PRINCIPLES and STRATEGIES OF TEACHING CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE

 A simple learning process whereby a
LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO TEACHING neutral stimulus is able to evoke a response
because it has been paired with another
TEACHING & LEARNING PROCESS
stimulus (that originally elicited a response).
TEACHING defined…  SR
 Stimulus  Response
 Refers to the process of imparting
knowledge and skills from a teacher to a OPERANT CONDITIONING
learner. It encompasses the activities of
 consequence of any given behavior
educating or instructing. It is an act or
modifies the degree to which that behavior
experience that has a formative effect on
is likely to occur (also known as
the mind, character or physical ability of an
instrumental conditioning).
individual.
 B  R/P
 A working definition of teaching is
undertaking certain ethical tasks or activities  Behavior  Reward
the intention of which is to induce learning. Behavior  Punishment
 it is a deliberate intervention that involves SOCIAL CONDITIONING
planning and implementation of instructional
activities and experiences to meet learner  A type of learning that occurs when a
outcomes according to a teaching plan behavior is observed and subsequently
 Some thoughts on teaching and learning... mimicked.
- Clearly, not all learning is dependent on “It takes a village to raise a child”
teaching...However, all teaching regardless
of quality is predicated on learning... -  Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian
Brown, 1993 conditioning or respondent conditioning)
- Teaching makes learning possible... -  Operant Conditioning (Instrumental
Ramsden, 1992 conditioning)
 Social Conditioning (Observational
LEARNING defined…
conditioning)
 Process of gaining knowledge or skill by
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
studying, practicing, being taught, or
experiencing something.  is a reflexive or automatic type of learning in
 “a persisting change in human performance which a stimulus acquires the capacity to
or performance potential . . . (brought) about evoke a response that was originally evoked
as a result of the learner’s interaction with by another stimulus.
the environment” (Driscoll, 1994)
OPERANT CONDITIONING
 “the relatively permanent change in a
person’s knowledge or behavior due to  Described as a process that attempts to
experience” (Mayer, 1982) modify behavior through the use of positive
 an enduring changein behavior, or in the and negative reinforcement. Through
capacity to behave in a given fashion, which operant conditioning, an individual makes
results from practice or other forms of an association between a particular
experience” (Shuell, 1986) behavior and a consequence.

LEARNINGTHEORIES SOCIAL CONDITIONING

  In this theory, people can learn new structured contest of argumentation, in
information and behaviors by watching other which two opposing individuals or teams
people. defend and attack a given proposition.
4. Discussion-Discussion lets class members
THE “HOW” OF TEACHING work actively with the ideas and the
A. Strategies concepts being pursued, and discussion
B. Approach sessions can be an extremely effective in
C. Technique changing behavior or attitudes.
D. Method Consequently, teachers use them frequently
in instructional situations
A. STRATEGY 5. The flipped classroom-students complete
 Is the art and science of directing and learning normally covered in the classroom
controlling the movements and activities of in their own time (by watching videos and/or
the army. If strategy is good, we can get accessing resources), and classroom time
victory over our enemies. In teaching this is dedicated to hands-on activities and
term is meant those procedures by which interactive, personalized learning, leading to
objectives of teaching are realized in the deeper understanding. Students use class
class. Teaching strategy is a generalized time to apply the theory and concepts
plan for a lesson which includes structure, discussed in the videos, and to utilize
instructional objectives and an outline of techniques including group problem-solving
planned tactics, necessary to implement the and team building games, simulations, case
strategies. study reviews, and group discussions.
 Strategy can be summarized as: 6. Group work-is a method of instruction that
- Teaching is the generalized plan of the gets students to work together in groups.
whole lesson plan. 7. Questioning-The art of asking questions is
- In strategy of teaching, realization of at the heart of effective communication and
objectives is given more importance information exchange, which underpins
than presentation of lesson. good teaching. If you use questioning well,
- A strategy does not follow a single track you can improve the student learning
all the time, but it changes according to experience in a whole range of Teaching
the demands of the situations such as Settings.
age, level, needs, interests and abilities 8. Simulations-are instructional scenarios
of the students. Thus strategy is more where the learner is placed in a "world"
comprehensive than method. defined by the teacher. They represent a
- It is directional in nature. It refers to goal reality within which students interact. The
directed activities of the teachers. Thus, teacher controls the parameters of this
it is more close to science than arts. "world" and uses it to achieve the desired
instructional results. Students experience
TEACHING STRATEGIES the reality of the scenario and gather
meaning from it.
1. Brainstorming-is a large or small group
activity that encourages students to focus APPROACH, METHOD & TECHNIQUE
on a topic and contribute to the free flow of
ideas.  Approach is the broadest of the three,
2. Case studies-are effective ways to get making technique the most specific, and the
students to practically apply their skills, and method found in between approach and
their understanding of learned facts, to a technique.
real-world situation. They are particularly  A method, on the other hand, is an
useful where situations are complex and organized, orderly, systematic, and well-
solutions are uncertain. planned procedure aimed at facilitating and
3. Debates-structured way of exploring the enhancing students’ learning.
range of views on an issue. It consists of a
 Technique encompasses the personal style 1. Discovery Learning - takes place in
of the teacher in carrying out specific steps problem solving situations where the
of the teaching process learner draws on his own experience
and prior knowledge and is a
B. APPROACH method of instruction through which
 Ways in which you try to engage students interact with their
students with the subject matter (provide environment by exploring and
students with basic facts, relate new manipulating objects, wrestling with
knowledge to what students already questions and controversies, or
know, build in interaction, be performing experiments.
passionate, be enthusiastic) 2. Conceptual teaching - Involves the
 The ways in which you support your learning of specific concepts, the
students (encourage questions, set nature of concepts, and the
formative assessments, and provide development of logical reasoning &
constructive feedback). critical thinking.
 A description of your approach to 3. Process writing - treats all writing as
teaching includes: a creative act which requires time
- The mode or manner of teaching and positive feedback to be done
(lecture, tutorial, bedside teaching, well. In process writing, the teacher
laboratory work); moves away from being someone
- Some understanding of how people who sets students a writing topic and
learn (learning theory); receives the finished product for
- Some understanding of how to facilitate correction without any intervention in
learning (qualities of the teacher such as the writing process itself.
passion, principles for good teaching 4. Unified Teaching - This approach
practice such as providing timely and lends itself smoothly to a unified
constructive feedback, putting teaching-learning concept of
educational theory into practice). education. The information handler,
being a teacher, a student, or
TYPES OF TEACHING APPROACH another educational environment, is
at the center of this educational
Accdg. to role of teacher
model. The main inherent
1. The executive approach - views the characteristics of this model are
teacher as manager of complex extreme flexibility, integration, ease
classroom processes, a person charged of interaction, and being evolutional.
with bringing about certain outcomes
TEACHING APPROACHES (accdg to nature of
with students through using the best
learning)
skills and techniques available.
2. The facilitator approach - it places a A. DISCOVERY
high value on what students bring to the  refers to various instructional design models
classroom setting, it places considerable that engages students in learning through
emphasis on making use of students’ discovery.
prior experience.
3. The liberationist approach - is rooted in Usually the pedagogical aims are threefold:
notions of liberal education, wherein the 1. Promote "deep" learning,
goal is to liberate the mind to wonder, to 2. Promote meta-cognitive skills (develop
know and understand, to imagine and problem-solving skills, creativity, etc.),
create, using the full intellectual 3. Promote student engagement.
inheritance of civilized life. - An approach, which capitalizes on the
APPROACH ACCDRD TO NATURE
child’s natural curiosity and urge to
OF LEARNING explore the environment.
 - The child learns by personal experience  The main inherent characteristics of this
and experiment and this is thought to model are extreme flexibility, integration,
make memory more vivid and help in ease of interaction, and being evolutional.
the transfer of knowledge to new
situations. APPROACH ACCORDING TO TEACHER-
LEARNER INTERACTION
B. CONCEPTUAL
 Choosing and defining the content of a
certain discipline to be taught through the
use of or pervasive ideas as against the
traditional practice of determining content by
isolated topics.
 Not a particular teaching method with
specific steps to follow; it is more of a
viewpoint of how facts and topics under a
discipline should be dealt with. TEACHER-CENTERED APPROACH
 Involves more data collection usually  It is the primary role of teachers to pass
through research while the discovery knowledge and information onto their
approach actively involves students to students.
undertake experimental and investigative
work. STUDENT-CENTERED APPROACH

PROCESS  Student learning is continuously

measured during teacher instruction.
 An approach which provides students with
an abundance of projects, activities, and TEACHER-CENTERED APPROACH
instructional designs that allow them to
1. Direct Instruction
make decisions and solve problems.
 Through this approach students get a sense - relies on explicit teaching through lectures and
that learning is much more than the teacher-led demonstrations.
commission of facts to memory. Rather, it is
what children do with that knowledge that
determines its impact on their attitudes and
aptitudes.
UNIFIED

 It is based on a breakdown of knowledge to

integrated modules of information. The
basic level of breakdown is to be used in
education to buildup concepts, while the STUDENT-CENTERED APPROACH
higher ones are to be used to buildup 1. Inquiry Based Learning
complex concepts of knowledge, including
those of experts. Key to the success of this - focuses on student investigation and hands-on
breakdown is the relational integration of the learning.
information leading to the concept under
- Teacher’s primary role is that of a facilitator,
consideration.
providing guidance and support for students
 This approach lends itself smoothly to a through the learning process.
unified teaching-learning concept of
education. The information handler, being a
teacher, a student, or another educational
environment, is at the center of this
educational model.
 he manifests in the class i.e., the
developments of the teaching
strategies, giving proper stimulus for
timely responses, drilling the learn
responses, increasing the responses
by extra activities and so on.
INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA

2. Cooperative Learning  Instructional media encompasses all the

materials and physical means an instructor
- emphasizes group work and a strong sense of might use to implement instruction and
community. “THINK PAIR SHARE” facilitate students' achievement of
instructional objectives
 may include traditional materials such as
chalkboards, handouts, charts, slides,
overheads, real objects, and videotape or
film, as well newer materials and methods
such as computers, DVDs, CD-ROMs, the
Internet, and interactive video conferencing.
 Instructional media helps students visualize
C. METHOD
a lesson and transform abstract concepts
 Method of teaching is directly related to the
into concrete, easier to remember concepts.
presentation of the lesson. Which a teacher
 Media is an excellent way to pose
should use, depends on the nature of the
assessment questions for the class to
subject, and the tact of the teacher.
answer or give students task to complete.
FOUR METHODS OF PRESENTING THE
SUBJECT MATTER. WHY USE INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA?
 A good aid is like a window, it should
1. TELLING METHOD;
not call attention to itself, and it
 Lecture method, Discussion method,
should just let in the light. In general,
Storytelling method and so on.
you should use media whenever, in
2. DOING METHOD;
your best judgment, it can facilitate
 Project method, Problem solving
learning or increase understanding
method, Textbook method and so on.
of your material.
3. VISUAL METHOD;
 Of course, communicating to
 Demonstration method, Supervised
facilitate learning can be a
study method and so on.
challenging process, often requiring
4. MENTAL MEHOD;
creative efforts to achieve a variety
 Inductive, Deductive, Analysis,
of implicit instructional goals
Synthesis method etc.
(University of Saskatchewan, n.d.).
D. TECHNIQUES Among the implicit goals that media
 It is a procedure by which new can help achieve are the following:
knowledge fixed in the minds of
students permanently. For this 1. Attracting attention
purpose, a teacher does extra 2. Developing interest
activities in the class.
 These activities help the teacher to 3. Adjusting the learning
take shift from one strategy to 4. Promoting acceptance of the idea
another. Thus, teaching tactics are
that behavior of the teacher which
Types of Instructional Media  Health education is the development of
individual, group, institutional, community
1. Projected Media
and systemic strategies to improve health
 Instructional materials that require
knowledge, attitudes, skills and behavior.
projection and electricity in their using
 Simply, it is the profession of educating
process.
people about health for attainment of
 Slides, filmstrips, and overheads.
positive health.
 Use to: Allow all students to view the same
material at the same time. Offer the CONCEPT OF HEALTH EDUCATION
students other perspectives on the material.
Concept of Health:
2. Non-Projected Media
 Instructional materials that do not require  The word health is derived from Hal, which
the process of projection before its mean “hale ( strong, healthy), sound ( body,
operation can take place. Photographs, family and environment), whole.” Hahn and
diagrams, and displays Payne describe health in terms of six
 Use to: Illustrate concepts ,Enhance direct interacting and dynamic dimensions-
instruction ,Encourage students to look at physical, emotional, social, intellectual,
data in diverse ways spiritual and occupation.
3. Audio Media
Definition of health
 Cassettes and compact discs Use to:
Allow students to hear other  “Soundness of body or mind that condition
languages/dialects, Allow auditory learners in which its are duly and efficiently
to review the lessons, Encourage creativity discharged.” (Oxford Dictionary)
through music.  WHO has given a comprehensive definition
4. Motion Media of health in its preamble to constitution in
 Videos, computer mediated instruction, and 1984. According to WHO, “Health is a state
television of complete
 Use to: Offer supplemental instruction,
Experience concepts in a manner that is not AIMS OF HEALTH EDUCATION
available in “real life”. 1. Health promotion and disease prevention.
5. Hyper Media 2. Early diagnosis and management.
 Computer networks, software, and the 3. Utilization of available health services.
Internet
 Use to: Offer resources beyond the library, PRINCIPLES OF HEALTH EDUCATION
Develop computer and word processing
1. Credibility: message should be convey by
skills, Offer interactive learning.
the trusting people
6. Gaming Media
2. Interest: firstly we should find the need of
 Computer games the community in-order to create interest
 Use to: Provide a playful environment 3. Participation: choice interest topic
for learning, Structure learning through 4. Motivation: firstly convey the message in
rules, Motivating for tedious or repetitive order to change the behavior
content, Uses problem solving skills. 5. Comprehension: firstly find the capacity of
HEALTH EDUCATION the people which need the baseline data
6. Reinforcement: need repeat follow up
 Health education is a social science that 7. Learning by doing
draws from the biological, environmental, 8. Known to unknown: starts what knowledge
psychological, physical and medical they have up to the knowledge they don't
sciences to promote health and prevent have
disease, disability and premature death 9. Setting an example
through education-driven voluntary behavior 10. Good human relations: build rapporting to
change activities. the communities people
 11. Feedback: should give to the community  Use of health services etc.
what change occur, how many people
developed knowledge and many others. NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF HEALTH
12. Leaders EDUCATION

NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF HEALTH  Inform people about health, illness,

EDUCATION disability, and ways in which they can
improve and protect their own health,
1. Inform people about health, illness, including more efficient use of the delivery
disability, and ways in which they can system;
improve and protect their own health,  Motivate people who want to change to
including more efficient use of the delivery more healthy practices;
system;  Help them to learn the necessary skills to
2. Motivate people who want to change to adopt and maintain healthful practices and
more healthy practices; lifestyles;
3. Help them to learn the necessary skills to  Foster teaching and communication skills in
adopt and maintain healthful practices and all those engaged in educating consumers
lifestyles; about health;
4. Foster teaching and communication skills in  Advocate change in the environment that
all those engaged in educating consumers facilitate healthful conditions and healthful
about health; behavior; and
5. Advocate change in the environment that  Add to knowledge via research and
facilitate healthful conditions and healthful evaluation concerning the most effective
behavior; and ways of achieving the above objectives.
6. Add to knowledge via research and
evaluation concerning the most effective
ways of achieving the above objectives.
LESSON 2: ROLES, FUNCTIONS AND
SCOPE OF HEALTH EDUCATION: CHARACTERISTICS OF A HEALTH
PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
1. Different social setting:
a) Home : apply for Family member THE TEACHER
b) School: health education for Students
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD
 School health instruction
TEACHER
 Healthful school environment
a. Professional competence
 School health services
b. Interpersonal relationship
 School community joint effort c. Teaching/ Evaluation practices
c) Community: apply for Families and ethnic d. Availability to Students
groups
d) Hospital: health education for patients and PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE
workers (sweeper, ward coolies)
e) Factory: health education for workers as  The teacher who enjoys teaching shows
genuine interest in patient, and displays
well as manager
confidence in his or her professional
abilities.
2. Relationship with other sciences  The teacher who is creative and stimulating
 Human biology and can excite students interest and can
 Nutrition demonstrate clinical skills with expertise is
 Hygiene also valued.
 Family health
 Disease prevention and control
 Mental health
 Prevention of accident
ASPECTS: and can present material in an interesting
clear and organized manner.
1. The teacher who aims at excellence
develops thorough knowledge of subject
matter and polishes skills throughout his or TEACHING/EVALUATION PRACTICES
her career.
 Jacobson (1966): defined teaching practices
2. He or she expands and maintains through
as the mechanics, methods and skills in
reading research, clinical practices, and
classroom and clinical teaching.
continuing education.
 Teaching subject matter in a stimulating
3. Learners need to know that they can trust
way and inspiring learner interest hinge on
the clinical expertise of the teacher.
several factors such as:
4. Part of building trust is for the teacher to
Teacher’s style
also admit to errors ad weaknesses in
Personality
practice.
Personal interest on the subject
5. A teacher who portrays excellent clinical
Use of variety of teaching strategies
skills, judgment, and honesty becomes a
positive role model for learners. EVALUATION PRACTICES
INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIP  Evaluation practices valued by students
include:
 As in all relationships, it is important that  clearly communicating expectations
teachers listen to learners and try to see the  providing timely feedback on student
world through their eyes progress
 First approach: Respect learners t care  correcting students tactfully
about their concerns  being fair in the evaluation process
 Second approach: Accept learners as they  giving tests that are pertinent to the subject
are, whether or not you like them matter.
 Third approach: Honest communication
contributing to healthy relationships with AVAILABILITY TO STUDENTS
learners
 Fourth approach: Clearly identifying the  Allied health science students, expect the
learner’s responsibilities in the learning instructor to be available to them when
process. needed. This may take the form of being
This skill is demonstrated by: there in the ff:
 stressful clinical situations
1. taking interest in learners,  physically helping students
2. Being sensitive to their feelings and  giving appropriate amounts of supervision
problems  freely answering questions and;
3. Conveying respect for them  acting as a resource person during clinical
4. Alleviating their anxieties learning experiences.
5. Being accessible for conferences
6. Being fair TEACHER/MEDICAL TECHNOLOGIST’S AND
7. Permitting learners to express differing point ROLES IN GUIDANCE
of view  The concept of guidance, which associated
8. Creating an atmosphere in which they feel it with the daily activity of the classroom
free to ask questions teacher, gives a greater responsibility to
9. Conveying sense of warmth him. It means that the teacher who is
TEACHING PRACTICES dealing with children should be given in-
service education for discharging his
 Teaching practices-defined as the responsibilities in personal, educational and
mechanics, methods, and skills in vocational guidance.
classroom and clinical teaching.  make sure the young person has a voice in
 Students value a teacher who has a setting learning targets.
thorough knowledge of the subject matter
 AS A MOTIVATOR role models, earning potential of a course of
study, and grades (which keep scholarships
 A teacher, who mechanically assigns each coming).
hour's work without guiding learners to see  Students who are extrinsically motivated
the larger sequence of which it is a part, can might say things like the following:
serve dooms and will usually have little  “I need a B-in statistics to get into business
intrinsic appeal. This is the teacher who school.”
then feels a need for the carrot or the stick.  “If I flunk chemistry, I will lose my
He deprives students of opportunity to carry scholarship.”
their existing motivations into the classroom  “Our instructor will bring us donuts if we do
in ways that could help their learning. well on today’s quiz.”

WAYS TO MOTIVATE LEARNERS Advantages:Extrinsic motivators more readily

produce behaviorchanges and typically involve
There are 2 type of Motivation: relatively little effort or preparation. Also, efforts at
1. Intrinsic Motivation applying extrinsic motivators often do not require
2. Extrinsic Motivation extensive knowledge of individual students.

INTRINSIC MOTIVATION Disadvantages:On the other hand, extrinsic

 Intrinsic motivatorsinclude fascination with motivators can often distract students from learning
the subject, a sense of its relevance to life the subject at hand. It can be challenging to devise
and the world, a sense of accomplishment appropriate rewards and punishments for student
in mastering it, and a sense of calling to it. behaviors. Often, one needs to escalate the
 Students who are intrinsically motivated rewards and punishments over time to maintain a
might say things like the following: certain effect level.
 “Literature interests me.”
 “Learning math enables me to think clearly.”  Also, extrinsic motivators typically do not
 “I feel good when I succeed in class.” work over the long term. Once the rewards
or punishments are removed, students lose
Advantages:Intrinsic motivation can be long- their motivation.
lasting and self-sustaining.
 Efforts to build this kind of motivation are Effects of Motivation on Learning Styles
also typically efforts at promoting student
learning.Such efforts often focus on the  Deep learnersrespond well to the challenge
subject rather than rewards or punishments. of mastering a difficult and complex subject.
These are intrinsically motivated students
who are often a joy to teach.
 Strategic learnersare motivated primarily
Disadvantages:On the other hand, efforts at byrewards.
fostering intrinsic motivation can be slow to affect
behaviour and can require special and lengthy  They react well to competition and the
preparation. opportunity to best others.
 Students are individuals, so a variety of
approaches may be needed to motivate  They often make good grades but won’t
different students. It is often helpful to know engage deeply with a subject unless there is
what interests one’s students in order to a clear reward for doing so. They are
connect these interests with the subject sometimes called “bulimic learners,”
matter. This requires getting to know one’s learning as much as they need to do well on
students. Also, it helps if the instructor is a test or exam and then promptly forgetting
interested in the subject to begin with! the material once the assessment is over.

EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION  Handle strategic learners by avoiding

appeals to competition. Appeal to their
intrinsic interest in the subject at hand.
 Extrinsic motivatorsinclude parental
Design your assignments (tests, papers,
expectations, expectations of other trusted
 projects, etc.) so that deep engagement  Use a variety of student-active teaching
with the subject is necessary for success on activities.These activities directly engage
the assignments. Do so by requiring students in the material and give them
students to apply, synthesize, or evaluate opportunities to achieve a level of mastery.
material instead of merely comprehending o Teach by discovery.Students find as
or memorizing material. satisfying as reasoning through a
problem and discovering the
 Surface learnersare often motivated by a underlying principle on their own.
desire to avoid failure. o Cooperative learning activities are
particularly effective as they also
 They typically avoid deep learning because provide positive social pressure.
it they see it as inherently risky behavior.  Set realistic performance goalsand help
students achieve them by encouraging them
 They will often do what it takes to pass an to set their own reasonable goals. Design
exam or course, but they won’tchoose to go assignments that are appropriately
beyond the minimum required for fear of challenging in view of the experience and
failure. aptitude of the class.
 Handle surface learners by helping them
gain confidence in their abilities to learn and
 Place appropriate emphasis on testing
perform. “Scaffold” course material and
and grading.Tests should be a means of
assignments by designing a series of
showing what students have mastered, not
activities or assignments that build on each
what they have not. Avoid grading on the
other over time in complexity and challenge.
curve and give everyone the opportunity to
Encourage these learners often and help
achieve the highest standard and grades.
them reflect on what they’ve learned and
what they’ve accomplished.
 Be free with praise and constructive in
criticism.Negative comments should
STRATEGIES FOR MOTIVATING STUDENTS
pertain to particular performances, not the
performer. Offernonjudgmentalfeedback on
 Following are some research-based students’ work, stress opportunities to
strategies for motivating students to learn: improve, look for ways to stimulate
advancement, and avoid dividing students
 Become a role model for student into sheep and goats.
interest. Deliver your presentations with
energy and enthusiasm.As a display of your
 Give students as much control over their
motivation, your passion motivates your
own education as possible.Let students
students. Make the course personal,
choose paper and project topics that
showing why you are interested in the
interest them. Assess them in a variety of
material.
ways (tests, papers, projects, presentations,
etc.) to give students more control over how
 Get to know your students.You will be they show their understanding to you. Give
able to better tailor your instruction to the students options for how these assignments
students’ concerns and backgrounds, and are weighted.
your personal interest in them will inspire
their personal loyalty to you. Display a Ways to motivate the Learners :
strong interest in students’ learning and a
faith in their abilities. 1. Fine-tune the challenge.We’re most
motivated to learn when the task before us
 Use examples freely. Many students want is matched to our level of skill: not so easy
to be shown why a concept or technique is as to be boring, and not so hard as to be
useful before they want to study it further. frustrating. Deliberately fashion the learning
Inform students about how your course exercise so that students are working at the
prepares students for future opportunities. very edge of your abilities, and keep upping
the difficulty as they improve.
 2. Start with the question, not the  Assess the extent to which the learner is
answer.Memorizing information is boring. ready to learn
Discovering the solution to a puzzle is  Determine the perceived relevance of the
invigorating. Present material to be learned information
not as afait accompli, but as a live question
 Repeat information
begging to be explored.
 Generalize information
3. Encourage students to beat their  Make learning a pleasant experience
personal best.Some learning tasks, like  Begin with what is known; move toward
memorizing the multiplication table or a list with what is unknown
of names or facts, are simply not interesting  Present information at an appropriate rate
in themselves. Generate motivation by
encouraging students to compete against SEVEN PRINCIPLES OF GOOD PRACTICE IN
themselves: run through the material once UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION
to establish a baseline, then keep track of
how much they improve (in speed, in  Encourage student-faculty contact
accuracy) each time.  Encourage cooperation among students
 Encourage active learning
 Give prompt feedback
4. Connect abstract learning to concrete  Emphasize time on task
situations.Adopt the case-study method  Communicate high expectations
that has proven so effective for business,  Respect diverse talents and ways of
medical and law school students: apply learning
abstract theories and concepts to a real-
world scenario, using these formulations to MEDICAL TECHNOLOGISTS AS
analyze and make sense of situations TEACHERS
involving real people and real stakes.  should have a formal preparation
 expertise is importantto prepare next
5. Make it social.Put together a learning generation
group, or have students find learning
partners with whom they can share their MEDICAL TECHNOLOGISTS IN THE
moments of discovery and points of COMMUNITY
confusion. Divide the learning task into
parts, and take turns being teacher and  prevent disease, injury or other conditions.
pupil. The simple act of explaining what Used by citizens and healthcare
they’re learning out loud will help them professionals.
understand and remember it better.  diagnose conditions and monitor health
 treat patients in the home or after hospital
stay.
6. Go deep.Almost any subject is interesting
once you get inside it. Assign the task of
becoming the world’s expert on one small
aspect of the material they have to learn—
then extend their new expertise outward by
exploring how the piece they know so well
connects to all the other pieces they need to
know about.

SOME OTHER WAYS TO MOTIVATE LEARNERS

 Use several senses
 Actively involve the patients or clients in the
learning process
 Provide an environment conductive in
learning
 LESSON 3: PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING  Teaching may be considered a system if
AND LEARNING actions varied in form and content but
directed toward learning.
Teaching as a process  It is the performance of these actions and in
the interactions of the teacher and students
 Teaching as preactive or “giving off” that learning takes place.
process.

 Teaching as organized, purposeful, and Teaching as providing the learner with basic
deliberate efforts designed to bring out tools of learning so in the process he
desirable ends. becomes a self-sufficient and self-reliant
 In this process, the teacher initiates, directs individual
and leads his own class towards the  One uniqueness of the teaching profession
realization of certain goals. lies on the nature of activities given to
 Hopman (1970) Teaching intends to induce students.
leaning. It does not just happen nor matter  These activities are unmistakably inherent
of luck and mere occurrence, it is a in the profession and not in any of the other
deliberate activity. fields of human endeavor.
 Teaching is an art of leading the children  “Teaching is to develop further skills of
and youth to live upright and successful students through thinking, speaking and
lives (Garner, Murphy, 1974) writing tasks and through the ideas and
Teaching as involving more of the learner concepts in reading and listening
than of the teacher selections.”

 Function of teaching from being teacher- Teaching as structuring the learning

monopolizedinto student-directed and environment for students
idea which runs counter to the traditional  Structuring- means “Building”, constructing
view of teaching. or organizing.
 Goble and Porter (1977) the teacher should  Process of putting together certain elements
cease to be the sole transmitting agent of systematically in order to produce more
knowledge. desirable results.
 Goble and Porter (1977) described the  In structuring the learning environment,
change as a transformation of teaching from therefore the teacher synthesizes specific
monopolist to mediator function. Emphasis elements like purposes (instructional
is placed on learning not on teaching. objectives) subject matter or content.
 Goble and Porter (1977) should be helping  Learning environment must be adequately
students seek, validate, assimilate and use prepared and set up so learning can
knowledge as a basis for further learning, presumably occur.
forming modifying goals and ideas, rational
decision-making. Teaching as inherently a humane activity

Teaching as a system of actions and  Highet (1954) expressed that teaching

interactions involves emotions, which cannot be
systematically appraised and employed,
 George Kneller (1971) and human values, which are quite outside
the grasp of science.
 The teacher and his students interact with
one another.
  “Teaching is not like inducing chemical - Define teaching as “Stimulation, guidance,
reaction”: it is much more like painting a direction or encouragement of learning”
picture or making a piece o music, or in a  Gage (1963) Teachers need to know how
lower level, like planting a garden or writing children learn, and how they depend on
a friendly letter” motivation, readiness and reinforcement.
Teaching as an Art and as a Science
Teaching as inherently a humane activity
 Eisner (1983) pointed out couple of
 John Hough (1970)- defined teaching as distinguishing marks between two facets of
unique, professional, rational and humane teaching.
activity in which one creatively and
imaginatively uses himself and his  Teaching is a Science emphasizes the
knowledge to promote the learning and cognitive and the psychomotor aspects
welfare of others. of learning or simply the subject matter that
must be put across into learners’ level of
 Teaching may become humane if he/she awareness as well as the skillful
are both creative and imaginative. performances that they should be able to
develop in and by themselves.
 Whatever the learner has become is what
his teacher has made him to be.  Teaching as a science regards teaching as
mechanical and routinized in order to make
Teaching as an Inquiry Process
it more systematic and more efficient.
 Socrates is noted for his question-and-
 Teaching is an art presupposes the need for
answer method, better known as the
the learners to appreciate and improve on
Socratic Method.
whatever knowledge he has gained and
 Recognized the importance of developing skills he has acquired.
the learner’s intellect by subjecting him to a
 Teaching goes beyond the prescribed level
series of thought-provoking and challenging
of instruction. It does not view a teaching
questions.
method as a preconceived and scripted
 In the process, he becomes intellectually- sequence of classroom acts in carrying out
enlightened and fit and eventually he can an activity or in developing a particular
assume his rightful place in the community lesson.
of men.
 Teaching as an art looks at teaching as
 A process of questioning some of the pupil’s dynamic and imaginative process.
ideas so that he can learn to think for
himself and answer challenges to his way of
thinking. PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING
Teaching is the process of concretizing and
Principle1.Teachers'knowledgeofthesubjectmat
actualizing the fundamental principles of other
significantly related disciplines terisessentialtotheimplementationofimportanttea

 Nervobig and Klausmeir (1974)- “Teaching chingtasks

draws its basic principles and procedure
from many sources but chiefly from Teacherswhoknowtheirsubjectmatterthorou
psychology, sociology, philosophy, ghlycanbemoreeffectiveandefficientatorganizing
pedadogy and educational history.
thesubjectmatter,
 William Burton (1969)- psychology at the
most significant discipline form which the Principle2.Activeinvolvementofthelearnerenhan
essence of teaching is derived.
ceslearning
Learning is an active process which requires If new material is presented in a pattern or
that the learner work with and apply new framework that the learner can perceive, it is
material to past knowledge and to everyday life. more readily learned and retained.

Principle 3. Interaction between teachers and Principle 9. Both teaching and learning are
students is the most important factor in student enhanced by descriptive feedback
motivation and involvement
Without feedback neither learner nor
Interaction between students and faculty, teacher can improve because they will not know
particularly informal interaction, is one of the what they need to know or to what extent they
most important factors in student motivation for are fulfilling their goals.
learning.
Principle 10. Critical feedback is only useful if
Principle 4. Students benefit from taking the learner has alternatives to pursue
responsibility for their learning
There is no use giving teachers or students
Students are more motivated when they feedback about their performances unless they
take control of their own learning. This is the can do something about it, that is, unless they
belief which has stimulated active interest in have some alternative course of action or
self-directed learning. behavior.

Principle 5. There are many roads to learning

Students learn in different ways and vary in

their abilities to perform certain tasks.

Principle 6. Expect more and you will achieve

more

Simply stated, if an educator conveys to

students that he or she believes in their ability
to succeed learning is enhanced.

Principle 7. Learning is enhanced in an

atmosphere of cooperation

Learning is enhanced when it is perceived

as a collaborative and cooperative effort
between students.

Principle 8. Material must be meaningful

 LESSON 5: ADULT LEARNING A MODEL OF punished response more likely or less likely to
ADULT LEARNING recur;they may set up avoidance tendencies which
prevent further learning”
Malcolm knowles (1984) began to crusade
for a model of education for adults that was 4. “Reward to be most effective in learning, must
different from the education of children. follow almost immediately after the desired
-he adopted the term “andragogy” to behavior and be clearly connected with that
differentiate the teaching of adults from “pedagogy” behavior in the mind of the learner”
5. “learners progress in any area of learning only as
His model says first that adults are far as they need to in order to achieve their
motivated to learn information for which they purposes. Often they do only ‘get by’ with increased
understand the purpose and see practical motivation they improved”
applications. Second they want to take some 6. “learning by reading is more facilitated more by
control of their learning process and be self- time spent recalling what has been read than by
directed rereading”

7. “forgetting proceeds rapidly at first-then more

and more slowly; recall shortly after learning
reduces the amount of forgotten.

COMPARISON OF ANDRAGOGY FROM

PEDAGOGY
LEARNING PROPOSITIONS

1. “behaviors which are rewarded are more likely to

occur”
2. “sheer repetitions without indication of
improvement or any kind of reinforcement is a poor
way to attempt to learn”
3. “threat and punishment have variable and
uncertain affects upon learning; they may make the