Chapter 13. Computer-Based Tools

Chapter 13
Computer-Based Tools
Jonathan M. Ross
13.1 NOMENCLATURE OLP Off-Line Programming

OODB Object-Oriented Database
AI Artificial Intelligence OOP Object-Oriented Programming
AP Application Protocol PID Process and Instrument Diagram
CAD Computer-Aided Design PMDB Product Model Database
CAE Computer-Aided Engineering SBD Simulation Based Design
CAM Computer-Aided Manufacturing STEP Standard for the Exchange of Product
CAPP Computer-Aided Process Planning Model Data
CD-ROM Compact Disk—Read-Only Memory
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics
CIM Computer-Integrated Manufacturing
DAT Digital Audio Tape 13.2 INTRODUCTION
DXF Data EXchange Format
EDI Electronic Data Interchange 13.2.1 Background
FEA Finite Element Analysis The shipbuilding industry has used computer-based tools
HVAC Heating, Ventilation and Air since the early 1950s, initially in accounting, and expand-
Conditioning ing during the early 1960s to certain design and fabrication
IGES Initial Graphics Exchange Specification activities, then by the early 1970s to the first CAD and CAM
ISO International Standards Organization turnkey commercial systems (1,2). Perhaps the most strik-
IPPD Integrated Product and Process ing element in this evolution is the short time span in which
Development Model it has taken place compared to, for example, the present age
IPDE Integrated Product Data Environment of shipbuilding. Table 13.I illustrates the point. While the
IT Information Technology birth of industrialized shipbuilding can be set in the middle
MARITIME Management and Reuse of Information of the last century, a century and a half ago, the birth of ship-
Over Time building CAD/CAM can be dated from the early 1970s, just
NC Numerical Control over a quarter of a century ago. Significantly, the use of
NEUTRABAS Neutral Product Definition Database for computer-aided tools in shipbuilding is not the sole domain
Large Multifunctional Systems of larger yards but is fast becoming common in mid-size
NIDDESC Navy Industry Digital Data Exchange and small yards and in virtually all design firms (3,4).
Standards Committee The table shows the evolution of shipbuilding computer
NURBS Non-uniform Rational B-Splines aided tools in general. Not every shipyard evolves through
13-1
13-2 Ship Design & Construction, Volume 1
TABLE 13.I Evolution of Ship Design and Construction Computer-aided Tools (Expanded from (2))
Year Hardware Software End Users
1972–78 Big computing centers, Main frames, Independent programs, Sequential Big shipyards
Punched cards and alphanumeric terminals files, Batch processes
1979–86 Medium computing centers, Midi/Mini computers, Integrated programs, Medium level Big and mid-size
Alphanumeric terminals and graphic terminals independent databases, Interactive processes shipyards
1987–94 Local area networks, Workstations, Fully integrated programs, Single database, Big, mid-size and
X-terminals, PCs Interactive graphic processes, Open systems small shipyards
1995–03 Remote networks, PCs, Workstations, Windows environment, Object oriented All sizes of
Parallel processors programming, Improved inter-program shipyards,
data exchange Design firms
each step of the process. For example, a shipyard may jump TABLE 13.II Average Percentage Savings Resulting from
from a simple CAD program to a product model program Upgrading To 3D Product Modeling for Three Small
and experience not just an evolutionary step but also a quan- Shipyards (11)
tum leap in capability (5).
Computer based ship design and construction is an im- Element Percentage Saving
portant aspect of making a shipyard more competitive in the
world commercial market. Modern computer-aided systems Design Labor Hours 30–40
can help address inefficiencies such as the following (6,7): Material Cost 20–25
Production Labor Cost 30–35
• Multiple systems used within a single discipline, ne-
cessitating the storage of the same data in different places. Construction Schedule 25–30
Integration of work and ensuring consistency are diffi-
cult.
• 2D drafting systems, causing difficulties when pro-
ceeding to the actual 3D ship design.
• availability of a product model to enhance concurrent en-
• Separate hull and outfit designs, making integration of
gineering and production planning activities,
the final design and inclusion of future changes difficult
• more flexibility in making design modifications,
and open to errors and no integrated planning during de-
• a more controlled environment to help support stan-
sign.
dardization,
• Aging of the skilled workforce and difficulty in finding
• improved cost control,
young workers willing to work in the traditional dirty,
• elimination of many tedious manual and repetitive cal-
difficult and dangerous shipbuilding environment.
culations,
• Inability to meet ever increasing demands by owners for
• less rework in production,
ships of higher quality and shortened delivery times.
• less skilled labor needs in production,
A counterpoint to the aging problem is that young work- • storage of lifecycle data for the ship, and
ers are more oriented toward the use of computers in their • configuration arrangement of changes through design
daily work and are often more willing and capable to use and life of the ship.
CAD/CAM/CIM in ship design and construction than older
As shown in Table 13.I computer-aided tools may be
workers accustomed to little or no use of computers.
used to great advantage even in small shipyards if those
Advantages to a shipyard using computers in ship de-
shipyards follow modern shipbuilding practices, such as the
sign and construction include the following (10):
use of block construction instead of stick building. A recent
• quicker response to requests for quotes and shorter de- poll of three privately owned European shipyards using 3D
sign and construction lead times, product modeling for design found dramatic cost savings
• increased accuracy, compared to traditional CAD or manual drafting techniques.
• availability of a reference database, Savings are presented in Table 13.II (11).
Chapter 13: Computer-Based Tools 13-3
13.2.2 Scope of this Chapter

This chapter presents computer-based tools for ship design
and production. The following topics are addressed: com-
puter-aided design, computer-aided engineering, computer-
aided synthesis modeling, computer-aided manufacturing,
computer product models, computer-integrated manufac-
turing, computer systems integration, computer implemen-
tation, and future trends. Also provided are listings of
computer systems, projects and initiatives, along with the
organizations involved and their nationalities. Computer
programs mentioned in this chapter are typically menu
driven. Many run real time, although certain functions may
be more typically run in batch mode, and virtually all have
graphical display capability. In order to improve chapter
flow, specific software programs are cited in only one sec- Figure 13.1 Computer-Aided NURBS Hull Design
tion, though the programs may apply to several sections.
The field of computer based ship design is one of fre-
quent and substantial advances. Thus, while this chapter
will provide a general overview, the reader is encouraged
to consult professional journals and conference proceed-
ings to gain a current understanding of the technology.
13.3 COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN

13.3.1 General
Computer-Aided Design (CAD) is a direct outgrowth of the
traditional drafting board approach to ship design. CAD de-
picts geometry and dimensions on a computer monitor and
not directly on paper, though an important output of CAD
is still paper drawings. Sophisticated CAD systems are much
more powerful than computer versions of drafting boards. Figure 13.2 Computer-Aided Design of Distributed System
They may have extensive parts libraries, cut-and-paste ca-
pabilities, and efficient, menu-driven user interfaces.
Stand-alone CAD is most appropriate for relatively sim-
ple designs such as those developed in the smaller ship- as planes within the hull. Included are corrugated bulkheads
yards. For more complex designs, CAE and product model and deck-to-deck ramps and the inclusion of camber, sheer,
programs are more appropriate. knuckles and breaks.
Compartmentation: The hull is divided into separate,
identifiable compartments. Compartmentation can be based
13.3.2 Typical Capabilities of CAD Systems on spatial analysis.
CAD systems have some or all of the following capabili- Profiles and arrangements: Outboard and inboard pro-
ties, running the gamut from 2D line drawings to 3D solid files are developed, as well as arrangements for cargo spaces;
geometry (5,12,13): machinery spaces; crew, passenger, and associated spaces;
Hull design: Hull design may include the development tanks; and miscellaneous spaces.
of hull geometry, hull form, and castings. NURBS or B- Distributed systems: Design of electrical, piping and
Spline approaches may be used for fairing. A screen cap- HVAC system one-line diagrams is carried out at the dia-
ture of a computer aided hull design of a naval combatant grammatic level of detail (as shown in Figure 13.2) and at
is shown in Figure 13.1. a level of detail sufficient for production and installation.
Decks and bulkheads: Decks and bulkheads are defined Drawings: 2D and 3D drawings may be produced in or-
CAD-Link—Albacore Research, Canada—structural mod-

eling within 2D and 3D context (14).
Excel—Microsoft, United States—a general purpose
spreadsheet program applicable to many ship design cal-
culations.
FastShip—Proteus Engineering, United States—hull, ap-
pendage and superstructure design and hydrostatics.
HICADEC—Hitachi Zosen, Japan, and Odense Steel Ship-
yard, Denmark—arrangement design, electrical diagrams,
hull structure and piping diagrams and layout (12).
HFDS (Hull Form Design System)—United States Navy—
hull design and fairing (15).
Maxsurf—Formation Design Systems Pty, Australia—hy-
drostatics, hull design and fairing, and hull structure (10,16).
Figure 13.3 CAD Design NauShip—NAUTICAD sarl, Italy—hull structural design
and NC structures cutting tape generation (17).
Pro/ENGINEER—PTC, United States—2D and 3D de-
thogonal and isometric formats to show hull form, lines, signing (18).
body plan, sections, outboard and inboard profiles, water-
ShipGen—Defcar Naval Engineering, Spain (19).
lines, schematics and other views of the hull and outfit (Fig-
ure 13.3). Included may be dimensioning, text callouts and
the generation of tailored title blocks. In addition, drawings
may be used to show ship’s curves of form and floodable 13.4 COMPUTER-AIDED ENGINEERING
length curves. 13.4.1 General
Engineering analysis: CAD is commonly used to cal-
Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE) automates various
culate cross sectional properties such as section modulus
ship design calculations in the areas of hull and equipment.
and moment of inertia. CAD may also be used to calculate
While the more typical CAE programs specialize in spe-
tank areas and volumes, weight distribution diagrams for
cific areas, such as ship structure, some are modules of more
loading, and hydrostatics and stability data.
integrated ship design programs and represent an evolu-
Early stage design: Certain CAD systems possess the
tionary link to product model programs.
capability to quickly develop a design to support market-
ing and proposal efforts. Included are hull, structure, out-
fit, build strategy and production planning. In addition, CAD 13.4.2 Typical Capabilities of CAE Programs
may be use to extract profile lengths and plate sizes for early
CAE systems have some or all of the following capabilities
part standardization and material orders.
(5,12,20,24):
Pipe thermal expansion: An analysis is conducted on
13.3.3 Examples of CAD Programs steam pipe systems to determine thermal expansion and
stress. Finite element methods are typically used.
Available CAD programs include the following:
Pipe and pressure vessel pressures: Pipe flow pressure
AJISAI CAD—Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries drops, buckling and water hammer forces (on pipe walls,
Co., Inc., Japan—for structure (AJISAI-H) and outfitting flanges and hangers) are calculated. Compliance with in-
(AJISAI-F)(12). dustry standards may be checked.
Hydrostatics and stability: Calculation of hydrostatics
AutoCAD—AutoDesk, United States—2D and 3D de-
for intact and damage stability, and subsequent generation
signing.
of output such as hydrostatic values, Bonjean curves, dead-
Autoship—Autoship Systems, Canada—hydrostatics, hull weight scale, cross curves of stability, freeboard, floodable
design and fairing, and hull structure (8). lengths, curves of section areas and half-breadths.
Volumes and cargo capacity: Calculation and organiza-

tion by category of the volumes of a ship’s compartments,
including generation of sounding and ullage tables, volu-
metric grain heeling moments and tonnage.
Loading conditions: Calculations may be carried out for
lightship weight, stillwater equilibrium waterplane, maxi-
mum allowable grain heeling moments and weight and cen-
ter of gravity for modular cargoes (for example, containers
and pallet cargoes) and break bulk cargoes.
Speed/power: Using regressions with test series or using Figure 13.4 Fast Ferry Full Ship FEA Model
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), ship resistance and
speed for given power input is calculated.
Plate bending: Calculating forces or line heating re-
quirements for bending curved plate.
Electrical loading: Electric load and fault analyses, as
well as cable size calculations.
Weights and centers: Based on the CAD design, weights
and centers of gravity may be calculated for the complete
ship and for individual elements of structure and outfit.
Structure: Analysis of strength in smooth water and in
waves and (for contained liquids) hydrostatic loading; op-
timization of weight, vertical center of gravity optimiza-
tion; cost optimization; fatigue analysis; shock analysis;
oil-canning calculations; and predictions of natural and Figure 13.5 Oblique Seas, Seakeeping Visualization
forced vibration frequencies. Data may be presented in static
and animated multicolor 3D models that show stresses, ad-
treatments such as isolation mounts and enclosures are cal-
equacy parameters and displacements of affected structure.
culated.
Figure 13.4 shows such a structural model.
In a class by itself are computer programs for the initial
Maneuvering and control: Calculations are carried out
design and cost estimation. These programs are usually para-
of rudder geometry and ship maneuverability and control
metric, and produce their technical and cost estimates based
characteristics. Included is consideration of force, moment
on historical data. Some are quite sophisticated, with many
and motion in the horizontal plane for surface ships and the
input parameters. Their accuracy depends upon the validity
same considerations in three dimensions for submarines.
of the parametric relationships, and they are useful only
Propeller: Propeller selection, geometry and calculation
within their range of historical data. These programs are
of the propeller characteristics, such as thrust.
used to produce initial designs for trade-off analysis, and for
HVAC: Flow, heating and cooling calculations are carried
quick initial response to shipowner inquiries.
out to help size fans, ducting and other HVAC components.
Launching: Calculations for launching over an inclined
slipway may include (in a stepwise fashion) ship position, 13.4.3 Examples of CAE Programs
buoyancy, reaction of ground ways and rising and tipping
Presently operating CAE programs include the following:
moments. Static and dynamic stability and longitudinal
strength may be calculated at the pivoting point and for the BASCON—Korea Research Institute of Ships and Ocean
ship afloat. Engineering, Korea—integrated system to develop ship con-
Seakeeping: Ship motions in a seaway are predicted in cept designs (25).
six degrees of freedom moving forward at a fixed speed.
NavCad—Hydrocomp, Inc., United States—for resistance
Strip theory is typically used, with roll damping of ap-
and power predictions and optimum propeller determina-
pendages taken into account. Maneuvering with rudder is
tions.
calculated. Figure 13.5 shows a visualization of a seakeep-
ing analysis of a ship in oblique seas. GHS—Creative Systems, Inc., United States—for deter-
Noise: Airborne and waterborne noise levels are calcu- mination of ship hydrostatics, stability and longitudinal
lated for noise sources located in the ship. Effects of noise strength.
HICADEC-P—Hitachi Zosen, Japan, and Odense Steel

Shipyard, Denmark—used for pipe systems calculations,
such as pressure drop (12).
HFDS (Hull Form Design System)—United States Navy—
develops predictions for powering, seakeeping, maneuver-
ing and stack design through series data, parametrics and
computational fluid dynamics (15).
MARINE (Mitsubishi Advanced Real-time INitial design
and Engineering system)—Mitsubishi Heavy Industries,
Japan—Carries out initial design, naval architecture and
ship performance calculations to support rapid response of 13.6 Ship Weight Distribution Visualization
marketing and proposal efforts (12, 26).
MAESTRO—Optimal Structural Design, United States—
structural design, analysis and optimization program tai-
lored to stiffened thin skin structures of ships. 13.5.2 Typical Capabilities of Computer-Aided
NASTRAN—National Air and Space Administration (Orig- Synthesis Modeling
inal Version), United States—general purpose FEA pro- Computer-aided synthesis models range from the simple to
gram that may be used for ship structural analysis (12). the complex. Models have been developed to address a wide
range of naval and commercial ships and vessels, and a
POSEIDON—Germanischer Lloyd, Germany—software
number of models include iterative capabilities to optimize
to develop structural design from a rules-based or rational
results. Some synthesis models are initialized with a par-
(FEA) approach to aid in the classification process (27).
ent hull, while others consider trends of a number of hulls
SafeHull—American Bureau of Shipping, United States— of similar ship types. The models may address design, op-
rationally-based FEA program to verify yielding, buckling eration, and cost issues, as described below (33, 35):
and fatigue strength of ship structures (28, 29). Ship design: Ship design elements may include hull
geometry, hull subdivision, aviation support, deckhouse,
ShipWeight—BAS Engineering, Norway—estimates and
hull structure, appendages, resistance, powering, machin-
follows up (during construction or design changes) weight
ery, auxiliary systems, and weight (33).
and center of gravity of a vessel (30). A screen capture of
Ship operation: The following elements may be ad-
this program is shown as Figure 13.6.
dressed: cargo deadweight, cargo tank and hold capacities,
Weightprog—Germanischer Lloyd, Germany—estimates service speed, and voyage length and duration (33).
steel and light-ship weights (31). Cost information: Cost may be estimated for ship ma-
terials, shipyard production, and ship operation (33).
Examples of initial design programs include the following:
Vision (Virtual Integrated System for Shipbuilding Inno-
vation)—Was developed by NAMURA Shipbuilding of 13.5.3 Example Computer-Aided Synthesis Modeling
Japan to respond quickly to inquiries from shipowners (32). Programs
ASSET (Advanced Surface Ship Evaluation Tool)—United
States Naval Surface Warfare Center, Carderock Division—
13.5 COMPUTER-AIDED SYNTHESIS MODELING used in the exploratory and feasibility design phases of naval
surface ships (33).
13.5.1 General
PASS (Parametric Analysis of Ship Systems)—Band Lavis
Computer-aided synthesis modeling uses trends from ex-
Associates, United States—used to support ship and vessel
isting design data to approximate a design of a new vessel
synthesis designs (34).
or a modification to an existing vessel. This approach is
quick and inexpensive, and supports marketing, budgetary GCRMTC Ship Synthesis Model—Gulf Coast Regional
cost estimation, and initial production planning. Synthesis Maritime Technology Center/M. Rosenblatt & Sons—
modeling also provides a design baseline for preliminary iterates parent hull forms to generate design and cost esti-
design. mates (35).
Commercial Ship Design Synthesis Model—University robot motion planning data (torch orientation and adapta-
of Michigan, United States—used for ship design and option techniques to avoid interferences and manufacturing in-
erating economics (36). accuracies).
Production management support: Cutting, welding, ma-
terial control, fabrication and erection processes may be
13.6 COMPUTER-AIDED MANUFACTURING simulated, tracked, documented and monitored on interac-
tive screen displays and in batch print-outs. Included may
13.6.1 General be what-if studies of part or all of the ship construction
Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) programs help process. Also, data on production, cost and quality assur-
bridge the gap between ship design and construction. CAM ance may be collected and statistically analyzed. Data may
programs develop data for use in areas such as welding, cut- be exchanged with planning and technical programs to im-
ting, lifting, bending, forming, planning, and monitoring. prove production processes.
Lifting planning: Calculates lifting and rigging require-
ments for structural assemblies so that the assemblies may
13.6.2 Typical Capabilities of CAM Systems be properly sized to be within the capabilities of a ship-
CAM systems have some or all of the following capabili- yard’s cranes and other lifting devices.
ties (6,7,12,23,37-41): Paint design and monitoring: Planning for automated
Accounting for weld shrinkage: Automatic calculations painting, including coating definition by surface to be
are made (and avoidance instructions may be developed) painted and prediction of coverage over the item to be
for angular distortion and buckling of plates (especially thin painted.
plates, 10 mm) caused by gas cutting and by welding stiff- Part coding and Hierarchy: Assigns numbers to piece
eners and other structure to a plate. Traditionally, calcula- parts, and often links parts, subassemblies, assemblies, etc.,
tions have been empirical, based on experiments; more in a hierarchical fashion.
recently, numerical techniques have been introduced. Weld Nesting: Arrangement on gross plates for cutting of plate
shrinkage is characterized as in-plane distortion, and is a shapes may be made, along with the definition of NC cut-
critical element in a shipyard attaining the capability for ting paths. Similar capabilities may be present for arrang-
neat cut fabrication techniques. Out-of-plane distortion may ing and cutting profiles and pipe.
occur as well as in-plane distortion. Out-of-plane distortion Plate and profile forming: Data may be generated to
is commonly corrected by flame straightening and me- form curved plate. The data gives the pin heights of the jig
chanical rework. The out-of-plane distortion as well as the bed, together with a graphic illustration of the plate posi-
corrective measures may exacerbate the in-plane distortion tion and reference dimensions for checking purposes. In a
and contribute to weld shrinkage of a plate (1). like manner, data may be generated for bending templates
Dimensional control: Important dimensions for hull and for plates and profiles.
outfit interfaces are monitored with technologies such as Pipe bending: Data may be generated to bend pipes,
infrared and photogrammetry. allow for spring-back, and define positioning of hangers
Interface between product model and robots: Data in- and end fittings. The data may be NC, to feed directly to
volving geometry, welding, cutting, assembly, testing and automatic bending machines, or in the form of isometrics
painting are transmitted from the product model to open ar- and sketches that include material, dimensional and toler-
chitecture controllers that develop robot path programs. ance information.
Commonly, robot functions are simulated in a computer for Cable lengths: Data may be generated to define cable
refinement prior to actual production. lengths and cable installation work orders.
Robotic programming: Programming may be off-line
programming (OLP) and may be agent based. The pro-
gramming is designed so that the robot avoids collisions, 13.6.3 Examples of CAM Programs
gains access to weld locations and optimizes tool (for ex- Presently operating CAM programs include the following:
ample, welding torch) orientation. For repeated details, such
AMROSE (Autonomous Multiple Robot Operation in
as collars, a macro may be developed; each time the detail
Structured Environments)—Odense University and Odense
is called for, the macro is used. Needs for automatic robotic
Steel Shipyard Ltd., Denmark—off-line programming sys-
programming include geometric information (definition of
tem for welding robots (41).
ship structural surfaces and interfaces), welding data (weld
size, filler metal type, direction and order of welding), and CIPS 2000—Norddeutsche Informations-Systeme GmbH,
Germany—rule-based system for manufacturing of piping 13.7 PRODUCT MODEL PROGRAMS

systems (12).
13.7.1 General
DINCOS—Norddeutsche Informations-Systeme GmbH, A product model program supports the analysis and infor-
Germany—links product design, production and produc- mational needs for the engineering, design, construction
tion planning (42). and maintenance of a ship. The product model database
HICADEC-H—Hitachi Zosen, Japan, and Odense Steel contains geometric information such as hull form definition,
Shipyard, Denmark. nesting, as well as parts naming (12). and non-geometric information such as equipment weights.
The information is contained in a central database and is
LASC—Hitachi Zosen, Japan—provides an analysis of the available as graphical displays, hardcopy printouts, and as
paint spray created by nozzles placed in 3D space. May also electronic files for use by NC production equipment. The
be used to check the effectiveness of tank cleaning arrange- database provides a single source for complete, updated and
ments (12). consistent information to all involved in the design and pro-
duction processes (46,47).
Lead Control—Norddeutsche Informations-Systeme Early versions of this concept were usually tailored to a
GmbH, Germany—a shop floor system for controlling pro- specific project and were not broadly enough based to ad-
duction equipment, such as robots, transportation systems dress the general integration of design data and process in-
and NC machines (12). formation that together define a ship. More modern versions
LIPSS—Hitachi Zosen, Japan—simulates the lifting of as- of the concept are tailored to ship design and construction,
semblies and arrangement of lifting pads, considering stan- yet are general enough to be used for different ship proj-
dard crane rigging components, such as spreader beams and ects (48).
variable length cables. Blocks’ weights and centers are cal- An important aspect of product model programs, is their
culated (12,43). three dimensionality, as shown in Figure 13.7. Traditional
ship design is carried out in 2D in the preliminary stages
MONMOS—Odense Steel Shipyard, Denmark—carries and extended to 3D in the detailed stages. The extension
out dimensional control using infrared technology (12). from 2D to 3D results in a large expenditure in time and
labor (49). Product models enable the designer to either
NC-Pyros Pro—Albacore Research, Canada—converts
begin in 3D or to easily progress from 2D to 3D, realizing
CAD drawings to NC code for 2D burning tables (13).
savings over the traditional approach.
PROHITS (Production-Oriented Hull Information Tech- Product model programs make possible an integrated
nology System)—Daewoo Shipyard, Korea—supports parts
hierarchy, material control, bills of material, nesting and
quality control (44).
PMS (Product Management System)—Mitsubishi Heavy
Industries, Japan—Used for planning, scheduling and track-
ing subassembly and block progress and labor loading in
the shops with plan views and Gantt charts (12).
ROB-IN—Odense Steel Shipyard, Denmark—uses data
from product model to generate NC instructions for robots
(for example, for flat panel welding robots)(12).
RoboPlan—Norddeutsche Informations-Systeme GmbH,
Germany—off-line programming system for welding ro-
bots (12,40,45).
ShipCAM—Albacore Research, Canada—pin jigs, inverse
bending curves, and shell plate development (13).
TOPOS—Hitachi Zosen, Japan—provides for viewing of
an assembly to be coated with paint and the definition of
the paint coating for each surface (12). 13.7 Steelwork Graphical Display from a Product Model Program
approach to ship design and construction within a multi-user Graphical user interface with consistent format: In-
environment. This integration is that existing within the cluded may be features such as:
product model program (not the integration among differ-
• multi-window graphic system with user-controlled zoom
ent product model programs, which is discussed elsewhere
functions for each window,
in this chapter) and implies elements such as the following
• ability to reproduce previous session activities and com-
(5,50):
mands through journal files, and
• the designer works in a fully interactive 3D graphic en- • look and functionality of the graphical user interface is
vironment, consistent among all modules of a program.
• information about hull form, decks and bulkheads is al-
Topological (associative) relationships among compo-
ways available to all designers using the product model,
nents: Logical connections are present among related ele-
• a designer working in a zone or block of the ship has
ments in the hull. With topology, a change to one element
available the information of other zones or blocks (con-
(for example, ship beam) automatically generates changes
tiguous or not),
to related elements (for example, width of decks). This ap-
• outfitting designers in a zone use the last updated infor-
proach increases the ease by which designers can make
mation of the hull structure, available in the product
changes to a design. In the area of outfitting, the change of
model database, and
a pipeline diameter will result in proportional updates to all
• automatic references to the hull, decks, bulkheads, and
individual pipe segments, flanges, valves and other com-
frame system or to any ship part can be obtained when
ponents in the pipeline, all through a single command. By
generating drawings for production (for example, plan
using approaches such as topology and parametrics instead
drawings, pipe isometrics and perspective drawings).
of pure geometry representation, the ship may be modeled
The product model approach enables designers to use in a very compact form, saving database storage space.
the same model of a ship, from the earliest stages of design Topological modeling may be used in hull structure defini-
all the way to production, helping to maximize consistency tions to facilitate design alterations and new product de-
of data throughout the design process. Advantages of prod- velopment based on derivatives from previous designs.
uct models include: decreased design hours, reduced lead Macros: Small software routines may be provided to
time, increased productivity, early detection of interfer- carry out common, repetitive tasks in the design process.
ences, ease in making changes, a drastic reduction of in- Parametric definitions: Cutouts, brackets, lightening
formation errors, a primary source of design information, holes and the like are defined by means of set dimensions
and the availability of production-oriented data. This tech- and angles (for example, a U-shaped cutout may be defined
nology may include expert systems and artificial intelli- by the radius of the curved section and the height of the
gence (48,51,52). straight section; thus, the cutout is completely specified by
two numbers).
Open data structure: An open data structure allows for
13.7.2 Typical Capabilities of Product Model Programs data retrieval to support add-on programs, such as numer-
ically controlled cutting and bending; purchasing; material
Product model programs have some or all of the following
handling and tracking; robotic interfacing; development of
capabilities (5,12,18,53-56):
build strategy; and project management.
Single integrated database: The product model database
Generation of structural penetrations: Piping and stiff-
is common to all modules that make up the program and is
ener penetrations through structural plate and profiles are
thus shared by all modules; there is no need for data con-
automatically generated based on standards resident in a li-
version between modules. Each piece of data is represented
brary (see also, Libraries below).
in one place in the database. Other features of a single data-
Visualization of geometric model: The ship hull and out-
base may include:
fit geometry may be viewed in 3D, with the capability for
• simultaneous access of users and control of access au- the viewer to rotate, scale, change shading, zoom, and
thorization, change viewer position.
• integration of hull and outfit, Build strategy: Assembly information is assigned in a hi-
• automatic maintenance of information consistency and erarchical fashion to parts, subassemblies, assemblies and
cross references, blocks (and other intermediate structures) to enable visu-
• control of information integrity, and alization and construction sequence planning.
• integrated design and production planning. Generation of drawings: Based on the product model
database, drawings are generated and printed on various Structural shape and piping attributes may include def-
sizes of paper for structure and outfit in the form of 2D, 3D initions of bending contours and of end treatments, such as:
and isometric drawings. Drawings may show the complete Hull/outfit integration: Integration is present between
ship or separate elements, such as structural assemblies and the hull and outfit portions of the product model as shown
pipe spools. Included is the ability for the user to tailor for- in Figure 13.9.
mats to include information such as stiffener end cuts, drain Interference checking: Interferences of structure and out-
holes, pipe bending information and orientation of welded fitting elements are checked; either real time or batch, and
flanges on pipes (following the bending operation). descriptive warnings are provided to the user. This capability
Nesting: Plate, profiles and pipe may be nested, and NC may also be used to notify the user of manufacturing short-
cutting instructions may be generated for transmission to comings of the design. For example, in the design of a pip-
NC cutting equipment. ing spool, a warning may inform the user that there is
Bill of materials: Bills of materials are automatically insufficient straight length of pipe at each side of a bend to
generated for structure and outfit as the design progresses. permit clamping the pipe in the bending machine.
Walkthrough: A simulated 3D walkthrough may be car- CAD/CAM Capabilities: Product models commonly in-
ried out, in which the viewer moves through the product clude the types of capabilities found in CAD and (to a more
model to, for example, check interior spaces such as pas- limited extent) CAM programs, such as developing struc-
sageways and engine rooms to ensure sufficient maintenance tural and outfitting arrangements, designing distributed sys-
clearance is available (Figure 13.8). This is a graphics- tems, carrying out naval architectural calculations, and
intensive capability. providing input to drive NC cutting machines.
Part data: Each part may have associated with it data Multi-User Capabilities: Product model programs may
such as weight, material type and quality, marking lengths, support design-build teams whose members are located at
ship construction block number, shaping flags, cutting different geographical sites.
lengths and parameters for profile end cuts and geometry. Features may include:
This capability is also known as attribute information.
• ability to carry out concurrent development of designs,
Libraries: Located in the database may be libraries of
and
structural plates and shapes; weld types; parts (standard and
• conferencing, with communication through text, audio
parametric); and outfitting components, all with attributes
and video.
such as material type and dimensions, including space for
operation/maintenance/repair in place. Outfitting compo- Production support: Standard methods may be generated
nents may include additional attributes such as power rat- for cutting, bending and fabricating profile and plate parts,
ings for motors and flow ratings for pumps. tailored to the shipyard’s capabilities. The resulting data,
for individual piece parts and assemblies, may be trans-
mitted to automated and robotic production equipment such
as cutters, welders and benders.
Figure 13.8 Simulated Walkthrough in a Ship’s Generator Room Figure 13.9 Example of Integrated 3D Model of Hull and Outfit
13.7.3 Examples of Product Model Programs construction, including design, engineering, testing, pro-
Presently operating and under-development product model duction planning and production control, all using a com-
programs include the following: mon database. The most advanced shipyards today operate
in an interfaced, but not totally integrated, CIM environment.
CATIA/CADAM—Dassault Systemés (developer— A major objective of CIM is to minimize redundant oper-
France), IBM (distributor—United States) (54). ations within and between computer programs, particularly
CSDP (Computerized Ship Design and Production Sys- with regard to manual data input (7,46,65,66).
tem)—Korean Research Institute of Ships and Ocean En- Particular goals of CIM include the following (67):
gineering, Korea (56). • flexibility to support multiple product lines (for exam-
EPD (Electronic Product Definition) Computervision Cor- ple, tankers as well as containerships),
poration, United States (12,53). • support of small-lot as well as series production runs,
• reduction of production lead-time,
FORAN—SENER Ingenieria y Sistemas, S.A., Spain
• fast processing of information to help enhance design,
GODDESS (GOvernment Defence DEsign of Ships and production and administration efficiency,
Submarines)—Ministry of Defence, United Kingdom (58) • minimization of inventory levels, and
HICADEC—Hitachi Zosen Corporation (Japan) and • quality improvement, leading to techniques such as neat
Odense Steel Shipyard (Denmark) (12). fit-up of assemblies and blocks.
GSCAD (Global Shipbuilding Computer Aided Design)— During the introduction of CIM within a shipyard, it is
Intergraph Corporation and the Global Research and De- recommended that the yard focuses on one or two of the
velopment Company, Inc. (GRAD) international consortium goals, and then expands in steps to the others.
(59). Although the concept of CIM has been around for some
time, its successful implementation in shipyards only re-
MATES (Mitsubishi Advanced Total Engineering system cently has become practical, based on computer capabili-
of Ships)—Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Japan (26). ties. Problems associated with successful implementation
NAPA (the Naval Architectural Package)—Napa Oy, Ltd., of CIM in a shipyard may include the following (67,68):
Finland (51)
Conflicting definition of CIM: Different parts of the or-
NUPAS-CADMATIC—Numeriek Centrum Groningen
ganization may view CIM in different ways, resulting in a
B.V., (Netherlands) and Cadmatic Oy (Finland) (3,60,61).
lack of coordination and misunderstandings.
PHI (Product Model by Hitachi Zosen)—Hitachi Zosen Indiscriminate copying of other CIM systems: The se-
Ariake Works, Japan (62). lected CIM system may work well for another shipyard or
PROMOS (PROduct Model of Odense Shipyard—Odense within another industry, but important technical and cul-
Steel Shipyard Ltd., Denmark (63). tural elements particular to the implementing shipyard are
not considered.
Pro/ENGINEER Shipbuilding Solutions—PTC, United Misunderstanding the CIM system: For example, the se-
States. lected CIM hardware and software may be inadequate or
TRIBON M1—Tribon Solutions, Sweden (64). inappropriate to the particular shipyard environment. Also,
shipyards may not set progressive goals, but attempt to at-
These programs are representative of today’s state-of- tain all possible CIM benefits simultaneously. Careful plan-
the art in the product model approach. The programs, or at ning and balance are parts of a successful implementation
least the modules which comprise the programs, have been of CIM.
developed over a period of years and are still being im- Omitting consideration of human factors: The mix of
proved (48). worker skills is different in a CIM environment than in a
traditional shipyard environment. Workers in a CIM ship-
yard are not cogs performing well-defined, unchanging,
13.8 COMPUTER-INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING repetitive tasks but rather must be flexible in their approach
to shipbuilding and must possess advanced skills in prob-
13.8.1 General lem solving and interactions with other workers.
Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM), is an integra- Omitting consideration of shipyard organization: An-
tion of all data processing that supports ship design and other way to state this problem is too much attention placed
on the CIM hardware and software and not enough on the ning and detailed resource and workshop planning. Expert
organization. Shipyards often do not consider changing processes may be introduced, which can (70):
their management-worker organization. The traditional steep
• reduce the skill level demanded of a planner,
hierarchical organization is often ineffective in the envi-
• reduce planning time, and
ronment of advanced manufacturing processes, where rapid
• simulate the production sequence.
change is the norm. Better suited are flatter organizations
in which members adaptively form virtual teams to address In this case, knowledge needed to carry out production
problems as they arise. planning manually, such as production rules, would be con-
Omitting process improvements: Shipyards may not un- tained in the expert process program:
derstand that the successful adaptation of CIM must include Production Automation: Automation through produc-
an improvement of shipbuilding processes. All design and tion-oriented data that is used in automated process equip-
production processes should be reviewed, then changed, ment, including robots for processes such as cutting, welding
deleted or added to in order to best function within the CIM and painting.
system. Purchasing: Regarding vendors, ship material and equip-
ment specifications and purchase orders may be directly
transmitted between yard and vendor. In addition, initia-
13.8.2 Typical Capabilities of CIM Systems tives are being carried out with an aim to improve ship-
CIM systems have some or all of the following capabilities yard/vendor communications (see below) and to establish
(7,12,66): strategic relationships. Such supply chain integration has
Integration: The hallmark of CIM is a high level of com- been extremely successful in the automotive industry and
munication and information management within and be- steps are being taken in this direction by the United States
tween technical and administrative programs and aircraft industry. Potential payoffs include cost reduction and
maintaining the information on a common database. shorter cycle times (71,72).
Management: Management is enhanced through in- Data States: Data states may be associated with each
creased capabilities in communication, tracking and re- part or component in a ship during the course of a project.
porting, within the shipyard and with customers, regulatory During design, the data state may move from conceived, to
bodies and vendors. decided (by designer) to broadcast (for review), to approved
Material Control: This applies to hull and outfit, at all (by project management). Once approved, the data state
stages of design and production, and may include procure- may be on hold, or it may progress to planned (purchase
ment and inventory control and marking (for example, bar and installation), to implemented (installed), to tested, and
codes) (23). finally, to as-built.
Scheduling: Schedules may be developed and modeled
for overall ship construction purposes, management track- 13.8.3 Examples of CIM Programs
ing and shop floor use. Graphical presentation is typical. By
Typically, CIM programs comprise interfaced combinations
using the CIM context, scheduling may be made more ef-
of stand-alone programs. Examples of such programs in-
ficient than when it is carried out as a separate function. For
clude interfaced combinations of programs described in pre-
example (69):
ceding sections as well as the following:
• information necessary for design and process planning
MHI’s CIM—Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd., Japan—
is likely to be acquired at an earlier stage of design as
an interfaced combination of MARINE, selected CAE sys-
compared with a non-CIM system. Thus, the size of the
tems, MATES, Factory Automation/Robotics systems,
workload can be grasped earlier,
DAVID, and Production Management System (26).
• possible differences among the scheduling for different
terms, such as that between the long and medium terms, SUMIRE—Sumitomo Heavy Industries, Ltd., Japan—an
can be more easily adjusted, and interfaced combination of conventional CAE systems,
• scheduling can be more accurately carried out in a Dem- SUMIRE-VPS, Basic Design System, Steel Material Pro-
ing plan-do-check cycle in controlling the performance curement System, SUMIRE-H, CAM systems, SUMIRE-
of work. F, Production Planning System, and Fittings and Equipment
Procurement System (73).
Production Planning: Included is consideration of time,
resources, cost estimation, shop areas, and tracking by trade. MACISS (Mitsui Advanced Computer Integrated Ship-
Presentations may be graphical, especially for activity plan- building System)—Mitsui Engineering and Shipbuilding
Co., Ltd., Japan—addresses hull design, outfitting design, 11. build strategy: Development of section, unit and block
assembly procedures, scheduling of jobs, process control divisions; set-up of sequence of operations for fabrica-
and distribution control of parts and components (74). tion and erection; development of detailed piece part
and subassembly diagrams; production of preliminary
IHI’s CIM—Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries Co.,
build schedule.
Ltd., Japan—composed of four major subsystems: AJISAI
12. quality program: Development of quality specifications
(Advanced Jointless Information System by Assimilation
in the form of a manual and recording of accuracy in-
and Inheritance), PE (Production Engineering), KLEAN
formation during construction.
(Kure LEAN production scheduling) and the FA (produc-
13. high-level scheduling: Development of a milestone
tion data information system for Factory Automation) (75).
schedule to support the contract delivery date of the
An ambitious example of a CIM system is the effort ship within the constraints of the shipyard facility (man-
begun in fiscal 1989 and carried out by seven Japanese ship- ufacturing resources).
builders through the Shipbuilders Association of Japan, the 14. short-term scheduling: For time spans between one day
Shipbuilding Research Association of Japan and the Ship and one week, at the level of individual persons and in-
and Ocean Foundation. This project is aimed at developing dividual NC machines. Feedback is provided, based on
a General Product Model Environment (GPME) and then actual production progress, and this is fed to the high-
advanced CIM. The GPME system specification (called a level schedule.
frame model) covers 15 application systems (5,12,65,76): 15. material control and tracking: Defines material needs
and provides reports, and tracks material from arrival
1. fabrication production management: Uses rule-based at the warehouse to process and assembly areas.
techniques and historical production data to develop
construction, erection and fabrication schedules. The GPME is viewed by its developers, not simply as a
2. design management: Develops and tracks the design computerized way to carry out business using today’s
development schedule, ensuring that designs are pro- processes, but rather the introduction of fundamentally new
duced in a timely manner in order to support produc- processes. This in turn reflects on the GPME program re-
tion. quirements, which must be tailored with the new processes
3. project information: Development of plans and arrange- in mind. This is of course an interactive effort of refining
ments drawings. An automated approach is used so that the program and the processes, which those programs sup-
changes may be incorporated easily. port.
4. resistance and powering: Resistance and powering cal-
culations based on initial hull values with updated cal-
culations to reflect design changes.
13.9 COMPUTER SYSTEMS INTEGRATION
5. hull structural design: Structural calculations of the
hull, including the midship structural materials and 13.9.1 General
structural parts. While CIM addresses integration from the perspective of
6. outfitting equipment listing: All ship’s outfit from the the individual shipyard, integration is also of great value be-
contract specification. tween different organizations and between different com-
7. outfitting Equipment Arrangement: The arrangement puter systems. For example, design and production efficiency
of all ship’s outfit, including working spaces, engine will be enhanced if there is a high degree of integration
room and accommodations. Develops equipment bill of among members of organizations that join together to carry
materials for use by purchasing. At the system level, a out a large or complex project. Members may include ship-
rule-driven feature assists the design process. yards, suppliers, classification societies and owners. This
8. distributed systems design: Distributed systems (for ex- inter-organizational integration is made immeasurably eas-
ample, duct, cabling and piping) design, based on ma- ier if there are interfaces among the computer systems of the
chinery arrangement and hull size. Assembly various member organizations.
information is produced for piping and ducting. There are different levels of integration:
9. painting design: Structure and outfit painting design Manual integration: The results of one program (for ex-
(dry film thickness, number of layers and paint name). ample, CAD drawings) must be keypunched to another pro-
10. steel plate processing: Definition of type and quantity gram (for example, bill of materials). In reality, this is “no
of steel plate, and development of NC and robot infor- integration.”
mation for cutting and shaping. Module Integration: Various modules of a program share
data with one another. For example, hull form data is com- for the specific programs and not intended as general stan-
municated to the module that calculates ship stability. User dards for data exchange.
interfaces may differ from module to module, and com- There is also a need for a neutral robot programming lan-
monly this type of integration cannot support combining guage. Presently, each robot vendor has it’s own language.
results from among the various modules to make a unified Progress in this area appears less active than in the CAD/
presentation. A program with this level of integration is CAM area (7).
sometimes characterized as an interfaced system rather than The development of interfaces among computer pro-
an integrated system. Typically, each module has its own grams must, in the long run, be based on standards. Devel-
database, oping standards in an internationally competitive industry
Product model integration: A more advanced level of in- such as shipbuilding is a sometimes-controversial process.
tegration is by means of a product model, a detailed, 3D de- There are numerous advantages to using standards for data
scription of the ship and its major systems. The product exchange, including increased speed, fewer errors, and a
model has a common database that is shared by all the mod- resultant reduction in design labor and procurement costs.
ules; that is, there is no need for data conversion among the Also, standards enable the user to select best in class soft-
modules. ware for each step in the design process. Disadvantages in-
Enterprise integration: More advanced yet is integra- clude a potential for widespread problems if there are defects
tion of not only the design, engineering and construction in the standards, restricting software innovation that extends
aspects encompassed within the product model program, but beyond the scope of the standards, and limiting the user to
programs addressing shipyard management and third par- the lowest common denominator features among the pro-
ties. Enterprise integration may focus on a single shipyard grams being linked (8).
(as with CIM) or may extend to several shipyards and their The present trend in the shipbuilding industry is toward
associated vendors, customers and regulatory organizations. further international standardization, mainly because of the
In the end, integration necessitates linking multiple data- international nature of the industry. This trend is not only
bases. This is frequently quite challenging. At least eight evident in the highly industrialized shipbuilding nations,
semantic inconsistencies may arise between data in multi- but also in the emerging Chinese yards, where international
ple databa ses (77), standards are credited as a very important factor in suc-
cessful international market penetration and as a vehicle for
1. name conflicts,
increasing yard efficiency (9).
2. data type/representation conflicts,
3. primary/alternate key conflicts,
4. referential integrity behavior conflicts, 13.9.3 Examples of Computer Systems Integration
5. missing data and null values, Initiatives
6. level of abstraction,
Examples of computer systems integration initiatives in-
7. identification of related concepts, and
clude the following:
8. scaling conflicts.
CALS Technological Research Association—Seven
Further discussion is presented in the following sections Japanese shipyards, the classification society NK, and the
regarding computer integration in the shipbuilding indus- ship owner NYK—A massive initiative aimed at setting up
try and progress to date. an electronic web, using the Internet, for exchanging ship-
building data, especially relating to product models (52).
NIDDESC (Navy Industry Digital Data Exchange Stan-
13.9.2 Interfaces Among Programs dards Committee)—A United States Navy and United States
The need to communicate among programs is a traditional marine industry working group, NIDDESC has been work-
need of users. However, even though the international coming on product model standards since 1986. It has devel-
munity has been devoting efforts to develop standards for oped proposed standards for ship structure, ship piping, ship
communication, achievements to date have generally been ventilation, ship cabling and wireways, and ship outfitting
limited to the exchange of 2D and 3D graphical data with and furnishings. NIDDESC is the UNITED STATES coor-
associated text, characteristic of CAD drawings. For ex- dinating body for STEP (80).
ample, geometric and graphics data is commonly trans- STEP (Standard For the Exchange of Product Model
ferred in IGES or DAT standards (78,79). Data (STEP ISO 10303)—This is an application-specific
A number of proprietary (non-standard) interfaces have neutral file for representing and exchanging product model
been developed, both one- and two-way, between programs, data. STEP is being developed under the auspices of ISO
including product models. These are limited in nature, meant (International Standards Organization). The goal of STEP
is to develop standards, called application protocols (APs). (United Kingdom), MARIN (Netherlands), Det Norske Ver-
In 1993, a cooperative effort between NIDDESC (for the itas (Norway), and Instituto Superior Tecnico (Portugal)—
United States) and NEUTRABAS and MARITIME (for Eu- Building on the results of previous projects, such as
rope) was initiated. The effort resulted in approval by ISO NEUTRABAS, MARITIME, Shipstep and Kactus, this proj-
to develop five application protocols for ship product model ect aims to develop a complete product model, define the in-
data exchange. These five are: formation requirements for a data exchange and management
architecture, and integrate the STEP product model appli-
AP 215 – Ship Arrangements,
cation protocols. It is to provide European shipbuilders and
AP 216 – Ship Molded Forms,
their associates with a way to facilitate the reuse and mi-
AP 218 – Ship Structure, and
gration of data throughout the ship life cycle (82,89,90).
AP 227 – Plant Spatial Configuration (Piping, HVAC, and
MariSTEP—A team composed of United States mem-
Cableways).
bers Avondale Industries, Bath Iron Works, Electric Boat
Possible future APs will address mission systems, out- Corporation, Computervision Corporation (since purchased
fitting and furnishings. Each AP specifies the scope, con- by PTC), Ingalls Shipbuilding, Newport News Shipbuild-
text, information requirements, representation of the ing, the University of Michigan Transportation Research
application information, and conformance requirements. Institute and the Swedish company Kockums Computer
STEP goes beyond the Initial Graphics Exchange Specifi- Systems (now Tribon Solutions). This is a United States
cation (IGES) by defining the processes, information flows MARITECH project undertaken to implement product
and functional requirements of an application. The defini- model data exchange capabilities among United States ship-
tion and development of a STEP AP includes thoroughly yards through a neutral file approach and to develop a United
documenting the information requirements and processes States marine industry prototype product model database
which support the application, understanding in detail the (PMDB). The PMDB is to facilitate the implementation of
CAD and CAM systems, and developing a consensus within translators and product model data architecture by United
ISO. After acceptance, the ISO Central Secretariat handles States shipyards and CAD system developers (83,91).
publication. (10,58,79,81,85). Manufacturers’ Technical Information—The Marine
ESTEP (Evolution of STEP)—A team made up of Machinery Association and the United States Maritime Ad-
American Bureau of Shipping; Atlantec Enterprise Solu- ministration with assistance from the MARITECH program
tions; Electric Boat Corporation; Intergraph Government are developing methods of electronic commerce that will allow
Solutions, Intergraph Corporation; STEP Tools; Ingalls manufacturers to present technical information, prices and
Shipbuilding; Litton Ship Systems Full Service Center; M. availability to the customer via computer. The project aims to:
Information Engineering; and Naval Surface Warfare Cen-
• revise the standards of marine information,
ter, Carderock Division—ESTEP is a task within ISE (see
• develop a standard technical information system,
below) building upon the work of the MariSTEP consor-
• create electronic vendor catalogs, and
tium and the NIDDESC standards development efforts. The
• research and improve electronic communication for the
purpose of ESTEP is to validate product model standards
marine industry.
for the shipbuilding industry, implement product model data
translators, and to further the development of shipbuilding Information is to be made available first on CD-ROM
APs 216 (Moulded Forms), 218 (Ship Structure), and 227 and then on the Internet (89).
(Plant Spatial Configuration) (86). MARIS (Maritime Information Society), co-lead by the
EMSA (European Maritime STEP Association)—A European Commission and Canada, is an organization de-
group of ship yards, software vendors, classification soci- signed to keep the international shipping industry updated
eties, ship owners, model basins and research institutes that (92). The major objectives of MARIS are to:
is promoting and supporting technical development, de-
• establish a worldwide maritime information system,
ployment and industrial use of STEP within the European
• promote the operability and connectivity of existing in-
maritime sector (87,88).
formation systems worldwide,
SEASPRITE (Software Architectures for Ship Product
• demonstrate the possible benefits of maritime informa-
Data Integration & Exchange)—A consortium that includes
tion technology, and
Lloyd’s Register (United Kingdom), British Maritime Tech-
• support the worldwide standardization in the maritime
nology (United Kingdom), Kockums Computer Systems
sector.
(now Tribon Solutions)(Sweden), Napa Oy (Finland), SIN-
TEF (Norway), Odense Steel Shipyard (Denmark), Kvaerner ISE (Integrated Shipbuilding Environment)—A multi-
Group (Norway), Vickers Shipbuilding & Engineering year program carried out by a team of shipyards, design
firms, a classification society, and academia. It is a National based. In other words, the technology of the computer-based
Shipbuilding Research Program (NSRP) Advanced Ship- tools must align with the business objectives of the organ-
building Enterprise (ASE) partnership between government ization (95).
and industry. ISE is focused on the development and vali- Thus, a selection methodology is needed. The details
dation of integrated product and process models to integrate will vary by organization and by the type of programs being
the efforts of shipyard, designer, shipowner, marine supply purchased. In general, the steps are as follows (see Figure
chain, and classification society. ISE builds upon the les- 13.10) (5,7,95):
sons learned in previous MARITECH programs, including
1. Conduct business assessment: The real objective of the
COMPASS and FIRST (93).
organization is business results, so the organization’s
SHIIP (Shipbuilding Information Infrastructure Pro-
goals are first defined. This is commonly a task of top
ject)—This is another multi-company NSRP ASE partner-
management and the results are stated in the form of a
ship between government and industry. This shipyard
strategic plan, considering elements such as the follow-
initiative has the goal of supporting the integration of sys-
ing:
tems technologies within the U.S. shipbuilding industry
through standards based protocols (94). • market leadership goals,
• strategic direction of the organization,
• planned response to market needs,
13.10 COMPUTER IMPLEMENTATION • costs of implementing the programs,
• design and construction processes within the organiza-
13.10.1 General tion,
Computer implementation involves two important deci- • relationships with suppliers and vendors, and
sions: • relationships with customers.
1. whether to use computer based tools, and, if it is decided 2. Define new processes: New process or variations of ex-
to use computer based tools, and isting processes will be necessary as a result of the new
2. which tools to use. direction defined in Step 1. Old processes, even with
new tools, will yield old results, or at best, less than op-
To use or not to use computers, and to what extent, com- timum results. A clear understanding of the needed or-
monly involves a step into unknown territory and raises se- ganizational changes is essential. It has been noted that
rious financial, organizational and corporate culture concerns. the same programs will lead to different results if intro-
The process can feel threatening. duced into different organizational environments, and
Fortunately, more and more examples exist of shipyards for success, substantial departmental changes may be
successfully implementing computer-based tools. Indeed, necessary (41). Thus, the affected parts of the shipyard
the trend is progressing from the large yards, which have must be reorganized to meet the challenges of the new
had some sort of computer-based tools for decades, to mid- situation, with new problems, new focuses and new so-
size and even small yards. However, computer tools and ca- lutions. External consultants commonly are needed to
pabilities are always changing. As the programs and guide this process of reorganization at the planning and
hardware change, the yards must change, if they are to re- implementation stages.
main competitive on the world market. The challenge of
dealing with change is not a one-time event but rather a
process itself. In the traditionally conservative shipbuilding
industry, this is a serious challenge.
1. Conduct business assessment
⇓
13.10.2 Program Selection 2. Define new process
Each shipyard or design firm that considers purchasing new ⇓
computer based tools or upgrading those tools already in 3. Identify priorities
place will make decisions that will determine, among other ⇓
things, the level of sophistication of the programs; the costs 4. Select requirements
of purchasing and maintaining the programs; user training; ⇓
and whether certain design and construction processes must 5. Select program
be changed. Ultimately, the decisions must be business Figure 13.10 Selection Methodology
It is important to define the whole project as coop- quired to tune the system and the organization to best po-
eration among all personnel in the organization, from tential. An implementation period is required, and its length
shop floor operators to top management. This will result and cost should not be underestimated (5,7).
in an atmosphere of shared ownership and help in gain- Finally, the new computer programs must be managed.
ing acceptance of the new situation and minimize re- Usually there are opportunities for improving a process or
sistance to necessary changes. Communication is improving the program to enhance its value to the organi-
essential. In addition, worker motivation and education zation. Owning and using all but the simplest computer
must be addressed. based tools is an ongoing process of refinement.
3. Identify priorities: Identify problem areas in design and
construction processes. Eliminating or alleviating those
problem areas will remove constraints from processes 13.10.3 Selecting Requirements for a CAD/CAM/CIM
and improve efficiency. Program
4. Select requirements: Select appropriate requirements Selecting requirements (Step 4 of the selection process de-
that will address the priorities of Step 3. Requirements scribed in the preceding section) is deciding “what” the
for a CAD program will be different from those of a computer system must be capable of doing for a particular
product model program; thus, the requirements must be organization. It is tempting to skip Step 4 and proceed di-
tailored to the needs of the organization within the con- rectly to Step 5 and review candidate computer programs.
text of the computer-aided tools under consideration. However, selecting programs prior to deciding exactly what
5. Select program: Using the requirements of Step 4 as a is required can result in confusion and increase the proba-
guide, a survey of available programs is carried out and bility of purchasing a system that will not prove to be sat-
the best program is selected. An alternative is to use the isfactory. This said, selecting requirements is a daunting
requirements of Step 4 as the basis for in-house devel- task. The following paragraphs attempt to make the task at
opment of a program. For any but the simplest program, least practical by outlining a requirement selection process.
this is usually not a wise option because of the high de- First, a word about the definition of requirements. Re-
velopmental costs of programs. quirements are not to be thought of as comprising modules
of, for example, a product model program. Rather, re-
Again, the selection methodology is business driven and quirements should be thought of as features, which are to
not technology driven. Organizations may be tempted to be found within a program.
purchase new programs without thinking through the im- Again, the requirements do not tell how to design the
plications at the business level. program, they simply state the needs the software must ful-
In conjunction with this selection methodology, organ- fill: what the program must be capable of doing. Thus, var-
izations are well advised to ensure that the expectations of ious programs may exist, each of which may meet the
affected personnel are realistic. Changes in processes mean requirements, but in different ways. In many cases there is
that changes in behavior and organization are often neces- not a right solution, but several candidates, each with
sary. For example, product model programs may eliminate strengths and weaknesses.
the need for a lofting department. Loftsmen may find them- As part of a National Shipbuilding Research Program
selves part of a design team or they may be shifted to pro- Project, a set of requirements was developed for a future-
duction. oriented product model program (5). The requirements were
In either new role, the experience gained in the lofting organized to be consistent with United States shipyard typ-
department would be applied to a part of a new process. The ical practices. All requirements were first grouped into the
loftsmen would be expected to learn and contribute to the general areas of Design, Production, Operations Manage-
new process and understand that it is different from the ment and Umbrella, as shown in Table 13.III.
process they had participated in prior to the adaptation of Initially, a detail area entitled Quality Control and As-
the product model program. Generally, everyone involved surance, SQC was included under Operations Management.
in computer based tool changes must be aware of the ex- The final version of the requirements omits specific qual-
pectations placed upon them, from top management to shop ity requirements, opting to make quality inherent in the
personnel. overall system, much in the manner of European and Japan-
The implementation of any but the most focused and ese shipyards.
simple computer programs can be complicated and time The full list of requirements is shown in Table 13. IV,
consuming. Implementation of a CIM system can be quite grouped in the two-tier manner presented above. These re-
complicated. Detailed knowledge and experience are requirements may serve as the basis for defining what a prod-
uct model program must do for a shipyard or design firm. TABLE 13.III Future Requirements for Product Model
Depending on the needs of the organization, some require- Program
ments may be added and others omitted from this list. Fur-
General Area Requirement
ther details of each requirement are provided in (5).
Design • Conceptual/Preliminary Design
13.10.4 Example Using Selection Methodology • Functional Design
• Detailed Design
The following paragraphs present a hypothetical example
of how to use the five-step selection methodology presented Production • Fabrication Processes
above, including the selection of requirements: • Joining and Assembly
• Material Control
1. Conduct business assessment: In this example, the or- • Testing and Inspection
ganization is in the market of designing and constructing
Operations Management • High-Level Resource Planning
high-speed aluminum ferries to transport passengers and
and Scheduling
vehicles between ports over potentially rough waters, such
• Production Engineering
as those of the North Sea. The organization is well es-
• Purchasing/Procurements
tablished in the high-speed ferry market and has earned
• Shop Floor Resource Planning
a good reputation for its willingness to customize ferries and Scheduling
for the needs of each owner. The organization’s top man-
agement has discussed how to improve business results. Umbrella • Umbrella
Discussion has revealed that the competition, which in
the past only offered stock designs, is now successfully
customizing its ferries. Thus, a previous market advan-
tage, willingness to customize, has been compromised. Top ity of optimizing structural weight when switching from
management decides on a strategy of optimization to re- a rules-based process to a computational engineering
gain their overall business advantage. They understand process. The two requirements are: i) Concept/Prelimi-
that high-speed ferries are weight critical, and decide to nary Design Engineering Analysis Tools: This require-
optimize ferry structural weight in their ferry designs. In ment addresses engineering tools to assist in structural
this case, optimize means minimize structural weight, analysis (including optimization), such as hull girder
while maintaining strength to safely meet design loading. analysis, finite element analysis, and weights and cen-
2. Define new process: Investigation shows that significant ters calculations, and ii) Detail Design Engineering
weight savings cannot be achieved as part of the exist- Analysis Tools: This requirement addresses the subject
ing shipyard production process. Production simply cuts of dynamic hull loading and fatigue analysis. Fatigue
the parts as defined by the design, and there is no op- analysis is an attractive feature to the organization, be-
portunity for decreasing weight at this stage. Thus, the cause its ferries are constructed of aluminum, which is
focus turns to design. The organization’s present design subject to fatigue, especially in rough waters. Through
approach uses classification society rules to generate study of relevant technical literature associated with the
structural designs. Engineering and design management requirements, the organization becomes familiar with
point out that this rules-based approach provides little the present state of the art and the structural optimiza-
opportunity for future weight savings, and they set about tion programs on the market.
finding a new process that will enable the organization 5. Select program: The organization contacts vendors and
to optimize the structural weight. The new process is de- selects the program and hardware most suited for its own
fined as computational engineering methodology. weight optimization process for its aluminum ferries. As
3. Identify priorities: Personnel from engineering and de- part of this process, the organization opens a dialogue with
sign management note that manual optimization the classification societies and ensures that the proposed
processes are too time consuming to be practical. Man- program is acceptable to the classification society.
ual optimization would hold up the design process as a
whole. Thus, the organization identifies the need for a Typical considerations relevant to the selection process
computer-based approach as its priority. include determining the following:
4. Select requirements: Two requirements (from among • what specific features are necessary or desired for the
those listed in the preceding section) address the prior- selected software,
TABLE 13.IV Full List of Future Requirements for Product Model Program
Design: Conceptual/Preliminary Production: Joining and Assembly Operations Management: Production
Design Processes Engineering
1. Concept/Preliminary Design 26. NC Programs for Joining and 46. Development of Production
Engineering Analysis Tools Assembly Packages
2. Reusable Product Model 27. Automated Subassembly/Assembly 47. Development of Unit Handling
3. Develop Initial Build Strategy, Cost Processes Documentation
and Schedule Estimates 28. Programmable Welding Stations and 48. Parts Nesting
4. Classification/Regulatory Body and Robotic Welding Machines 49. Development and Issue of Work
Owner Compliance Support 29. Locations Marking for Welded Orders and Shop Information
Attachments
30. Definition of Fit-Up Tolerances
Design: Functional Design 31. Control of Welding to Minimize Operations Management:
5. Connectivity Among Objects Shrinkage and Distortion Purchasing/Procurement
6. Tools to Develop Standard Parts, 32. Programming for Automated
Endcuts, Cutouts and Connections 50. Material Management
Processes
33. Definition of Fit-Up Tolerances for
Block Assembly Joints
Design: Detailed Design Operations Management:
7. Automated Documentation Shop Floor Resource Planning and
8. Detail Design Engineering Analysis Scheduling
Production: Material Control
Tools 51. Provision of Planning and
9. Design for Fabrication, Assembly 34. Capabilities for Material Pick Lists,
Scheduling Information to Shops
and Erection Marshalling, Kitting and Tracking
52. Work Order/Work Station Tracking
10. Linkage to Fabrication Assembly 35. Tracking of Piece/Parts Through
and Control
and Erection Fabrication and Assembly
53. Detailed Capacity Planning for
11. Automatic Part Numbering 36. Communication of Staging and
Shops and Areas
12. Interference Checking Palletizing Requirements to
54. Collect and Calculate Costs for a
13. Linkage to Bill of Material and Suppliers
Major Assembly
Procurement 37. Documentation of Assembly and
14. Weld Design Capability Subassembly Movement
15. Coating Specification Development 38. Handling and Staging of In-Process
and Completed Parts
Umbrella: Umbrella
16. Definition of Interim Products
17. Consideration of Dimensional 55. Datacentric Architecture
Tolerances 56. Computer-Automated as Well as
18. Context-Sensitive Data Production: Testing and Inspection Computer-Aided
Representations Guidelines 57. Interoperability of Software
58. Open Software Architecture
39. Testing and Inspection Guidelines
59. Accessible Database Architecture
Production: Fabrication Processes 60. Remote Networking Capability
19. Processes to Cut/Form Structural 61. Full Data Access (Read Only) to All
Operations Management: Project Participants
Plates and Shapes
High-Level Resource Planning and 62. Assignment of Data Ownership
20. Documentation of Production
Processes Scheduling 63. User-Friendliness
21. Information Links to Production 40. High Level Development of Build 64. Enterprise Product Model
Work Centers Strategy 65. Integration With Simulation
22. Piece and Part Labeling 41. Order Generation and Tracking 66. Information Management
23. Creation of Path or Process Pro- 42. Performance Measurement 67. Scalability
grams for NC Machines and Robots 43. Production Status Tracking and 68. Transportability
24. Development of Interim Product Feedback 69. Configuration Management
Fabrication Instructions 44. Inventory Control 70. Compliance With Data Exchange
25. Simulation of Fabrication Sequences 45. High Level Planning and Scheduling Standards.
• what hardware and program configurations are suitable wood. In addition, production simulation allows manage-
for integration with the organization’s existing system, ment to predict the effectiveness of processes and combi-
and nations of processes in the two shipyards, helping to make
• what start-up time and cost factors are drivers, for ex- a smooth transition between design and production. Great
ample, training? savings are realized in this integrated process. For instance,
the quantity of different part numbers on the Seawolf sub-
marine, designed by Electric Boat and Newport News ship-
building uses on the order of 100 000. On the New Attack
13.11 FUTURE TRENDS
Submarine, there are projected to be 12 000 parts, a reduc-
13.11.1 General tion by nearly an order of magnitude.
As previously mentioned, the field of computer-based tools Production simulation allows management to predict the
is one of constant change. While change cannot be predicted effectiveness of processes and combinations of processes
with certainty, there are a number of trends, described in in the shipyard. Production simulation is most frequently
the following paragraphs, which give indications as to di- used in industries involved in mass production. Such in-
rections of future enhancements in the field. dustries often have a streamlined production, repetitive op-
erations and well-defined products. This is not the case in
shipbuilding, which can be characterized by:
13.11.2 Simulation
• one-off or relatively small series production,
Simulation uses computers to mimic and predict processes
• many different work disciplines,
of design, production and operation outside of the real-
• large number of different work tasks,
world constraints of space and time. Instead of waiting seven
• high degree of manual work, and
to ten years to test a new naval combatant prototype, for ex-
• work activities difficult to identify and quantify.
ample, a simulation would be developed in a fraction of that
time, modeling design, production and operation of the ship Thus, with production processes more complicated and
(7,96,97). production parameters more difficult to quantify, produc-
Design, production and operation simulation techniques, tion simulation is not as far along in the shipbuilding in-
already in use to a limited extent, are expected to increase dustry as in certain other industries. In shipbuilding,
in functionality and sophistication in coming years. production simulation may include the shipbuilding process,
Presently, this technology is used mainly by the defense in- in which assembly and schedule are simulated (for exam-
dustry; future trends are expected to include a jump in use ple, robotic welding) (7,37).
in the commercial arena. Simulation technology is im- Operation simulation enables the user to test the ship,
proving through higher-performance hardware, lower hard- and variations of the ship, as it is intended to be used, in a
ware prices, development of standards (often de facto), and realistic environment with real humans at the controls. Using
improved software products (98). operation simulation as a guide, the design may be refined
Design simulation, utilizes virtual reality (adding move- to better meet the needs of the customer. This approach has
ment and animation to the product model) to enable users been successfully demonstrated, an example being the de-
to “walk through” the interior and exterior of a ship. De- sign of a bridge for a frigate (96,99).
sign dimensions, geometries, attributes and arrangements
may be viewed and checked without the traditional need to
construct a physical model. The user may view the ship on 13.11.3 Enhanced Communication
a computer monitor or by means of more immersive virtual For enhanced communication among product model pro-
reality techniques such as head-mounted displays, stereo grams, STEP may be the most promising alternative, be-
glasses or an immersive workbench (29,98). cause of the high degree of international cooperation being
An example of design simulation is found in the U.S. focused on its development.
Navy’s New Attack Submarine Program, being carried out Enhanced communication among shipyards, vendors,
by Electric Boat Corporation and Newport News Ship- design firms and classification societies may be achieved
building. Simulation programs mimic and predict processes through closer working relationships, enhanced software
of design, production and operation for the complex nu- and improved Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) remote
clear-powered submarine. Design dimensions, geometries networking capabilities (5,100). The Internet is likely to be
and arrangements are viewed and checked without the tra- increasingly used as a way to exchange data. For example,
ditional need to construct a physical model of plastic and designers could drag standard parts from suppliers’ on-line
catalogues and drop them directly into their standard de- 13.11.7 Object-Oriented Programming
signs (101). Object-oriented programming (OOP) is emerging as a pop-
Related to the element of enhanced communication is ular choice for developing programs that are centered on
the capability to use several programs in concert to address the development, management and sharing of data. In this
a design task. For example, a CAD program may be used context, objects are pieces of code that are self-contained
with a spreadsheet program, taking advantage of features in a way similar to that in which sub-routines are self-
such as linking and cut-and-paste (5). contained in procedural computer languages. Examples of
OOP languages include Simula, SmallTalk and Java (12,13).
An Object-Oriented Database (OODB) contains objects
13.11.4 Portability
that possess attributes of almost any nature. The database
Portability is the ability to use a program on several differ- manager can query the information carried by the objects,
ent hardware platforms. The term portable implies that the and new information can be attached to objects. OODBs
software is intended for several platforms from inception offer a powerful way to store complex data structures (such
and that this factor is considered throughout the design and as those of an entire ship). The object-oriented structure al-
implementation of the program. Portability is different from lows programmers to build programs in a highly modular
porting or migration. These involve making an existing pro- way with abstract data types. Thus, changes to a program
gram run successfully on a new platform and can often re- normally involve only one or several objects and not (as is
sult in replacing one set of code with another (58). often the case in procedural computer programming) ex-
tensive or wide-ranging re-writing.
The use of expert systems and the OODB approach to
13.11.5 User Friendliness
product modeling is aimed at facilitating the development
The program is easy to learn and to use, with features such of designs consistent with producibility considerations, be-
as carefully designed graphical user interfaces, seamless ginning at the early stages of the design process.
integration of program modules into a conceptual whole,
immediate feedback, and a natural program operation. Ad-
vances in AI are expected to enhance user friendliness in 13.11.8 Artificial Intelligence
areas such as spoken-language human-computer interfaces Artificial Intelligence (AI) traditionally has focused on de-
and natural language technology (5,102). veloping programs that do what humans do. While this is
still an aim in AI programs, other aims have been developed
as well that can improve ship design and construction. AI
13.11.6 Expansion of Program Scope
of the future may (12,102):
Programs may be further extended beyond the narrow ship
design limits traditionally set, and encompass areas such as • enhance machine vision systems for gauging, guiding
production, cost estimation and program management. This and inspecting during the manufacturing process,
expansion is either through in-house software development • improve intra- and internet systems to simplify the pres-
and addition to the baseline program or by links to second entation of large amounts of information,
party programs. • assist the development of spoken-language human-com-
An example of expansion is for a product model to in- puter capabilities,
clude sophisticated document management capabilities, in- • enhance robotic systems, including robotic vision sys-
cluding vendor data. Another example is the ability to model tems, and
ships outside of the purely graphics environment, for ex- • help improve shipyard production process planning.
ample, by developing a relationship between an engine and
its volume, weight and output power, and thus assist in re-
ducing design time through enhancing concurrent engi- 13.11.9 Ship Life-cycle Data Support
neering (5). Certain ship owners, such as the United States Navy, main-
Another example is development of capabilities to au- tain control of the entire life of their ships, from initial de-
tomatically route piping and electrical lines and arrange sign and construction through an operational period that
their associated components in a 3D shipboard design en- may last upwards of 50 years. Unlike most commercial
vironment. Included is the capability for optimization for owners, the Navy often alters its ships to keep pace with
cost or other functions (103). A final example is automatic advances in technology and changes in mission require-
optimization of ship hull forms based on CFD (24). ments. In order to maintain a knowledge base of all ship-
related data and keep control of a ship’s configuration, the CAD/CAE/CAM in Engineering for Production,” Proceed-
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Chapter 13

13.1 NOMENCLATURE OLP Off-Line Programming

13.2.2 Scope of this Chapter

13.3 COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN

CAD-Link—Albacore Research, Canada—structural mod-

Volumes and cargo capacity: Calculation and organiza-

HICADEC-P—Hitachi Zosen, Japan, and Odense Steel

Germany—rule-based system for manufacturing of piping 13.7 PRODUCT MODEL PROGRAMS

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