘ وﻣﺆد‬

106
 Zayd is faithful, generous, polite, and trustworthy.

The lexical embellishment of metabole is achieved in the first example through a

series of nouns (suyūf- sword), (nīrān- fire), and (‘unf- violence) that modify the
expression (jā’a l-shuyū‘iyyūn- the communists came). In the second example,
metabole is attained through the occurrence of a series of adjectives- faithful,
generous, polite, and trustworthy, all of which modify the noun, Zaid.

6- Onomatopoeia (al-Muhākāt al-sawtiyya). This mode of lexical embellishment

refers to the symbolism of sounds and the verbalization of noises, as in:

‫ﻻ ﻳﺴﻤﻌﻮن ﺣﺴﻴﺴﻬﺎ‬ They will not hear its sound, Q21:102.

here the onomatopoeic lexical item (hasīsahā- its sound) represents Onomatopoeic
lexical items can be semantically oriented. In other words, the sound is interrelated to
the meaning of the word. In Qur’anic discourse, for instance, Q114 is heavily
influenced by words that involve a sibilant sound/ sīn/ that symbolize the sound of
whispering. This is due to the fact that the leitmotif of Q114 is 'seeking refuge in God
from the whispers of Satan'. Other onomatopoeic expressions in Arabic are related to
humans such as (qahqah - a loud burst of laughter), nature such as (kharīr l-mā’-
the ripple of water) and (hafīfu s-Shajar - the rustling of leaves), animals such as
(rughā’ l-jamal- the noise of the camel), and birds such as (zaqzaqat l-tuyūr - the
twittering of birds).

7-Parallelism (al-Muwāzana/al-Mumāthalah). Parallelism in Arabic involves the

repetition of the structure of a lexical item or of a phrase. Linguistically, it has the
function of cohesion. This mode of lexical embellishment is achieved by parallel
grammatical constructions that can establish rhyme and assonance, as in: ‫وآﺗﻴﻨﺎﳘﺎ‬
. ‫ وﻫﺪﻳﻨﺎﳘﺎ اﻟﺼﺮاط اﳌﺴﺘﻘﻴﻢ‬، ‫اﻟﻜﺘﺎب اﳌﺴﺘﺒﲔ‬

- We gave them the explicit Scripture and We guided them on the straight
path, Q37:117-118.

. ‫ ﱂ ﺗُﺆﺧﺬ ﺑﻌﲔ اﻹﻋﺘﺒﺎر‬، ‫ﺮت‬ ِ ِ

ْ ‫اﻷﲝﺎث اﻟﱵ ﻧُﺸ‬
ُ ‫و‬، ‫ﺖ‬
ْ َ‫إن ﲨﻴﻊ اﻵراء اﻟﱵ أُﺑْﺪﻳ‬

“All the points of view which have been expressed and all the research
that has been published have not been taken into consideration.”

107
Where in the first example, parallelism is achieved through the two propositions (wa-
ātaynāhumā . . . ) and (wa-hadaynāhumā . . .). In the second example, parallelism is
represented by the phrases (al-ārā’ al-latī ubdiyat- the points of view which have
been expressed) and (al-abhāth al-latī nushirat- the research that has been published).

‫ وازدادت‬، ‫ واﻧﺘﺸﺮت اﻟﻌﻴﻮ ُن‬، ‫اﻟﻔﻀﺎﺋﺢ‬

ُ ‫ وﻛﺜُﺮت‬، ‫ وﻃُﻤﺴﺖ اﳊﻘﺎﺋﻖ‬، ‫ وﺷﺒّﺖ اﳊﺮاﺋﻖ‬، ُ‫وﺟﻒ اﻟﻀﺮع‬
‫ ﱠ‬، ُ‫وﺗﻠﻒ اﻟﺰرع‬
. ‫اﻟﺴﺠﻮن‬
ُ

The plantation dried, the udder dried, fires broke out, facts were hidden, scandals
increased, and the eyes (spies) spread out. The prisons increased.

Where parallelism is achieved between the parallelistic structures (talafal-zar‘,

jaffal-dar‘ - plantation dried, udder dried). The other segments of the propositions
share the same feature of parallelism.

8. Tail-head (Radd al-‘ajuz ‘ala l-sadr). This mode of lexical embellishment

requires the occurrence of a lexical item at the end of a proposition which, i.e. the
word, is similar to the same word that has occurred at the beginning of the
proposition. Thus, the last word of the second sentence is called the 'tail' and the first
word of the first sentence is called the 'head', as in:

‫أﺣﻖ أن ﲣْﺸﺎﻩ‬
ّ ‫ واﷲ‬، ‫اﻟﻨﺎس‬
َ ‫وﲣْﺸﻲ‬

- You fear the people, while God has more right that you fear Him, Q33:37.

In this example, the tail word (takhshāh - to fear Him) at the end of the second
part of the sentence refers to the head word (takhshā- to fear) which is at the
beginning of the first part of the sentence. Another example is:

. ‫ﺳﺎﺋﻞ‬ ِ ِ
ٌ ‫ودﻣﻌﻪ‬
َ ، ‫ﺳﺎﺋ ُﻞ اﻟﺒﺨﻴﻞ ﻳﺮﺟ ُﻊ‬

The one who asks a miser will come back with his tears flowing.

Here the tail word (sā’il- flowing) at the end of the second part of the sentence
refers to the head word sā’il –miser) which is at the beginning of the first part of the
sentence.

In some tail-head sentences, we find the two lexical items morphologically related,
ِ
as in:. ‫إﺳﺘﻐﻔ ُﺮوا رﺑّﻜﻢ إﻧّﻪ ﻛﺎن ﻏ ّﻔ ًﺎرا‬

108
“Ask forgiveness of your Lord. Indeed, He is ever a perpetual forgiver.” Q71:10.

. ‫ﻠﻢ ﻻ ﻳُﻘ ّﺪر ﲦﻨَﻪ إﻻّ اﻟﻌﺎﱂ‬ِ

ُ ‫اﻟﻌ‬

The value of knowledge can only be appreciated by a scholar.

In the first example, the tail lexical item (Ghaffāran- a perpetual forgiver) at the
end of the second part of the sentence refers to and is morphologically related to the
head lexical item (istaghfara- to ask forgiveness) which is at the beginning of the first
part of the sentence. Similarly, in the second example, the word (‘ālim- scholar) at the
end of the speech act is morphologically related to the lexical item (‘ilm- knowledge)
which occurs at the beginning of the speech act.

9. Zeugma (al-‘Ibārat al-jāmi ‘ah). In this mode of lexical embellishment,

a lexical item may be employed allegorically in a context that is different from that
used with the non-allegorical meaning, as in:

.‫ﺳﺄﺗﻄﺮ ُق إﱄ ﲨﻠﺔ أﻣﻮر ﻫﺎﻣﺔ‬

ّ

I shall touch upon a number of important matters.

Where the word (jumla- a number of) is employed as a zeugma since its
expected meaning is (a sentence).

. ‫ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﳜُﻮض ﰲ اﻷﻣﻮر اﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ‬

ّ ‫أﺻﺪرت اﳊﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﻗﺮ ًارا ﻳﻘﻀﻲ ﺑﺴﺠﻦ‬

The government has issued a decree to imprison any one who talks
about politics.

The lexical item that represents zeugma is (yakhūd) whose non-allegorical signifi-
cation is (to wade in water) but its allegorical meaning is (to deal with, talk about). ‫ﱂ‬
. ‫ﻳﺘﻨﺎول زﻳ ٌﺪ ﰲ ُﺧﻄﺒﺘﻪ ﻣﺸﻜﻠﺔ اﻟﻼﺟﺌﲔ‬

Zayd has not dealt in his speech with the problem of refugees.

where (yatanāwal) represents the lexical embellishment of zeugma whose intrinsic,

i.e. non-allegorical, meaning is (to eat) as in (lam yatanāwal Zayd ta‘āmahu - Zayd
has not eaten his food). As a zeugma, (yatanāwal) signifies (to deal with, refer to).
Another example is the following:

109
 . ‫ﻧﺰل زﻳ ٌﺪ ﰲ ﻫﺬﻩ اﻟﻔﻨﺪق اﻷﺳﺒﻮع اﳌﺎﺿﻲ‬ Zayd stayed in this hotel last week.

Where zeugma lies in the lexical item (nazala) which either means (to descend (from
a bus, taxi) or (to stay in a hotel).

Self-Assessment Exercise
1-Illustrate with at least two examples any five of lexical embellishment
2-Give the Arabic equivalents of the following:
parallelism, zeugma, Tail-head, Metabole and Onomatopoeia
3- Illustrate with at least two examples, any four types of jinās.

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit treated the remeaning distinctive features of mode of lexical

embellishment they are: Metabole (al-Takrār)-the communicator employs two or
more lexical items modifying another lexical item. Onomatopoeia (al-Muhākāt al-
sawtiyya)- refers to the symbolism of sounds and the verbalization of noises.

Parallelism (al-Muwāzana/al-Mumāthalah)- involves the repetition of the structure

of a lexical item or of a phrase, the function of cohesion is achieved by parallel
grammatical constructions that can establish rhyme and assonance .
Tail-head (Radd al-‘ajuz ‘ala l-sadr)- requires the occurrence of a lexical item at the
end of a proposition which, i.e. the word, is similar to the same word that has
occurred at the beginning of the proposition. Thus, the last word of the second
sentence is called the 'tail' and the first word of the first sentence is called the 'head'.

5.0 SUMMARY
This unit treated the remeaning distinctive feature of this mode of lexical
embellishment by which the beautifying feature will disappear if we change the
lexical item by a synonym.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

1-Discuss with at least two examples any five of lexical embellishments.
2-Give and then explain the Arabic equivalents of the following:
parallelism, zeugma, Tail-head , metabole and onomatopoeia
3- Illustrate with at least two examples, any five types of jinās.

110
7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READING
EAL (1998)- Encyclopaedia of Arabic Literature (Eds), Julie. S. Meisami and P.
Starkey, 2 vols. (London & New York: Routledge, 2, 651-56, s.v. ‘rhetorics and
poetics’; 2, 656-62, s.v. ‘rhetorical figures’.
Jārim, ‘Ali and Amīn, Mustafā (1961), al-Balāgha al-wādiha, 15th edition, Cairo:
1961

Majāzi, Ahmad al-Sayyid (1424AH/2005CE), al-Manhal al-sāfi fi l-balāgha al-

‘Arabiyya, Cairo: al-Shuruq.

Musawi, Muhsin J. al- (2001). “Arabic Rhetoric”, in Thomas O. Sloane (Ed.), Oxford
Encyclopaedia of Rhetoric, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 29-33.
Sanni, Amidu (forthcoming). Review of Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic
Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge, in Middle
Eastern Literatures.

111
UNIT 6: Concluding Remarks 1: Classical Scholarship and Ilmu ‘l-Balagha
UNIT 7: Concluding Remarks Ii: Significance of Ilmu ‘L-Balaghah

UNIT 6: CONCLUDING REMARKS 1: CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIP AND

ILMU ‘L-BALAGHAH

CONTENTS:

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Qur’ānic Influence on the emergence of Ilmu ‘l-Balāghah
3.2 Contribution of Select Rhetoricians
3.3 The Three Different Levels of Rhetorical Analysis

4.0 Conclusions
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assigments
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0: INTRODUCTION
We hereby round up our study of Ilmu ‘l-Balāghah with few concluding remarks.
The remarks to be dealt with in this Unit are as highlighted under the main content of
the Unit above.

2.0 OBJECTIVE
At the end of your study of this Unit you should be able to
 Relate Qur’ānic Influence on the emergence of Ilmu ‘l-Balāghah
 Give critical account of Contribution of Select Rhetoricians
 Highlight the Three Different Levels of Rhetorical Analysis
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Qur’ānic Influence On The Emergence Of Ilmu ‘L-Balāghah
The history of Arabic rhetoric, and indeed of badī‘ has a deep root in Islamic
classical scholarship. Arabic rhetorical study was influenced and partly shaped by the
Qur’anic disciplines. Two issues were at the forefront here; the dogma of the
inimitability of the Qur’ān and the problem of correct interpretation of figurative or

112
any other non-straight expression in the scripture. The emphasis in the discussion of
the inimitability lay on style, word order, word use, use of metaphors and figures of
speech – all these were unsurpassed and unsurpassable in their degree of balāgha,
'eloquence'. Theologically, the unattainable degree of eloquence that the Qur’ān was
believed to embody constituted the miracle that proved the prophethood of
Muhammad. Every prophet is thought to be divinely authenticated by a miracle, but it
is only in the case of Muhammad that divine message and divine miracle are
indivisibly intertwined; the miracles of, say, Moses and Jesus were completely
outside their message. Moreover, the miracle was considered to happen in that field
in which the human mind had at that time reached its highest perfection: magic (sihr)
in the case of Moses, medicine (tibb) with Jesus, and eloquence (balāgha) in the
Arabic ambience of the Prophet. The term for a prophetic miracle is mu'jiza, and from
the same root derives the verbal noun i‘jāz used to denote the Qur’ān's inimitability.
In the case of the Qur’an, this idea means that those who disbelieved in the mission of
the Prophet were challenged to produce something like the Koran and, in spite of
their great need to do so, were 'incapacitated', i.e. found incapabāle of imitating it.

Self-Assessment Exercise
 Relate Qur’ānic Influence on the emergence of Ilmu ‘l-Balāghah

3.2 Contribution of Select Rhetoricians

There were various attempts to define basic but rather vague terms, such as
Balāgha, eloquence', Fasāha, 'purity of speech', and Bayān, 'lucidity'; this is usually
done in pithy sayings. Ibn al-Mu‘tazz (d. 296/908), himself one of the most important
poets of the middle Abbasid period, wrote his book about the badī‘ (new)
components(s) of 'modern' poetry for the express purpose of legitimizing them by
proving that they are not new and thus protected by the model character of ancient
poetry.
Rhetorical studies reached their peak in the two works of ‘Abd al-Qāhir al-
Jurjānī namely, the Mysteries of Eloquence (Asrār al-balāgha) and the proofs for the
[Qur’ān's] inimitability (Dalā'il al-i‘jāz). The first is more poetically oriented and
deals first and foremost with questions of imagery and tropes. Due to the confluence
of poetic and Qur’ānic notions of the properties of texts, the definition and
terminology of even as central a term as metaphor had become rather confused and
contradictory. Al-Jurjānī now clarifies the mutual relationships of the terms 'simile'
(tashbih, comparison of things), 'analogy' (tamthil, comparison of facts), and simile
based as well as analogy-based 'metaphor' (isti'āra).). The net result of all this is a
neat semantic system of indirect expressions. It should be noted that the overall
system is partly due to poetic interests and partly to concerns of Qur’ānic
interpretation.
Al-Jurjani's books were the result of sustained efforts of reflection and analysis;
the author tackles many issues that had been clouded by popular misconceptions and
misused terms. He often returned to the same topic and looked at it from different

113
angles. As a result, his books are presented unsystematically and not readily to be
used as textbooks. This deficiency was removed first by the theologian Fakhr al-Dīn
al-Rāzī and then by a’s-Sakkkākī, both of whom brought some order and system to
al-Jurjāni's luxuriant thinking. Historically more influential was al-Sakkāki’s Miftāh
al-‘ulūm (Key of the Sciences) is a grand panorama of all the linguistic sciences,
except lexicography. Its third chapter deals with 'stylistics' (ma'āni, lit. '[syntactic]
meanings') and with 'imagery' (bayān, lit. 'clarity'), the two parts being based on al-
Jurjāni's Dalā'il and Asrār, respectively. Most popular in the medieval instruction in
this field became al-Khatib al-Qazwīnī's summary of this chapter in his Talkhīs al-
Miftāh. (Epitome of the Key). He added the 'rhetorical figures' (badī’) as a third
discipline on an equal footing with ma‘ānī and bayān and called the all-embracing
discipline 'the science of eloquence' (‘ilm al-balāgha). This 'science' is then studied
and presented in a never-ending series of commentaries, super-commentaries,
glosses, versifications, etc. up to modern times.
During their quest for an Arabic rhetorical system, Arab rhetoricians have
mixed up some of the features of one rhetorical discipline with another. Although
al-Jāhiz was able to distinguish between the three rhetorical disciplines, there are no
well-defined criteria of each discipline until the third and then the fifth Hijrah
centuries.

Self-Assessment Exercise

Give critical account of Contribution of the following rhetoricians to Ilmu’l-Balaghah

1. Ibn al-Mu‘tazz 2. ‘Abd al-Qāhir al-Jurjānī 3. a’s-Sakkkākī 4. Al-
Qazwīnī

3.3 The Three Different Levels of Rhetorical Analysis

Arabic rhetorical analysis has been conducted at three different levels:

1- The word level . At the word level of analysis, rhetoricians have

attempted to establish the constituent features of eloquence. At this level of language,
they have investigated the morphological, semantic, and phonetic qualities of a given
Arabic lexical item, with particular interest in Qur'anic discourse.

2- The sentence level. At the sentence level of analysis, Arab rhetoricians have
i establish the theoretical framework of Arabic rhetoric;

ii laid down a sound theory for the idea of the i‘jāz (inimitability) of Qur’ānic Arabic
that can be employed to debunk claims of ungrammaticality, semantic
unacceptability, and stylistic peculiarities in Qur’ānic texts.

3- The text level. At the text level, rhetoricians and Qur’ānic exegetes have
established analysis of literary texts such as poetry and Qur'anic texts.

114
 Although research interest has also focused on poetic texts , the major driving
force behind the birth and development of Arabic rhetorical studies has been the
notion of i‘jāz. For some of the rhetoricians like al-Zamakhsharī and al-Sakkākī, the
notion can be fully accounted for by the rhetorical disciplines of ‘ilm al-ma‘ānī and
‘ilm al-bayān. Since the first Hijrah century until our present time, the number of
examples quoted from the Qur’ān by Arab rhetoricians has always outnumbered
those quoted from poetic discourse. Also, the major prerequisite of an exegete is the
mastery of Arabic rhetoric.

Self-Assessment Exercise
 Highlight the three different levels of Scholars’ analysis of Ilmu’l-Balāghah.

4.0 CONCLUSION
The search for the reason for the miraculous nature of the Qur’ān and its
inimitability was a significant factor in the emergence of the Ilmu’l-Balāghah;
Preliminary discourses on Balāghah began with Ibn al-Mu‘tazz and Arabic rhetorical
studies reached their peak in the two works of ‘Abd al-Qāhir al-Jurjānī namely, the
Mysteries of Eloquence (Asrār al-balāgha) and the proofs for the [Qur’ān's]
inimitability (Dalā'il al-i‘jāz).
Historically more influential was al-Sakkāki’s Miftāh al-‘ulūm (Key of the
Sciences) whose third chapter deals with 'stylistics' (ma'āni, lit. '[syntactic]
meanings') and with 'imagery' (bayān, lit. 'clarity'), the two parts being based on al-
Jurjāni's Dalā'il and Asrār, respectively. Most popular in the medieval instruction in
this field became al-Khatib al-Qazwīnī's summary of this chapter in his Talkhīs al-
Miftāh. (Epitome of the Key). He added the 'rhetorical figures' (badī’) as a third
discipline on an equal footing with ma‘ānī and bayān and called the all-embracing
discipline 'the science of eloquence' (‘ilm al-balāgha). This 'science' is then studied
and presented in a never-ending series of commentaries, super-commentaries,
glosses, versifications, etc. up to modern times.

5.0 SUMMARY
This Unit presents remarks on Arabs classical scholarship and Ilmu ‘l Balaghah.
It discusses the influence of the search for the miraculous nature of the Quran and its
inimitability. It highlights the contributions of some prominent Arab rhetoricians,
namely: Ibn al-Mu‘tazz, ‘Abd al-Qāhir al-Jurjānī, a’s-Sakkkākī and Al- Khatib al-
Qazwīnī. It identifies the sentence, the word and the texts as three major levels of
rhetorical analysis.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

 Discuss the Qur’ānic Influence on the emergence of Ilmu ‘l-Balāghah

115
  Give a critical analysis of the contribution of a’s-Sakkkākī and Al- Khatīb al-
Qazwīnī to the study of Arabic Rhetoric.
 Explain the three different levels of analysis by Arab rhetoricians

6.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READING

Jārim, ‘Ali and Amīn, Mustafā (1961), al-Balāgha al-wādiha, 15th edition, Cairo.

Majāzi, Ahmad al-Sayyid (1424AH/2005CE), al-Manhal al-sāfi fi l-balāgha al-

‘Arabiyya, Cairo: al-Shuruq.

Musawi, Muhsin J. al- (2001). “Arabic Rhetoric”, in Thomas O. Sloane (Ed.), Oxford
Encyclopaedia of Rhetoric, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 29-33.

Sādiq, ‘Abd al-Ridā (1395AH/1975CE) Editor, al-Balāgha, 4th edition, Baghdad:

Ministry of Education.
Sanni, Amidu (forthcoming). Review of Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic
Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge, in Middle
Eastern Literatures.

Shaykh, ‘Abd al-Wāhid Hasan al- (1999), al-Badi‘ wa-l-tawāzi, Alexandria: al-
Ish‘ā‘.

UNIT 7: CONCLUDING REMARKS II: FURTHER LIGHTS ON THE

116
 SIGNIFICANCE OF ILMU ‘L-BALAGHAH II

CONTENTS:

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Co ntent
3.1 Insight into relationship between text and context
3.2 Linguistic means to pragmatic end
3.3 Speech Acculturation role
3.4 Influence of Modern Expressions and Languages
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assigments
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0: INTRODUCTION
Unit six dealt with the first part of the few concluding remarks on our study of
Ilmu ‘l-Balāghah . This unit presents the remaining remarks as highlighted in the
main content above.
2.0 OBJECTIVE
At the end of your study of this Unit you should be able to
 Relate significance of Ilmu ‘l-Balāghah as a means of gaining insight into
relationship between text and context
 Illustrate al- Balāghah as a linguistic means of pragmatic end…
 Highlight the speech acculturation role of al-Balāghah .
 Discuss influence of modern expressions and languages on Ilmu `l- Balāghahi

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1: Insight into Relationship between text and context
Arabic rhetoric has provided an invaluable insight into the intimate relationship
between the text and its context. It has become the flesh and blood of Arabic. Thanks
to Arabic rhetorical studies, we have become aware of the fact that language, that is, a
speech act, is context-sensitive. Similarly, through Arabic rhetorical studies, we have
become aware of:

117
 1. pragmatic function of Arabic discourse such as the relationship between the
communicator and the addressee.
2. The psychological and ideological state of the addressee and his expectations.
3. The careful selection of a given lexical item and its appropriate position in the
proposition.
4. The right proposition used in the right situation and for the right addressee.
This is not the end of the task of Arabic rhetoric. Although rhetoric is defined
as the compatibility of discourse with its context, a speech act cannot be effective nor
can it have the thrust to influence the addressee's behaviour or ideological position
unless it is 'beautified' and 'ornamented' with special lexical and semantic decorative
tools that belong to ‘ilm al-badī‘. Therefore, an effective speech act is not achieved
through the syntax of the language, its semantic conventions, or its stylistic
mechanisms alone, but rather it should be sugar coated. Discourse is required to be
effective, and effectiveness can be achieved through the employment of figures of
speech and, embellishments as decorative linguistic and rhetorical elements to
consolidate the speech act’s psychological impact upon the addressee. Thus, through
rhetoric, language turns into a magical social activity whose influence seeps through
our daily behaviour.

Self Assessment Exercise

 Relate significance of Ilmu ‘l-Balāghah as a means of gaining insight into
relationship between text and context

3.2 Linguistic Means to Pragmatic End

Arabic rhetoric is a linguistic means to a pragmatic end. It enables the
communicator to achieve stylistic diversity through the employment of lexical
mechanisms such as synonymy and polysemy, the use of embellishments and
figures of speech, etc. etc. Given the ideological and psychological state of the
addressee, the communicator has successfully entertained his or her audience
stylistically.

Arabic rhetoric has taken the relationship between the speaker and the
audience very seriously. The speaker must make some assumptions about the
addressee's cognitive abilities, ideological position, and contextual resources. The
rhetorical classification of the addressees into the deniers, the skeptics, and the
open-minded has been a magnificent achievement for the analysis of argumentative
discourse. Arabic rhetorical studies have touched upon text typology, the notion of
context, the notion of 'elegant introduction, and the linguistic-stylistic requirements
of each category of addressee. The communicator has become more aware of the
tools required for each addressee in terms of affirmation particles especially in his
or her argumentative speech.

118
 Although the major objective of Arabic rhetoric is to achieve succinctness and
effective context-sensitive discourse, there is an underlying parallel aim which is the
realization of acceptability of a given discourse. Thus, succinctness is not the only
criterion of Arabic rhetoric. Acceptability is a standard yard-stick of the text and an
important criterion of effective discourse. In other words, a text is unacceptable by
the addressee if it violates the syntactic pattern and its ‘beautifying’ lexical or
semantic elements.

Self Assessment Exercise

 Illustrate al- Balāghah as a linguistic means of pragmatic end…

3.3 Speech Acculturation Role

Arabic rhetoric has illustrated the fact that Arabic is an exotic language. Arabic
employs glamorous allegorical meanings which are not familiar to English on the
cultural level. An interesting authentic example is the description of an Arab husband
of his wife as (baqaratun halūbun - a cow that gives a lot of milk) in front of an
English midwife which is meant to be a genuine compliment said in praise of his wife
who has got no shortage of milk for their newly born baby. In English, however, it is
an insult to a lady if she is described as a 'cow'. Similarly, Arabic employs allegorical
images such as (alqatl ghaslan li-l-‘ār) which literally means (killing to wash away
the shame) while English employs non-allegorical meaning, i.e. it is called (honour
killing) whose back translation into Arabic is (al-qatl min ajl al-sharaf- the killing
for the sake of honour). Even in culture material lexical items that have been
borrowed from foreign languages, Arabic employs its rhetorical technique of allegory
in the process of transfer of meaning. For instance, the English expression of
skyscraper is rendered into Arabic as an allegorical expression –Nātihat l-sahāb-
where Arabic employs an image of (munātahah - bullfight or locking horns) in
which we have 'a building with two horns that is engaged in butting and locking
horns with the clouds'. Also, in argumentation, English employs a non-allegorical
expression 'to refute' when someone's thesis is proved wrong. In Arabic, however, we
encounter an allegorical expression (yufhim) literally meaning 'to burn the opponent's
thesis and change it into charcoal'. Thus, it conjures up imagery. Similarly,
metonymy in Arabic is culture-bound. The examples (Zaid kathīr l-ramād - Zaid has
got a lot of ashes) and (Zaid jabānu l-kalb - Zaid has got a coward dog). Do these
Arabic examples mean that Zaid received a massive gas bill or that his dog does not
bark? The best approach to unearth the Arabic culture-bound rhetorical feature is to
provide the intrinsic signification, i.e. non-metonymy expression which is (Zaid is
very generous) for both examples. Receiving many guests a day requires continuous
cooking which requires fire all the time that leaves accumulated ashes behind. The
dog of the host family has become accustomed to several guests at day and night and
does not bark at strangers anymore. Thus, it is described as 'coward' as a metonymy
for the generosity of his owner. The same goes for the word 'owl' which has two
opposite connotative meanings in Arabic and English cultures. The lexical item
119
(būmah- owl) can be employed in Arabic as a metonymy for 'utter stupidity' whereas
in English, it is the symbol of 'wisdom'. Self Assessment
Exercise Highlight the speech
acculturation role of al-Balāghah .

3.4 Influence of Modern Expressions and Languages

Meanwhile the pre-Islamic expression (mu‘allaqāt – Suspended odes) remains alive

with speakers of Arabic. The seven well-woven poems were hung on the walls of
Ka‘bah for people to read. Morphologically, the expression mu‘allaqāt is related to
the verb (‘allaqa - to hang something). However, the odes were hung in order to be
read and entertain or influence the audience. Modern Standard Arabic has
manipulated the semantic overtone and employed it in journalistic political discourse.
The verb ‘allaqa however, has gained another overtone or shade of meaning, namely
(to comment). Thus, we encounter (ta‘līq - commentary), (ta‘līq siyāsī- political
analysis,that is, a leading article, or newspaper comment), and (mu‘alliq siyāsī- - a
political commentator). Thus, rhetorically, we still have our ' own mu‘allaqāt which
rather than hung are written in newspapers to be read for entertaining or influencing
the readers. Thus, the pragmatic purpose of (mu‘allaqāt) and (ta‘līq) is still the same.

Arabic rhetoric has sufficiently applied systematic grammatical, semantic, and

phonological criteria in the analysis of a given proposition. However, Arab scholars
have not been unaware of foreign rhetorical studies. Arab rhetoric has been enriched
by Greek, Persian, and Indian rhetorical tradition. The third Hijrah century has
witnessed a vigorous translation effort of foreign works such as those of Aristotle on
rhetoric. For instance, the notion of a reporting proposition being true or false reaches
back to the writings of Aristotle.

Arabic rhetoric is central to the sound appreciation of Arabic language and

culture and an essential component of any Arabic learning as a foreign or second
language.

Self-Assessment Exercise
Discuss influence of modern expressions and languages on Ilmu `l- Balāghah

4.0 CONCLUSION

Further points that make the study of Ilmu `l-Balāghah an important science is
that:
1. It enable us gain insight into relationship between text and context.
2. It is a linguistic means to pragmatic end.
3. It is linguistic means to pragmatic end.
4. It plays speech acculturation role

120
 5. It is a means of accommodating modern expressions and foreign
languages.
5.0 SUMMARY
This Unit presents more points on the significance of Ilmu ‘l Balāghah
additional to those in Unit six. The points were analyzed in five sub-sections. Each
subsection contains self assessment exercises to test learner’s level of understanding
and progress. The conclusion also highlights the points being made.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Discuss the significance of Ilmu ‘l Balāghah briefly.
2. Ilmu ‘l Balāghah is a linguistic means to pragmatic end. Discuss this statement.
3. Briefly explain speech acculturation role of Ilmu ‘l Balāghah. Illustrate your point
with examples.
7.0 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
EAL (1998)- Encyclopaedia of Arabic Literature (Eds), Julie. S. Meisami and P.
Starkey, 2 vols. (London & New York: Routledge, 2, 651-56, s.v. ‘rhetorics and
poetics’; 2, 656-62, s.v. ‘rhetorical figures’.
Jārim, ‘Ali and Amīn, Mustafā (1961), al-Balāgha al-wādiha, 15th edition, Cairo:
1961

Majāzi, Ahmad al-Sayyid (1424AH/2005CE), al-Manhal al-sāfi fi l-balāgha al-

‘Arabiyya, Cairo: al-Shuruq.

Musawi, Muhsin J. al- (2001). “Arabic Rhetoric”, in Thomas O. Sloane (Ed.), Oxford
Encyclopaedia of Rhetoric, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 29-33.

Sādiq, ‘Abd al-Ridā (1395AH/1975CE) Editor, al-Balāgha, 4th edition, Baghdad:

Ministry of Education.
Sanni, Amidu (forthcoming). Review of Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic
Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge, in Middle
Eastern Literatures.

Shaykh, ‘Abd al-Wāhid Hasan al- (1999), al-Badi‘ wa-l-tawāzi, Alexandria: al-
Ish‘ā‘.

Smyth, William (1995). “The Canonical Foundation of ‘ilm al-balāghah and al-
Sakkākī’s Miftāh al-‘ulūm”, Der Islam, 72, pt 1, pp. 7-24

121
 ‫‪Glossary of Arabic Rhetoric‬‬
‫‪Absolute metaphor‬‬ ‫اﻹﺳﺘﻌﺎرة اﻟﻤﻄﻠﻘﺔ‬
‫‪Accusative nunation‬‬ ‫اﻟﺘﻨﻮﻳﻦ ﺑﺎﻟﻔﺘﺤﺔ‬
‫‪Active participle‬‬ ‫إﺳﻢ اﻟﻔﺎﻋﻞ‬
‫‪Acute discernment‬‬ ‫ﻧﻔﺎذ ﺑﺼﻴﺮة‬
‫‪Addressee‬‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺨﺎﻃﺐ أى اﻟﺴﺎﻣﻊ أو اﻟﻘﺎريء‬
‫‪Affinity‬‬ ‫)اﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ( ﻓﻰ اﻟﻜﻨﺎﻳﺔ‬
‫‪Affirmation tools‬‬ ‫أدوات اﻟﺘﻮﻛﻴﺪ‬
‫‪Affirmed dispraise‬‬ ‫ﺗﺄﻛﻴﺪ اﻟﺬم ﺑﻤﺎ ﻳﺸﺒﻪ اﻟﻤﺪح‬
‫‪Allegorical attribution‬‬ ‫إﺳﻨﺎد ﻣﺠﺎزى‬
‫‪Allegorical subject‬‬ ‫ﻓﺎﻋﻞ ﻣﺠﺎزى )ﻏﻴﺮ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻲ(‬
‫‪Allegory‬‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺠﺎز‬
‫‪Alliteration‬‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺠﺎﻧﺴﺔ اﻹﺳﺘﻬﻼﻟﻴﺔ‬
‫‪Allusion‬‬ ‫اﻟﺘﻠﻤﻴﺢ ‪ /‬اﻟﺨﻔﺎء )اﻟﻤﺤﻨﻰ اﻟﺨﻔﻰ(‬
‫‪Ambiguity‬‬ ‫اﻟﻤﻌﻈﻠﺔ‬
‫‪Amphigouri‬‬ ‫اﻟﻜﻼم اﻷﺟﻮف‬
‫‪Anagram‬‬ ‫)اﻟﺘﺠﻨﻴﺲ ﺑﺎﻟﻘﻠﺐ ‪ ,‬ﺟﻨﺎس اﻟﻘﻠﺐ ‪ ,‬اﻟﺠﻨﺎس اﻟﺘﺼﺤﻴﻔﻰ(‬
‫‪Anaphora‬‬ ‫اﻟﻀﻤﻴﺮ اﻟﻌﺎﺋﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻹﺳﻢ اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻖ ﻟﻪ‬
‫‪Anaphoric reference‬‬ ‫اﻟﺤﻮﻟﻴﺎ ت‬
‫‪Annals‬‬ ‫اﻟﻌﻜﺲ )اﻟﺘﺒﺪﻳﻞ(‬
‫‪Antimetabole‬‬ ‫اﻟﻄﺒﺎق )اﻟﻤﻄﺎﺑﻖ ‪ ,‬اﻟﺘﻜﺎﻓﺆ ‪ ,‬اﻟﺘﻀﺎد(‬
‫‪Antithesis‬‬ ‫أداة اﻟﺠﺰم‬
‫‪Apocopate article‬‬ ‫ﺟﻮاب اﻟﺸﺮط‬
‫‪Apodosis‬‬ ‫إﻋﺘﺬار‬
‫‪Apology‬‬ ‫ﻣﺨﺎﻃﺒﺔ ﻏﻴﺮ اﻟﻌﺎﻗﻞ‬
‫‪Apostrophe‬‬ ‫ﻣﺨﺎﻃﺒﺔ ﻏﻴﺮ اﻟﻌﺎﻗﻞ‬
‫‪Apposition‬‬ ‫اﻟﺒﺪل‬
‫‪Artistic imagery‬‬ ‫اﻟﻔﲏ اﻟﺘﺼﻮﻳﺮ‬
‫ّ‬
‫)‪Assertive (qad‬‬ ‫ﻗﺪ اﻟﺘﺤﻘﻴﻘﻴﺔ‬
‫‪Assimilation‬‬ ‫اﻹدﻏﺎم‬

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‫‪Assonance‬‬ ‫اﻟﺴﺠﻊ‬
‫‪Asterism‬‬ ‫ﺗﺄﻛﻴﺪ اﻟﻤﺪح ﺑﻤﺎ ﻳﺸﺒﻪ اﻟﺬم‬
‫‪Astonishment‬‬ ‫اﻟﺘﻌﺠﺐ‬
‫‪Asyndetic proposition‬‬ ‫ﺟﻤﻠﺔ ﻟﻴﺲ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ أدوات رﺑﻂ‬
‫‪Asyndeton‬‬ ‫اﻟﻔﺼﻞ‬
‫‪Attachments‬‬ ‫ﻣﺘﻌﻠﻘﺎت‬
‫‪Attribution‬‬ ‫اﻹﺳﻨﺎد‬
‫اﻹﺣﺘﺮاز ﻋﻦ اﻟﻌﺒﺚ ‪Avoiding redundant discourse‬‬
‫‪Ayah – final words‬‬ ‫ﻓﻮاﺻﻞ اﻷﻳﺎت‬
‫ﻣﺒﺘﺪأ ﻣﺆﺧﺮ ‪Background inchoative‬‬
‫‪Backgounding‬‬ ‫اﻟﺘﺄﺧﻴﺮ‬
‫‪Al – badi'iyyat‬‬ ‫ﻗﺼﺎﺋﺪ اﻟﺒﺪﻳﻊ )اﻟﺒﺪﻳﻌﻴﺎت(‬
‫‪Blinded discourse‬‬ ‫اﻹﺳﻠﻮب اﻟﻤﻌﺼﻰ )ﻓﻰ اﻟﻜﻨﺎﻳﺔ( ‪ /‬اﻟﺘﻌﺼﻴﺔ ‪ /‬اﻹﻟﻐﺎز‬
‫‪Blinding‬‬ ‫اﻟﺘﻌﺼﻴﺔ )ﻓﻰ اﻟﻜﻨﺎﻳﺔ(‬
‫‪Bombast‬‬ ‫اﻟﺤﺸﻮ‬
‫‪Borrowed‬‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻌﺎر‬
‫‪Borrowed from‬‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻌﺎر ﻣﻨﻪ‬
‫‪Borrowed to‬‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻌﺎر ﻟﻪ‬
‫‪Brevity succinctness‬‬ ‫إﻳﺠﺎز اﻟﻘﺼﺮ‬
‫‪Cacophony‬‬ ‫ﺗﻨﺎﻓﺮ اﻷﺻﻮات أو اﻟﺤﺮوف‬
‫‪Cadence‬‬ ‫اﻳﻘﺎع اﻟﺼﻮت‬
‫‪Case endings‬‬ ‫ﺣﺮﻛﺎت اﻹﻋﺮاب‬
‫‪Catachresis‬‬ ‫اﻟﺘﺼﻒ اﻟﻤﺠﺎزى اﻟﻠﺤﻦ‬
‫‪Cataphora‬‬ ‫اﻟﻀﻤﻴﺮ اﻟﻌﺎﺋﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻹﺳﻢ اﻟﻼﺣﻖ ﻟﻪ‬
‫‪Cataphoric reference‬‬ ‫ﻋﻮدة اﻟﻀﻤﻴﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ إﺳﻢ ﺑﻌﺪﻩ‬
‫‪Causality relationship‬‬ ‫اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ اﻟﺴﺒﺒﻴﺔ‬
‫‪Censure‬‬ ‫ﻋﺘﺎب‬
‫‪Chiasmus‬‬ ‫ﺗﺼﺎﻟﺐ اﻟﻜﻼم )اﻟﻤﻘﺎﺑﻠﺔ اﻟﻌﻜﺴﻴﺔ(‬
‫‪Circumstance‬‬ ‫اﻟﺤﺎل‬
‫‪Circumstance sentence‬‬ ‫ﲨﻠﺔ اﳊﺎل‬

‫‪123‬‬
Cliticised pronoun ‫ﺿﻤﻴﺮ ﻣﺘﺼﻞ‬
Coding (‫اﻹﻟﻐﺎز )ﻓﻰ اﻟﻜﻨﺎﻳﺔ‬
Cognitive allegory ‫ﻣﺠﺎزى ﻋﻘﻠﻰ‬
Cognitive clue ‫ﻗﺮﻳﻨﺔ ﻋﻘﻠﻴﺔ‬
Cognitive simile ‫ﺗﺸﺒﻴﻪ ﻋﻘﻠﻰ‬
Common noun ‫إﺳﻢ ﺟﻨﺲ‬
Common signification ‫الجامع‬
Communicator (‫المتح ّدث )الكاتب‬
Compatibility of discourse with context ‫ﻣﻼﺋﻤﺔ ﻣﻘﺘﻀﻰ اﻟﺤﺎل‬
Complaint ‫ﺷﻜﻮى‬
Complete jinas ‫اﻟﺠﻨﺎس اﻟﺘﺎم اﻟﻤﺼﺎﺋﻞ‬
Complete non relatedness ‫ﻛﻤﺎل اﻹﻧﻘﻄﺎع‬
Complete relatedness ‫ﻛﻤﺎل اﻹﺗﺼﺎل‬
Complex assonance ‫اﻟﺴﺠﻊ اﻟﻤﻌﻘﺪ‬
Compound simile ‫ﺗﺸﺒﻴﻪ ﻣﺮﻛﺐ‬
Conceit ‫ﺣﺴﻦ اﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴﻞ‬
Conditional (amma) ‫)اﻣﺎ( اﻟﺸﺮﻃﻴﺔ‬
Conditional particle ‫أداة اﻟﺸﺮط‬
Conditional sentence ‫ﺟﻤﻠﺔ ﺷﺮﻃﻴﺔ‬
Conditional verb ‫ﻓﻌﻞ اﻟﺸﺮط‬
Condolence ‫ﺗﻌﺰﻳﺔ‬
Confirmed simile ‫ﺗﺸﺒﻴﻪ ﻣﺆﻛﺪ‬
Congruent discourse ‫ﻛﻼم ﻣﺘﻼﺋﻢ‬
Conjoined to ‫ﻣﻌﻄﻮف ﻋﻠﻰ‬
Conjunction ‫اﻟﻮﺻﻞ‬
Conjunctive elements ‫أدوات اﻟﺮﺑﻂ‬
Connotative meaning (‫اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ اﻟﻀﻤﻨﻰ ) ﻏﻴﺮ اﻟﻤﻌﺠﻤﻰ‬
Consolidating of judgement ‫ﺗﻘﻮﻳﺔ اﻟﺤﻜﻢ‬
Consonance ‫اﻟﻤﻨﺎﺳﺒﺔ أو اﻟﺘﻼﺋﻢ‬
Construct noun phrase ‫ﻣﻀﺎف وﻣﻀﺎف إﻟﻴﻪ‬

124
Context of situation (‫اﻟﻤﻘﺎم )اﻟﺴﻴﺎق‬
Contextual effects ‫دﻻﻻت اﻟﻤﻘﺎم‬
Contextual implicatures (‫ﻣﻌﺎﻧﻰ اﻟﻤﻘﺎم )اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻧﻰ اﻟﺴﻴﺎﻗﻴﺔ‬
Contextual meaning ‫اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ اﻟﻤﻘﺎﻣﻰ‬
Continuity and progression ‫اﻟﺤﺪوث واﻟﺘﺠﺪد‬
Conversational implicatures ‫اﻟﺘﻠﻮﻳﺢ أو اﻟﺘﻌﺮﻳﺾ‬
Co – ordination ‫اﻟﻌﻄﻒ‬
Co – ordination particle ‫أداة اﻟﻌﻄﻒ‬
Definiteness ‫اﻟﺘﻌﺮﻳﻒ‬
Definiteness by proper noun ‫اﻟﺘﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ‬
Demonstrative pronoun ‫إﺳﻢ اﻹﺷﺎرة‬
Denial interrogative ‫اﻹﺳﺘﻔﻬﺎم اﻹﻧﻜﺎرى‬
Denial reporting ‫اﻟﺨﺒﺮ اﻹﻧﻜﺎرى‬
Denier ‫المد ّكر‬
Denotative meaning (‫المعني الحقيقي )ال ُمعجمي‬
Designation restriction ‫ﻗﺼﺮ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ‬
Detached pronoun ‫ ﺿﻤﻴﺮ اﻟﻔﺼﻞ‬/ ‫ﺿﻤﻴﺮ ﻣﻨﻔﺼﻞ‬
Detailed simile ‫ﺗﺸﺒﻴﻪ ﻣﻔﺼﻞ‬
Dialectical mannerism ‫اﻟﻤﺬﻫﺐ اﻟﻜﻼﻣﻰ‬
Diatribe ‫اﻟﺨﻄﺒﺔ اﻟﻼذﻋﺔ‬
Diminution ‫ اﻟﺘﺼﻐﻴﺮ‬/ ‫اﻟﺘﻘﻠﻴﻞ‬
Disjunction ‫اﻟﻔﺼﻞ‬
Dispraise ‫اﻟﺬم‬
Distasteful style ‫إﺳﻠﻮب ﻣﻜﺮوﻩ‬
Distorted jinas ‫اﻟﺠﻨﺎس اﻟﻤﺤﺮف‬
Dual assonance ‫اﻟﺴﺠﻊ اﻟﻤﺰﻧﻮج‬
Effective discourse ‫ ﻛﻼم ﺑﻠﻴﻎ‬/ ‫ﻟﻐﺔ ﺑﻠﻴﻐﺔ‬
Effective simile ‫ﺗﺸﺒﻴﻪ ﺑﻠﻴﻎ‬
Effective style ‫إﺳﻠﻮب ﺑﻠﻴﻎ‬
Elegance of discourse ‫ﺣﺴﻦ )ﺟﻤﺎل( اﻟﻜﻼم‬

125
Elegance of introduction ‫ﺣﺴﻦ اﻹﺳﺘﻬﻼل‬
Elegant word order ‫ﺣﺴﻦ اﻟﻨﻈﻢ‬
Elegy ‫اﻟﺮﺛﺎء‬
Ellipsis ‫اﻟﺤﺬف‬
Elliptical succinctness ‫اﻳﺠﺎز اﻟﺤﺬف‬
Eloquence ‫اﻟﻔﺼﺎﺣﺔ‬
Eloquent discourse ‫ﻛﻼم ﻓﺼﻴﺢ‬
Embellishments ‫ﻋﻠﻢ اﻟﺒﺪﻳﻊ‬
Enhanced metaphor ‫اﻷﺳﺘﻌﺎرة اﻟﻤﺮﺷﺘﺤﺔ‬
Epanodos (‫اﻟﻠﻒ واﻟﻨﺸﺮ )اﻟﻄﻰ واﻟﻨﺸﺮ‬
Epanorthosis ‫اﻹﺿﺮاب‬
Epistrophe ‫ﺗﻜﺮار اﻟﻨﻬﺎﻳﺔ‬
Epitrope ‫اﻟﺘﺴﻠﻴﻢ اﻟﺨﻄﺎﺑﻰ‬
Epizeuxis (‫اﻟﺘﻜﺮار اﻟﺘﻮﻛﻴﺪ )اﻟﺘﻮﻛﻴﺪ اﻟﻠﻔﻈﻰ‬
Eulogy ‫اﻟﺨﻄﺒﺔ اﻟﻤﺎدﺣﺔ‬
Euphemism ‫اﻟﺘﻬﻮﻳﻦ‬
Euphony (‫رﺧﺎﻣﺔ اﻟﺼﻮت )إﻧﺴﻴﺎب اﻟﻜﻼم‬
Evaluative discourse ‫ﻟﻐﺔ ﺑﺄدوات ﺗﻮﻛﻴﺪ‬
Evasive response ‫إﺳﻠﻮب اﻟﺤﻜﻴﻢ‬
Excepted ‫اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺴﻨﻰ‬
Excepted from ‫اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺴﻨﻰ ﻣﻨﻪ‬
Exception ‫اإلستثناء‬
Exception particle ‫أداة اإلستثناء‬
Exception sentence ‫ﺟﻤﻠﺔ إﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎﺋﻴﺔ‬
Exhortatory oratory ‫اﻟﺨﻄﺎﺑﺔ اﻟﻮﻋﻈﻴﺔ‬
Exordium ‫اﻹﺳﺘﻬﻼل‬
Explicatures ‫اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻧﻰ اﻟﻮاﺿﺤﺔ‬
Explicit metaphor ‫إﺳﺘﻌﺎرة ﺗﺼﺮﻳﺤﻴﺔ‬
Explicit negation ‫اﻟﻨﻔﻰ اﻟﺼﺮﻳﺢ‬
Explicit noun ‫إﺳﻢ ﺻﺮﻳﺢ‬

126
Explicit pronoun ‫ ﺿﻤﻴﺮ اﻟﻔﺼﻞ‬, ‫ﺿﻤﻴﺮ ﻇﺎﻫﺮ‬
Explicit simile ‫ﺗﺸﺒﻴﻪ ﻣﻈﻬﺮ‬
Explicit speech act ‫ﻛﻼم ﻣﺼﺮح‬
Extra ‫ ﻓﻀﻠﺔ‬/ ‫ﺗﺎﺑﻊ‬
Fabricated jinas ‫اﻟﺠﻨﺎس اﻟﻤﻠﻔﻖ‬
False reporting ‫ﺧﺒﺮ ﻛﺎذب‬
Figurative skills ‫اﻟﻔﻦ اﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﻰ‬
Figure of thought ‫اﻟﺼﻮرة اﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﻴﺔ‬
Figures of speech ‫ﻋﻠﻢ اﻟﺒﻴﺎن‬
Fore grounded predicate ‫ﺧﺒﺮ ﻣﻘﺪم‬
Foregrounding ‫اﻟﺘﻘﺪﻳﻢ‬
Forms of affirmation ‫أﺷﻜﺎل اﻟﺘﻮﻛﻴﺪ‬
Future relationship ‫اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻠﻴﺔ‬
Gathering oratory ‫اﻟﺨﻄﺎﺑﺔ اﻟﺤﻔﻠﻴﺔ‬
General negation ‫ﻋﺼﻮم اﻟﻤﻌﻠﺐ‬
Generalization ‫اﻟﺘﻌﺼﻴﻢ‬
Generalization relationship ‫ﻋﻼﻗﺔ اﻟﻌﺼﻮم‬
Genitive (‫اﻟﻤﺠﺮور )ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﺠﺮ‬
Genitive nunation ‫اﻟﺘﻨﻮﻳﻦ ﺑﺎﻟﻜﺴﺮة‬
Government office clerks ‫ اﻟﻜﺘﺎب‬/ ‫ﻛﺘﺎب اﻟﺪواوﻳﻦ‬
Grammatical congruity ‫إﻧﺘﻼف اﻟﻠﻔﻆ ﻧﺨﻮﻳﺎ‬
Grammatical incongruity ‫ﺿﻌﻒ اﻟﺘﺄﻟﻴﻒ‬
Grammatical unacceptability (‫اﻟﻠﺤﻦ )ﻓﻰ اﻟﻜﻨﺎﻳﺔ‬
Grammatical unacceptable ‫ﻣﺮﻓﻮض ﻧﺠﻮﻳﺎ‬
Harangue ‫اﻟﺨﻄﺒﺔ اﻟﺤﻤﺎﺳﻴﺔ‬
Head – rall ‫رد اﻟﺼﺪر ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌﺠﺰ‬
Heavy affirmation (nun) ‫ﻧﻮن اﻟﺘﻮﻛﻴﺪ اﻟﺜﻘﻠﻴﺔ‬
Hiddenness (‫اﻟﺨﻔﺎء )ﻓﻰ اﻟﻜﻨﺎﻳﺔ‬
Highly evaluative discourse ‫ﻟﻐﺔ ﻣﻠﻴﺌﺔ ﺑﺄدوات اﻟﺘﻮﻛﻴﺪ‬
Homeoptoton ‫الترصيع‬

127
Hope (‫الرجاء )الترجي‬
Hypallage ‫اﻟﻤﺠﺎز اﻟﻤﺮﺳﻞ‬
Hyperbole (‫ اﻟﻐﻠﻮ‬, ‫ اﻹﻏﺮاق‬, ‫اﻟﻤﺒﺎﻟﻐﺔ )اﻟﺘﺒﻠﻴﻎ‬
Ill –formedness ‫ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻓﺼﻴﺢ‬/ ‫ ﻧﻈﻢ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺑﻠﻴﻎ‬, ‫ﻧﻈﻢ ﻓﺎﺳﺪ‬
Imagery simile ‫ﺗﺸﺒﻴﻪ ﺗﻤﺜﻴﻠﻲ‬
Imaginary simile ‫ﺗﺸﺒﻴﻪ وﻫﺼﻰ‬
Imperative ‫اﻷﻣﺮ‬
Implicatures ‫اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻧﻰ اﻟﺨﻔﻴﺔ‬
Implicit ‫ ﻣﺴﺘﺘﺮ‬/ ‫ ﻣﺤﺬوف‬/ ‫ﻣﻘﺪر‬
Implicit metaphor ‫إﺳﺘﻌﺎرة ﻣﻜﻨﺒﻴﺔ‬
Implicit pronoun ‫ﺿﻤﻴﺮ ﻣﺴﺘﺘﺮ‬
Implicit simile ‫ ﺗﺸﺒﻴﻪ ﻣﻀﻤﺮ‬/ ‫ﺗﺸﺒﻴﻪ ﺿﻤﻨﻲ‬
Impossibility ‫ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺤﻴﻞ‬/ ‫اﻹﺳﺘﺤﺎﻟﺔ‬
Inchoative ‫اﻟﻤﺒﺘﺪأ‬
Incomplete jinas ‫اﻟﺠﻨﺎس ﻏﻴﺮ اﻟﺘﺎم‬
Incongruent discourse ‫ﻛﻼم ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻓﺮ‬
Incongruity ‫ﺗﻨﺎﻓﺮ‬
Incongruous sounds ‫أﺻﻮات ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻓﺮة‬
Indefiniteness (‫اﻟﺘﻨﻜﻴﺮ )اﻟﻨﻜﻴﺮة‬
Informing ‫اﻹﻧﺸﺎء‬
Initial (lam) ‫ﻻم اﻹﺑﺘﺪاء‬
Initial reporting ‫اﻟﺨﺒﺮ اﻹﺑﺘﺪائ‬
Inkhorn terms ‫اﻷﻟﻔﺎظ اﻟﻐﺮﺑﻴﺔ‬
Instrument relationship ‫اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ اﻵﻟﻴﺔ‬
Interrogative ‫اﻹﺳﺘﻔﻬﺎم‬
Interrogative implying negation ‫إﺳﺘﻔﻬﺎم إﻧﻜﺎرى‬
Intertextuality ‫اﻟﺘﻨﺎص‬
Intrinsic attribution (‫إﺳﻨﺎد ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻲ )ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺠﺎزى‬
Intrinsic restriction (‫ﻗﺼﺮ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻰ )ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺠﺎزى‬
Intrinsic signification ‫ﻣﻌﻨﻰ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻲ‬

128
Inversion restriction ‫ﻗﺼﺮ ﻗﻠﺐ‬
Irony ‫اﻟﺴﺨﺮﻳﺔ‬
Jinas (‫اﻟﺠﻨﺎس )اﻟﺘﺠﻨﻴﺲ‬
Joined sentence ‫اﻟﺠﻤﻠﺔ اﻟﻤﺮﺗﺒﻄﺔ‬
Least evaluative discourse ‫ﻛﻼم ﺑﺄدوات ﺗﻮﻛﻴﺪ ﻗﻠﻴﻠﺔ‬
Lexical affirmation ‫ﺗﺄﻛﻴﺪ ﻟﻔﻈﻰ‬
Lexical closeness in articulation‫ﻗﺮﻳﻨﺔ ﻟﻔﻈﻴﺔ‬
Lexical clue ‫قرينة لفظية‬
Lexical congruity ‫إئتالف الكلمات‬
Lexical embellishments ‫اﻟﻤﺤﺴﻨﺎت اﻟﻠﻔﻈﻴﺔ‬
Lexical incongruity ‫ﺗﻨﺎﻓﺮ اﻟﻜﻠﻤﺎت‬
Lexical item ‫اﻟﻜﻠﻤﺔ‬
Lexical likeness (‫ﻛﻠﻤﺎت ﻣﺘﺠﺎﻧﺴﺔ )اﻟﺘﺠﺎﻧﺲ‬
Lexical meaning ‫اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ اﻟﻤﻌﺠﻤﻰ‬
Lexical oddity ‫ﻏﺮاﺑﺔ اﻟﻜﻠﻤﺔ‬
Lexical well-formedness ‫ﺣﺴﻦ اﻟﻠﻔﻆ‬
Lexically alike words ‫ﻛﻠﻤﺎت ﻣﺘﺠﺎﻧﺴﺔ‬
Light affirmation (nun) ‫ﻧﻮن اﻟﺘﻮﻛﻴﺪ اﻟﺨﻔﻴﻔﺔ‬
Likened ‫اﻟﻤﺸﺒﻪ ﺑﻪ‬
Likened –to ‫اﻟﻤﺸﺒﻪ‬
Linguistic allegory ‫ﻣﺠﺎز ﻟﻐﻮى‬
Linguistic deviation ‫اﻷﻧﺤﺮاف‬
Linguistic instinct ‫اﻟﺴﻠﻴﻘﺔ‬
Linguistic patterns ‫ﻫﻴﺎﻛﻞ ﻟﻐﻮﻳﺔ‬
Linguistic signaling ‫اﻹﻳﻤﺎء‬
Linguistic structures ‫ﺗﺮاﻛﻴﺐ ﻟﻐﻮﻳﺔ‬
Litotes ‫اﻹﺛﺒﺎت ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻔﻰ‬
Marked word order ‫إﻃﺎر ﻟﻐﻮى ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺄﻟﻮف‬
Metabole ‫اﻟﺘﻜﺮار ﺑﻌﺒﺎرات ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ‬
Metalepsis ‫ﻛﻨﺎﻳﺔ اﻟﺼﻔﺔ‬

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Metaphor ‫إﺳﺘﻌﺎرة‬
Metaphor components ‫ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ )أرﻛﺎن( اﻹﺳﺘﻌﺎرة‬
Meter ‫اﻟﻮزن‬
Metonymy categories ‫أﻗﺴﺎم اﻟﻜﻨﺎﻳﺔ‬
Metonymy of an affinity ‫ﻛﻨﺎﻳﺔ اﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ‬
Metonymy of attribute ‫ﻛﻨﺎﻳﺔ اﻟﺼﻔﺔ‬
Metonymy of a modified ‫ﻛﻨﺎﻳﺔ اﻟﻤﻮﺻﻮف‬
Mixed metaphor ‫اﻹﺳﺘﻌﺎرة اﻟﻤﻌﻴﺒﺔ‬
Moderation ‫اﻟﻤﺴﺎواة‬
Mixed of reporting ‫أﺣﻮال اﻟﺨﺒﺮ‬
Modification ‫اﻟﻮﺻﻒ‬
Modified ‫اﻟﻤﻮﺻﻮف‬
Modifier ‫اﻟﺼﻔﺔ‬
Morphological congruity ‫ءإﺗﻼف ﺻﺮﻓﻰ‬
Morphological incongruity ‫ﺗﻨﺎﻓﺮ ﺻﺮﻓﻰ‬
Morphological jinās ‫جناس اإلشتقاق‬
Morphological system ‫النظام الصرفي‬
Multiple antithesis ‫اﻟﻤﻘﺎﺑﻠﺔ‬
Multiple simile ‫ﺗﺸﺒﻴﻪ ﻣﺘﻌﺪد‬
Naked metaphor ‫اﻷﺳﺘﻌﺎرة اﻟﻤﺠﺮدة‬
Natural disposition ‫اﻟﻔﻄﺮة‬
Naturalness ‫ ﻋﺪم اﻟﺘﻜﻠﻒ‬/ ‫اﻹﺳﺘﺮﺳﺎل‬
Necessary requirement relationship ‫اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ اﻟﻤﻠﺰوﻣﻴﺔ‬
Negated antithesis ‫ﻃﺒﺎق اﻟﺴﻠﺐ‬
Neologism (‫اﻷﻟﻔﺎظ اﻟﻤﺤﺪﺛﺔ )اﻟﻤﺤﺪث‬
Nominal sentence ‫ﺟﻤﻠﺔ إﺳﻤﻴﺔ‬
Nominalised noun ‫اﻟﻤﺼﺪر‬
Nominative nunation ‫اﻟﺘﻨﻮﻳﻦ ﺑﺎﻟﻀﻤﺔ‬
Non – allegorical attribution (‫إﺳﻨﺎد ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻲ )إﺳﻨﺎد ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺠﺎزى‬
Non – intrinsic signification (‫ﻣﻌﻨﻰ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻲ )ﻣﻌﻨﻰ ﻣﺠﺎزى‬

130
Non – intrinsic subject (‫ﻓﺎﻋﻞ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺟﻘﻴﻘﻲ )ﻓﺎﻋﻞ ﻣﺠﺎزى‬
Non – negated antithesis ‫ﻃﺒﺎق اﻹﻳﺠﺎب‬
Non – request informing ‫اﻹﻧﺸﺎء ﻏﻴﺮ اﻟﻄﻠﺒﻰ‬
Non – resemblance jinas ‫اﻟﺠﻨﺎس اﻟﻸﺣﻖ‬
Nunation ‫اﻟﺘﻨﻮﻳﻦ‬
Obligation relationship ‫اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ اﻟﻼزﻣﻴﺔ‬
Observation ‫اﻹرﺻﺎد اﻟﺘﺴﻬﻴﻢ‬
Odd lexical item ‫ ﻟﻔﻈﺔ ﻏﺮﺑﻴﺔ‬/ ‫ﻛﻠﻤﺔ ﻏﺮﺑﻴﺔ‬
Odes ‫اﻟﻤﺤﻠﻘﺎت‬
Open – minded ‫ﺧﺎﻟﻰ اﻟﺬﻫﻦ‬
Oration ‫اﻟﺨﻄﺎﺑﺔ‬
Orator ‫اﻟﺨﻄﻴﺐ‬
Order system ‫اﻟﻨﻈﻢ‬
Original sentence ‫اﻟﺠﻤﻠﺔ اﻷﺻﻠﻴﺔ‬
Oxymoron ‫اﻹرداف اﻟﺨﻠﻔﻰ‬
Parallelism (‫اﻟﻤﻮازﻧﺔ )اﻟﻤﻤﺎﺛﻠﺔ‬
Paronomasia (‫ اﻟﺘﺨﻴﻴﺮ‬, ‫اﻟﺘﻮرﻳﺔ )اﻹﻳﻬﺎم‬
Part to whole relationship ‫اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ اﻟﺠﺰﻧﻴﺔ‬
Partial negation ‫ﺳﻠﺐ اﻟﻌﻤﻮم‬
Passive participle ‫إﺳﻢ اﻟﻤﻔﻌﻮل‬
Past relationship (‫اﻋﺘﺒﺎر ﻣﺎﻛﺎن )اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻮﻳﺔ‬
Perceptible simile ‫ﺗﺸﺒﻴﻪ ﺣﺴﻨﻰ‬
Periphrasis (‫اﻷﺳﻬﺎب )اﻟﺤﺸﻮ‬
Permanency ‫الثُبوت‬
Personification ‫التشخيص‬
Phonetic congruity ‫إﻧﺘﻼف اﻟﻠﻔﻆ ﺻﻮﺗﻴﺎ‬
Phonetic incongruity (‫ﺗﻨﺎﻓﺮ اﻟﺤﺮوف )اﻟﺘﻨﺎﻓﺮ اﻟﺼﻮﺗﻰ‬
Phonetically close words ‫ﻛﻠﻤﺎت ﻣﺘﻘﺎرﺑﺔ‬
Place of articulation (‫ﻣﺨﺮج اﻟﺤﺮف )ﻣﻜﺎن ﻧﻄﻖ اﻟﺤﺮف‬
Place relationship ‫اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ اﻟﻤﺤﻠﻴﺔ‬

131
Plural of multitude ‫ﺣﻤﻊ اﻟﻜﺜﺮة‬
Plural of paucity ‫ﺟﻤﻊ اﻟﻘﻠﺔ‬
Poetic license ‫اﻟﻀﺮورة اﻟﺸﻌﺮﻳﺔ‬
Poetry ‫اﻟﺸﻌﺮ‬
Political oratory ‫اﻟﺨﻄﺎﺑﺔ اﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ‬
Polyptoton ‫ﺟﻨﺎس اﻹﺷﺘﻘﺎق‬
Polysemy ‫اﻹﺷﺘﺮاك اﻟﻠﻔﻈﻰ‬
Polysendetic sentences ‫ﺟﻤﻞ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ أدوات رﺑﻂ‬
Polysendeton ‫اﻟﻮﺻﻞ‬
Portioning ‫اﻟﺘﺒﻌﻴﺾ‬
Praise ‫اﻟﻤﺪح‬
Predicate ‫ اﻟﺨﺒﺮ ﻓﻰ اﻟﻨﺤﻮ‬/ ‫اﻟﻤﺴﻨﺪ‬
Predicate status ‫أﺣﻮال اﻟﻤﺴﻨﺪ‬
Prefix (‫ﺳﺎﺑﻘﺔ )ﻓﻰ اﻟﻜﻠﻤﺔ‬
Premise ‫ﻣﺴﻠﻤﺔ‬
Preposition and its complement ‫ﺟﺎر وﻣﺠﺮور‬
Prepositional phrase ‫ﺟﺎر وﻣﺠﺮور‬
Prohibition ‫اﻟﻨﻬﻰ‬
Prolixity ‫اﻟﺘﻄﻮﻳﻞ‬
Pronominal (‫ﻟﻪ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻀﻤﻴﺮ )ﺿﻤﻴﺮي‬
Pronominalisation ‫ﻋﻮدة اﻟﻀﻤﺎﺋﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ أﺳﻤﺎﺋﻬﺎ‬
Pronoun ‫اﻟﻀﻤﻴﺮ‬
Proper noun ‫إﺳﻢ ﻋﻠﻢ‬
Prophet's praise ‫اﻟﻤﺪﻳﺢ اﻟﻨﺒﻮى‬
Prose ‫اﻟﻨﺜﺮ‬
Prosody ‫اﻟﻌﺮوض‬
Protasis ‫ﻓﻌﻞ اﻟﺸﺮط‬
Proverbial metaphor ‫اﻹﺳﺘﻌﺎرة اﻟﺘﻤﺜﻴﻠﻴﺔ‬
Pun ‫ اﻟﺠﻨﺎس اﻟﺘﺎم‬/ (‫ اﻟﺘﺨﻴﻴﺮ‬, ‫اﻟﺘﻮرﻳﺔ )اﻹﻳﻬﺎم‬
Quadrilateral verb ‫ﻓﻌﻞ رﺑﺎﻋﻰ‬

132
Quotation (‫ اﻹﻗﺘﺒﺎس‬, ‫ اﻟﺮﻓﻮ‬, ‫ اﻹﺑﺪاع‬, ‫اﻟﺘﻀﻤﻴﻦ )اﻹﺳﺘﻌﺎﻧﺔ‬
Raising suspense ‫النشويق‬
Rationalistic technique ‫المدھب الكالمي‬
Real world ‫اﻟﻮاﻗﻊ‬
Rebuke ‫ﺗﻮﺑﻴﺦ‬
Rebut ‫ﻳﻔﻨﺪ‬
Rebuttal element ‫أداة اﻹﺳﺘﺪراك‬
Rebuttal of opponent's argument ‫ﺗﻔﻨﻴﺪ ﺣﺠﺔ اﻟﺨﺼﻢ‬
Regret ‫ اﻟﻨﺪم‬/ ‫اﻟﺘﻨﺪﻳﻢ‬
Relative pronoun ‫اﻹﺳﻢ اﻟﻤﻮﺻﻮل‬
Reporting ‫اﻟﺨﺒﺮ‬
Reporting added value ‫ﻻزم اﻟﻔﺎﺋﺪة‬
Reporting value ‫ﻓﺎﺋﺪة اﻟﺨﺒﺮ‬
Repugnant sounds ‫اﻟﻜﺮاﻫﺔ ﻓﻰ اﻟﺴﻤﻊ‬
Request informing ‫اﻹﻧﺸﺎء اﻟﻄﻠﺒﻰ‬
Request reporting ‫اﻟﺨﺒﺮ اﻟﻄﻠﺒﻰ‬
Resemblance jinas ‫اﻟﺠﻨﺎس اﻟﻤﻀﺎرع‬
Restrained style ‫إﺳﻠﻮب ﻣﻘﻴﺪ‬
Restricted ‫اﻟﻤﻘﺼﻮر‬
Restricted to ‫اﻟﻤﻘﺼﻮر ﻋﻠﻴﻪ‬
Restriction ‫ اﻟﻘﺼﺮ‬, ‫اﻟﺤﺼﺮ‬
Restriction of a modified to a modifier ‫ﻗﺼﺮ ﻣﻮﺻﻮف ﻋﻠﻰ ﺻﻔﺔ‬
Restriction particle ‫أداة ﻗﺼﺮ أو ﺣﺼﺮ‬
Result relationship ‫اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﺒﻴﻴﺔ‬
Reverse jinās (‫ﺟﻨﺎس اﻟﻘﻠﺐ )ﺟﻨﺎس اﻟﻌﻜﺲ‬
Reverse simile ‫ﺗﺸﺒﻴﻪ ﻣﻘﻠﻮب‬
Reversed order ‫اﻟﻤﻘﻠﻮب‬
Reward and punishment ‫اﻟﻮﻋﺪ واﻟﻮﻋﻴﺪ‬
Rhetoric ‫اﻟﺒﻼﻏﺔ‬
Rhetorical deficiency ‫ﻋﻴﺐ ﺑﻼﻏﻰ‬

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Rhetorical inimitability ‫اﻹﻋﺠﺎز اﻟﺒﻼﻏﻰ‬
Rhetorical question ‫اﻹﺳﺘﻔﻬﺎم اﻟﺒﻼﻏﻰ‬
Rhyme ‫اﻟﻘﺎﻓﻴﺔ‬
Riddle (‫اﻟﺨﺒﺮ )ﻓﻰ اﻟﻜﻨﺎﻳﺔ‬
Sarcasm ‫اﻹﺳﺘﻬﺰاء‬
Skeptical ‫ﻣﺘﺮدد‬
Scholastic approach ‫المدھب الكالمي‬
Scholastics ‫اﻟﻤﺘﻜﻠﻤﻮن‬
Semantic affirmation ‫ﺗﺄﻛﻴﺪ ﻣﻌﻨﻮى‬
Semantic ambiguity ‫اﻟﻐﻤﻮض اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻮى‬
Semantic embellishments ‫اﻟﻤﺤﺴﻨﺎت اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻮﻳﺔ‬
Semantic feature (‫اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ )اﻟﺠﺎﻣﻊ‬
Semantic incongruity ‫اﻟﺘﻨﺎﻓﺮ اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻮى‬
Semantic link (‫اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ )اﻟﺠﺎﻣﻊ‬
Semantic meaning ‫اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ اﻟﺪﻻﻟﻰ‬
Semantic well – formedness ‫ﺣﺴﻦ اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ‬
Shift ‫اﻹﻟﺘﻔﺎت‬
Simile ‫اﻟﺘﺸﺒﻴﻪ‬
Simile categories ‫أﻗﺴﺎم اﻟﺘﺸﺒﻴﻪ‬
Simile components ‫ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ )أرﻛﺎن( اﻟﺘﺸﺒﻴﻪ‬
Simile element ‫أداة اﻟﺘﺸﺒﻴﻪ‬
Simile ends ‫ﻃﺮﻓﻰ اﻟﺘﺸﺒﻴﻪ‬
Simile feature ‫وﺟﻪ اﻟﺘﺸﺒﻴﻪ‬
Single simile ‫ﺗﺸﺒﻴﻪ ﻣﻔﺮد‬
Sluggish sentence (‫ﺟﻤﻠﺔ ﺛﻘﻠﻴﺔ )ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻓﺮة‬
Sluggish style ‫إﺳﻠﻮب ﺛﻘﻴﻞ‬
Solid style ‫إﺳﻠﻮب رﺻﻴﻦ‬
Solo restriction ‫ﻗﺼﺮ إﻓﺮاد‬
Specific relationship ‫اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ اﻟﺨﺼﻮﺻﻴﺔ‬
Specification ‫اﻟﺘﺨﺼﻴﺺ‬

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Specificity ‫اﻹﺧﺘﺼﺎص‬
Stagnation period ‫ﻓﺘﺮة اﻟﺮﻛﻮد‬
Stanza ‫ﻣﻘﻄﻊ ﺷﻌﺮى‬
State of the addressee ‫ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﻤﺨﺎﻃﺐ‬
State relationship ‫اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ اﻟﺤﺎﻟﻴﺔ‬
Strong style ‫إﺳﻠﻮب رﺻﻴﻦ‬
Stylistic complexity ‫اﻟﺘﻌﻘﻴﺪ اﻹﺳﻠﻮﺑﻲ‬
Stylistic diversity ‫ﺗﻠﻮﻳﻦ اﻟﺨﻄﺎب‬
Stylistic impurity (‫اﻹﺑﺘﺬال )اﻟﻐﺮاﺑﺔ‬
Stylistic incongruity ‫اﻟﺘﻨﺎﻓﺮ اﻹﺳﻠﻮﺑﻰ‬
Stylistic oddity ‫اﻟﻐﺮاﺑﺔ ﻓﻰ اﻹﺳﻠﻮب‬
Stylistic purity ‫اﻟﺠﺰاﻟﺔ‬
Stylistics ‫ﻋﻠﻢ اﻹﺳﻠﻮب‬
Subject (‫ال ُمسند إليه )الفاعل‬
Subject status ‫أحوال ال ُمسند إليه‬
Sublime style ‫أﺳﻠﻮب رﻓﻴﻊ‬
Substantiation ‫إﻗﺎﻣﺔ اﻟﺤﺠﺔ‬
Substituted relationship ‫اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ اﻟﻤﺒﺪﻟﻴﺔ‬
Succinctness ‫اﻷﻳﺠﺎز‬
Suffix (‫ﻻﺣﻘﺔ )ﻓﻰ اﻟﻜﻠﻤﺔ‬
Superfluous particles ‫اﻷﺣﺮف اﻟﺰاﺋﺪة‬
Supplementary restriction ‫ﻗﺼﺮ إﺿﺎﻓﻰ‬
Surprise particle (idha) ‫)إذا( اﻟﻔﺠﺎﺋﻴﺔ‬
Symbolic poetry ‫اﻟﺸﻌﺮ اﻟﺮﻣﺰى‬
Symbolism (‫اﻟﺮﻣﺰ )ﻓﻰ اﻟﻜﻨﺎﻳﺔ‬
Synopsis simile ‫ﺗﺸﺒﻴﻪ ﻣﺠﻤﻞ‬
Syntactic structure ‫ﺟﻤﻠﺔ ﻣﻔﻴﺪة‬
Tail – head ‫رد اﻟﻌﺠﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺼﺪر‬
Tanfis (‫إﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﺳﻴﻦ اﻹﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎل )اﻟﺘﻨﻔﻴﺲ‬
Tapinosis ‫اﻟﺘﺤﻘﻴﺮ‬

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Taswif (‫إﺳﺘﻘﺪام ﺳﻮف )اﻟﺘﺴﻮﻳﻒ‬
Text processing ‫ﻓﻬﻢ اﻟﻨﺺ‬
Text producer ‫اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪث أو اﻟﻜﺎﺗﺐ‬
Textual weaving ‫اﻟﺤﺒﻚ اﻟﻨﺼﻰ‬
Trilateral verb ‫ﻓﻌﻞ ﺛﻼﺛﻰ‬
Truthful reporting ‫اﻟﺨﺒﺮ اﻟﺼﺎدق‬
Two ends of restriction ‫ﻃﺮﻓﻰ اﻟﻘﺼﺮ‬
Underlying meaning ‫اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ اﻟﺒﺎﻃﻨﻰ‬
Unmarked word order ‫إﻃﺎر ﻟﻐﻮى ﻣﺄﻟﻮف‬
Unnatural style ‫إﺳﻠﻮب ﻣﺘﻜﻠﻒ‬
Unnatural discourse ‫ﻟﻐﺔ ﻣﺘﻜﻠﻒ‬
Unnaturalness ‫ ﻋﺪم اﻹﺳﺘﺮﺳﺎل‬/ ‫اﻟﺘﻜﻠﻒ‬
Unrestricted simile ‫ﺗﺸﺒﻴﻪ ﻣﺮﺳﻞ‬
Untruthful reporting ‫اﻟﺨﺒﺮ اﻟﻜﺎذب‬
Verb attachments ‫ﻣﺘﻌﻠﻘﺎت اﻟﻔﻌﻞ‬
Verb status ‫أﺣﻮال ﻣﺘﻌﻠﻘﺎت اﻟﻔﻌﻞ‬
Verbal sentence ‫ﺟﻤﻠﺔ ﻓﻌﻠﻴﺔ‬
Verbosity ‫اﻷﻃﻨﺎب‬
Violation of linguistic norms ‫ﻣﺨﺎﻟﻔﺔ اﻟﻘﻴﺎس‬
Vocative ‫اﻟﻨﺪاء‬
Well – formedness ‫ ﻧﻈﻢ ﻓﺼﻴﺢ‬/ ‫ ﻧﻈﻢ ﺑﻠﻴﻎ‬/ ‫ ﺣﺴﻦ اﻟﻨﻈﻢ‬/ ‫ﺣﺴﻦ اﻟﻜﻼم‬
Whole-to-part relationship
Wish ‫التمني‬
Wish particles ‫أدوات التمني‬
Word form ‫شكل الكلمة‬
Zeugma ‫العبارة الجامعة‬

7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READING

EAL (1998)- Encyclopaedia of Arabic Literature (Eds), Julie. S. Meisami and
P. Starkey, 2 vols (London & New York: Routledge, 2, 651-56, s.v. ‘rhetorics
and poetics’; 2, 656-62, s.v. ‘rhetorical figures’.
Jārim, ‘Ali and Amin, Mustafā (1961), al-Balāgha al-wādiha, 15th edition,
Cairo: 1961
136
Kross, Matthias, and Zill, Rüdiger (2011) Editors. Metapherngeschichten
(Histories of Metaphor) - Perspektiven einer Theorie der Unbegrifflichkeit,
Berlin: Parerga Verlag.
Majāzi, Ahmad al-Sayyid (1424AH/2005CE), al-Manhal al-sāfi fi l-balāgha
al-‘Arabiyya, Cairo: al-Shuruq.

Musawi, Muhsin J. al- (2001). “Arabic Rhetoric”, in Thomas O. Sloane (Ed.),

Oxford Encyclopaedia of Rhetoric, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 29-
33.

Mustafa, Ibrahim et al (1942), al-Bayan, Volume 4 only, Cairo: Boulaq

Qazwini, al-Khatib (1402AH/1982CE), al-Idāh fi ‘ulum al-balāgha, Cairo:

‘Ali Subayh & Sons.

Sādiq, ‘Abd al-Ridā (1395AH/1975CE) Editor, al-Balāgha, 4th edition,

Baghdad: Ministry of Education.
Smyth, William (1995). “The Canonical Foundation of ‘ilm al-balāghah and
al-Sakkākī’s Miftāh al-‘ulūm”, Der Islam, 72, pt 1, pp. 7-24

Struever, Nancy S. (2009). The History of Rhetoric and the Rhetoric of

History, Surrey, Burlington, VT: Ashgate.

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