Review of Related Literature

Submitted By:
Yap, Charles Wesley F.

4ar:8

Submitted to:
Ar. Clarissa L. Avendano
 CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The topics related to this study focus on childcare and orphanages and how architecture can

impact the lives of the people, especially children. It also emphasizes the effects of

contemporary orphanages and how to change its negative impacts to its users.

A. Children

The early years if human development establish the basic architecture and function of the

brain. This early period of development affects the next stage of complex human

development, as well as the later stages as it grows. It is now further understandable, through

developmental neurobiology, how experience in early life will affect the different stages of its

development. Poor early development affects health, both physically and mentally, behavior

and learning in the later stages of life. The architecture and function of the brain is sculpted

by a lifetime of experiences, from childhood to adulthood, which affect the architecture and

function of neurobiological pathways.

(Mustard, 2010)

Learning starts during the infant period, long before formal education begins, and continues

throughout adulthood. Early learning begets later learning and early success usually equals to

later success, just as early failure breeds later failure. Success or failure at this stage lays the

foundation for success or failure in school, which in turn leads to success or failure in post-

school learning. Recent studies of early childhood investments have shown remarkable success
and indicate that the early years are important for early learning. Moreover, early childhood

interventions of high quality have lasting effects on learning and motivation. As a society, we

cannot afford to postpone investing in children until they become adults, nor can we wait until

they reach school age – a time when it may be too late to intervene.

(Heckman, 2007)

Early childhood is an extremely sensitive period in human development, during which

the brain, especially the circuitry governing emotion, attention, self-control and stress, is

shaped by the interplay of the child’s genes and experiences. As children grow and further

develop, the biological and environmental factors that determine their development become

increasingly intertwined. When the environment is a secure, positive one, these factors join

forces to help maximize their potential. But when children face enduring obstacles to healthy

development, such as poverty, inappropriate care, or violence, environment and biology may

route them on a course to emotional, physical and mental health problems.

(Boivin & Hertzman, 2012)

Every child goes through the same stages of physical and social development; however,

every child is unique and grows at a different rate. Some children will have disabilities (e.g.

developmental, cognitive or learning). Some suffer from chronic health conditions that affect

their mobility.

(Nussbaumer, 2018)

During the first 2 years of life, children start to develop skills crucial for good

relationships with their peers, parents and others. These include: Controlling their emotions,

inhibiting their impulsive behaviors, viewing themselves as good or bad, experiencing guilt
when they disobey or hurt others, language development, these skills allow young children to

refrain from using aggression (hitting, pushing, etc.) and oppositional behavior (losing temper,

arguing with and defying adults, etc.) to obtain what they want.

(Briefing Notes for Policy Makers, 2009)

Anthropometric Data

Most anthropometric data are static, standardized

postures with some functional or dynamic anthropometric

measurements of the human body in their movements.

However, these movements are hardly realistic. When people

reach they might twist and turn, stand on their tiptoes, or

jump. Child dimensions should provide some dynamic

(Lueder and Rice, 2008). This means that designers should

observe children at play and measure the space they need as

well as the space of dynamic movement, e.g. sprawling across

the floor, stretching, jumping, etc. (Nussbaumer, 2018)

Figure 2
Age Groups

According to Nussbaumer, a child’s growth in the first two years is most pronounced

during the first year. His or her weight increases 1.5 times, and his or her height increases by

50 percent. Along with this physical development, rapid increase occur in motor development,

expressions of emotion, social development, language development, and cognitive

development. A leading authority on child development, Jean Piaget, determined four stages
of development: sensorimotor stage (birth o two years), preoperational stage (two to seven

years), concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years), and formal operation stage (11 years and

beyond).

Preoperational Stage

In the preoperational stage, children begin to develop language skills and are able to

use symbols (words or pictures) to represent objects. Between the ages of two and five, they

think egocentrically and assumes that everyone thinks the same way they do. They also find

difficulty to reverse or change an idea and have difficulty in understanding emphatically.

Between ages five and seven, they are able to learn by thinking as well as sensing and doing,

and they are able to learn by thinking as well as by sensing and doing, and they develop a basic

understanding of cause and effect, or the consequences of their actions (Dreyfuss Associates,

2002).

As they develop physically, their equilibrium and motor skills improve because they

enjoy practicing their motor skills and become proficient at various activities. They are able to

care for themselves by not only putting their own clothing but also buttoning, snapping, and

zipping zippers. They are also able to hold a pencil, write and draw. (Leuder and Rice, 2008)

Concrete Operational Stage

Children from ages 7 to 14 understand concrete, hands-on problems and can

apply basic logic; however, they still have difficulty thinking in an abstract manner. Therefore,

when they make poor choices, they still do not think through the possible logical outcome and

in turn, do not understand consequences for their actions. This may continue on beyond the age

of 14—even into the early 20s (Leuder and Rice, 2008).

children have fully developed motor skills to tie their laces, write their names, and balance on

their bikes (Lueder and Rice, 2008). By age 10, children engage in organized sports, are able

to judge distances, have good eye-hand coordination, are able to intercept small balls thrown

from a distance, become stronger, and gain endurance. These abilities lead eventually to

participation in adult-oriented sports (Dreyfuss Associates, 2002; Leuder and Rice, 2008).

Formal Operational Stage

Some, but not all, children enter the formal operational stage at age 11 or 12. At

this stage, the child is capable of thinking abstractly, some of which include speculating about

future events, understanding cause and effect, developing and testing hypotheses, and

reasoning scientifically (Lueder and Rice, 2008, p.26).

At this stage, physical development improves greatly. Children of this age enjoy

participating in organized sports. These children generally are able to judge distance, their

endurance improves, body hair emerges, and body shape changes. Their social and emotional

development needs change as well. Adolescents realize that they have different interests than

the opposite sex and place a high value on peer acceptance (Dreyfuss Associates, 2002; Leuder

and Rice, 2008). They are also interested in real tasks and activities but also realize that

communication does not always resolve a dispute (Dreyfuss Associates, 2002). These children

have more highly developed reading and writing skills and continue to improve their language

skills. Their vocabulary has also increased significantly, and their communication skill is

nearby equal to an adult (Lueder and Rice, 2008)

Recent Research—The importance of the First Three Years

What we do know—from recent scientific evidence—is that warm and loving

attachments between infants and adults, and positive age-appropriate stimulations from birth

onward, critically affect brain and neurological development. The first three years of life are

particularly important because of the pace at which children are growing and learning. In no

other period do such profound changes occur so rapidly: A newborn grows from a completely

dependent human being into one who walks, talks, plays, and explores in less than three years

The downside of the brain’s plasticity is the acute vulnerability to trauma, especially in the

early years when its organizing framework is being established. (Olds, 2000)

Children delight in absorbing the richness of the world through their five senses.

Everything about them is “food” for their developing bodies, minds and souls. A building

“weak in spirit adversely affects children’s development; it lacks the sensory nourishment and

sense of wholeness on which they thrive. (Olds, 2000)

The spirit of a place is hard to look over or prescribe. It is never the same for any

two places, nor will all its elements which comprises it be present all the time. Indeed, part of

its mysteriousness stems from the fact that a unique set of ingredients come together in a unique

spot, un a unique way, at a particular time, hence producing a unique result. (Olds, 2000)

Prelude to Design: Recalling Our Own Spirited Places

Spirited child care places honor children’s spirits—their unequalled curiosity

and unrestrained receptivity to the moment— as well as the adults who provide their care.

Unfortunately, an adult’s initial response, emotionally, are often “civilized” or repressed. Much
often, in a child’s point of view, there are often three different childhood settings, these are

their favorite, special place, their disliked or uncomfortable place and a place that belonged to

a favorite adult. (Olds, 2000)

Architecture plays a key role in creating the experiences we want for our

children. The etymology of the word itself, reveals a relationship between the spirit of a place

and the true purpose of the architectural profession. Architecture is the act of using material to

make the ideal become manifest. It is the place where mind and matter combine to produce

built force reflecting the values and ideals of the institution, the designers, the builders, and the

society as whole. It is a process used by humanity to bring heaven to earth, spirit into matter.

(Olds, 2000)

The Importance of Play in Promoting Healthy Child Development and Maintaining Strong

Parent-Child Bonds

Play is very essential to optimal child development that it has been recognized

as a right of every child. This right is challenged by forces, some of which include child labor,

exploitation practices, war, and neighborhood violence, and the limitations of the resources for

children living in poverty. However, even such children who are fortunate enough to have the

available resources and who live in peace may not receive the full benefits of play. Many of

these children are being raised in an increasingly hurried and pressured style that can

potentially limit the protective benefits they would gain from child-driven play. Because every

child deserves the opportunity to develop to their potential, advocates must consider all factors
that interfere with optimal development and press for circumstances that allow each child to

fully reap the advantages associated with play. (Ginsburg, 2006)

The Benefits of Play

Play allows their children to manifest their creativity while developing their

imagination, dexterity, physical, and emotional capabilities. Play is beneficial to healthy brain

development. It is mostly through play that children at a very early age engage and interact in

the world around them. Play enables their children to create and explore further the world they

can master, whilst conquering their fears while practicing roles as adults, and sometimes

together with other kids or adults. As they master their world, play helps children develop new

skills that lead to enhanced confidence and the resiliency they will need to face future

challenges. Undirected play allows children to learn how to work in groups, to share, to

negotiate, to resolve conflicts, and to learn self-advocacy skills. When play is allowed to be

child driven, children practice decision-making skills, move at their own pace, discover their

own areas of interest, and eventually engage fully in the passions they wish to pursue.

(Ginsburg, 2006)

Behavior Mapping: A Method for Linking Preschool Physical Activity and Outdoor Design

Behavior mapping is an objective method of observing behavior and built environment

attributes. It provides researchers with an innovative method of assessing behavior linked to

detailed physical characteristics of outdoor areas, and it has been applied by the authors in

studies of schools, neighborhood parks, children’s museums, and zoos. The purpose here was

to illustrate the method’s sensitivity for coding built environment characteristics in childcare
center outdoor environments as part of a strategy to prevent sedentary lifestyles of young

children by influencing built environment design policy.

(Cosco, Moore, & Islam, 2010)