Gamma ray absorption logs:

- Formation-density compensated (FDC) log

- Litho-Density log

Both these tools are used to measure the formation bulk density and hence
porosity (with some assumptions).

Density measurements:
Name Symbol Company
Formation density compensated FDC Schlumberger
Compensated density log CDL Halliburton

Density and Photoelectric measurements:

Litho-density tool LDT Schlumberger
Spectral density tool HSDL Halliburton
Compensated Z-density ZDL Western Atlas

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Density Porosity(fD)

For water saturated formations:

b   ma (1  f )   f f

 ma  b
fD 
 ma   f

If gas is also present:

b   ma (1  f )   wf S w   gf (1  S w )
 ma  b  ma  b
f 
 ma   g  S w (  w   g )  ma  S w
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Bulk density – 2.5 gm/cc
Assuming the fluid density is 1.1 gm/cc

Sandstone 2.65 10%

Limestone 2.71 13%
Dolomite 2.87 21%

If the formation is gas saturated

– true porosity for the same bulk
density will be:

Sandstone 5.7%
Limestone 7.8%
Dolomite 12.9%

On the log gas saturated zone will show as

high porosity zone.

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FDC tool: Gamma rays continuously emitted from an active source
(Ce137) pass through the mudcake and enter the formation. Here they
progressively lose energy until they are either completely absorbed by
the rock matrix or return to one of the two detectors. Dense formations
absorb many gamma rays, while low density formations absorb fewer
rays. High count rates at the detector indicate low-density formations,
and vice versa.

This dual detector tool compensates for mudcake and minor borehole
irregularities automatically. The difference in the detectors’ count rates
reflects:
- spacing,
- the formation density,
- mudcake density, and
- mudcake thickness.

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Iout = Iin e-x

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(Badruzzaman et al. 2009)
Gamma rays can interact with matter via three distinct mechanisms:

1. Compton scattering: gamma rays collide with electrons orbiting nucleus. Electrons
are ejected from orbit and the incident gamma ray lose energy.

2. Photoelectric effect: gamma rays collide with electrons and lose all energy.
Photon is ejected.

3. Pair production: gamma rays interact with atoms to produce electrons and positrons.
These later recombine to form two ~.5 MeV gamma rays, which depart in opposite
directions.

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If an incident beam of gamma rays strikes a target of thickness x, its intensity is
reduced on passing through the target
Iout = Iin e-x
where  is the mass absorption coefficient. This coefficient  is a function of both
type of target material and the type of interaction that takes place. The source used
in tool is made of Cesium and the emitted gamma rays have an energy of .661 MeV
The detector used in these tools have a practical lower limit of around 0.2MeV.
As can be seen from the figure Compton scattering is the most probable form of
interaction that FDC tool monitors.
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The net effect of gamma ray Compton scattering and absorption is that the count
seen at the detector is logarithmically proportional to the formation density.

Both near and far detector behave in this way, so that a plot of far versus near count
rate also produces a straight line.

The following diagram shows how the response changes with the mud density and
the mudcake thickness. The straight line is called ‘spine’ and the curved lines are
called ‘ribs’.

The surface equipment associated with the tool

computes the position of the point on the spine
and ribs chart, then moves the point along the
rib to intercept the spine. At this point the
corrected value of density is recorded for the log.
The value of density is calculated as the diffe-
rence between density from the long spaced
detector and cor. Thus the density correction
is negative in light muds and positive in heavy
muds.

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mc ~1.75

hmc increases

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No mudcake

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Effect of mudcake thickness Effect of mudcake density

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Effect of formation density Compensation method

 = LS +  2015 18
The FDC tool is based on Compton scattering and as such the density actually
measured is the electron density and not the bulk density. Since e is not exactly
equal to the b for all elements, a special calibration makes the tool read correctly
in fresh-water filled limestones. For others correction is made using the following
graph.
For oilwell logging application the difference between b and log is negligible
This difference is significant, however in formations like gypsum, salt and low
pressure gas bearing formations.

e = b * 2(Z/A)

b  1.074 e  0.1883

Z – atomic number
A – atomic weight, molecular wt.

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 3

2.9

2.8

2.7
Bulk density

2.6

2.5 Series1

2.4

2.3

2.2

2.1

2
2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3
Electron density

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On track one caliper and gamma ray
curves are plotted. On track two density
(2 to 3 gm/cc scale) curve and the
correction curve for quality control purpose
is plotted. If the correction exceeds
+/-0.06 g/cc the density values should be
used only qualitatively.

Lab studies indicate that the tool investigates

only the first few inches of the region next to
the tool. Half of the response reflects the
region within 2 inches while the 90% reflects
the region within 5 inches of the borehole
wall.

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LWD density tool – values recorded @ time with orientation information
and generally binned into 4 quadrants

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Litho-Density Tool:

This tool is an improved and expanded version of the standard formation density
tool. In addition to the bulk density, the tool measures the photoelectric
absorption index (Pe) of the formation which enables lithological interpretation to
be made without prior knowledge of porosity.

Photoelectric effects occurs when a gamma ray collides with an electron and
is absorbed in the process, so that all of its energy is transferred to the electron.
The probability of this reaction taking place depends upon the energy of incident
rays and type of atom. The photoelectric absorption index of an atom
increases with increasing atomic number, Z

Pe = (0.1* Z)3.6

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While the Compton effect occurs over a wide energy range (H), the photoelectric
effect results only with lower-energy gamma rays (L). Gamma ray emitted from
this tool are with energy of 662 KeV. The above figure shows an energy spectrum
for a formation with constant density but different photoelectric capture
cross section (U = Pe e). Region H supplies information relating to the density of
the formation and region L provides data relating to both the electron density and
photoelectric absorption index (lithology).
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The lithodensity tool skid and detector system produces greater counting rates
than are obtained with FDC tool, resulting in lower statistical variations and
better repeatability of the measurements. The geometry of the skid is such that
the density reading also has a sharper vertical resolution than FDC tool.

The Pe is virtually independent of porosity and fluid content, decreasing only

slightly as porosity increases. Simple lithologies, such as clean sandstone and
anhydrite, can be read directly from logs using the Pe curve.

Lithology Pe
Sand 1.81
Dolomite 3.14
Salt 4.65
Limestone 5.08
Anhydrite 5.05

Pe value is also used in combination with the density value to analyze two-mineral
matrices and to determine porosity. It is combined with density and neutron porosity
to analyze more complex lithologies.

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 Cross plot of density and
Pe can provide idea
about lithology and
porosity.

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 4.48

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Washout 2.1
zone

Density:
2.8 Salt -2.16
Dolo. – 2.87
Anhy. – 2.96
Qzt. – 2.65
Lst. – 2.71

2.93

2.7-2.8
Shaly

2.53

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 Porosity:
Washout 2.1 4 4.3%
zone

3 2.8 3.7%

2.93

4.5 1.5%

Pe:

Qzt. – 1.81
Anhyd. -5.05
Dolo. – 3.14
Salt – 4.65
Lst. – 5.08 2 2.53 7.3%

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Density Log Quality Control:

Primary standard: API Test pit

Base office standard: Block of aluminum, magnesium, and/or sulfur of

accurately known geometry and density.

Field standards: Two small gamma ray sources.

The wellsite calibration should be performed before and after each log is run.
The shop calibration should be run every 60 days or so.

Apart from the natural benchmarks the next best quality check is a review of
the  curve. If it is roughly within the limits of +/- 0.05 gm/cc the log may be
assumed to be correct. If in light muds the  is -ve, however, something is
wrong. Similarly +ve values for  in heavy mud is a red flag,

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