Communication models are systematic representations of the process which helps in

understanding how communication works

can be done. Models show the process
metaphorically and in symbols. They form
general perspectives on communication by
breaking communication from complex to
simple and keeps the components in order.
Communication models can sometimes
encourage traditional thinking and
stereotyping but can also omit some major
aspects of human communication.

Methods and channels of communication

to be used and the purpose of
communication, must be considered before
choosing a specific communication model.
Models are used by business companies
and other firms to foster their
communication, explore their options and
to evaluate their own situations. It is also
used to understand how the receivers will
interpret the message.

Types of Communication Model

There are three general types of

communication models in which all other
communication models are mostly
categorized.
Linear Model of Communication is a simple one way communication model. The message flows
in a straight line from sender to the receiver. There is no concept of feedback. The only task that
a receiver does here is to receive the message. Different models that follow linear model of
communication are:

Lasswell’s Model was developed by communication theorist Harold D. Lasswell (1902-1978) in

1948. Lasswell’s model of communication (also known as action model or linear model or one
way model of communication) is regarded as one the most influential communication models.

Components of Lasswell’s Communication Model

Lasswell’s communication model has 5 components which is

used as an analysis tool for evaluating the communication
process and components. The components are the questions
to be asked to get the answers and keep communication
going.

Explanation of different Components of Lasswell’s Model

Control analysis helps the sender to have all the power.

Content analysis is associated to stereotyping and

representation of different groups politically. It is also related
to the purpose or the ulterior motives of the message.
Media analysis represents which medium should be used to exercise maximum power against
the receivers.

Audience analysis shows who are the target population to be manipulated or brain-washed.

Effect analysis is done before the process starts. It is used to predict the effect of message over
the target population to be exploited.

Explanation of Lasswell’s Communication Model

Though Lasswell’s model was developed to analyze mass communication, this model is used for
interpersonal communication or group communication to be disseminated message to various
groups in various situations.

Lasswell’s model was developed to study the media propaganda of countries and businesses at
that time. Only rich people used
to have communication
mediums such as televisions
and radios back them. It
was made to show the mass
media culture.

Lasswell also brought the

concept of Effective
Communication
Process. He talked about the
relation between
presentation of facts and how it
generates different effects.
The use of the concept of effect
makes Lasswell’s model
non-linear unlike it’s name.
It’s because effect can also
be taken as feedback.

Though, generally, the

component of effect was made
to be more about outcome
of the message, the
model is applied in different medias and fields despite being developed specifically for mass
communication.

This model is similar to the communication model proposed by Claude Shannon and Warren
Weaver. Their model is more graphical than Lasswell’s. George Gerbner who is the founder of
the cultivation theory,
expanded Lasswell’s
model and included the
concept of reaction of the
receiver.

Disadvantages and Criticisms of Lasswell’s Model

The major criticism of Lasswell’s Model is that it does not include feedback and it ignores the
possibility of noise. Without feedback, a communication process can not be fruitful. Lasswell’s
model is very linear and does not consider barriers in the communication process.

The model is also criticized for being very general and only including very traditional topics. The
model is very simplistic. The model is said to be propaganda based as it is more focused on the
resulting outcome and generally used for media persuasion.

Aristotle’s Model considered as the first model of communication and was proposed before 300
B.C. It is also the is most widely accepted among all communication models.

Aristotle Model is mainly focused on speaker and speech. It can be broadly divided into 5
primary elements: Speaker, Speech, Occasion, Audience and Effect.

The Aristotle’s communication model is a speaker centered model as the speaker has the most
important role in it and is the only one active. It is the speaker’s role to deliver a speech to the
audience. The role of the audience is passive, influenced by the speech. This makes the
communication process one way, from speaker to receiver.

The speaker must organize the speech beforehand, according to the target audience and
situation (occasion). The speech must be prepared so that the audience be persuaded or
influenced from the speech.

He believed “Rhetoric” is the study of communication and persuasion and different message or
speech should be made for different audiences at different situations to get desired effects or to
establish a propaganda. This model was highly used to develop public speaking skills and create
a propaganda at that time so, it is less focused on intrapersonal or interpersonal
communication.

Even if the model is speaker oriented and focuses on audience interaction in communication,
there is no concept of feedbacks.

For instance, a politician (speaker) gives a speech to get votes from the civilians (audience) at
the time of election (occasion). The civilians only vote if they are influenced by the things the
politician says in his speech so the content must be very impressive to influence the mass and
the speaker must design the message very carefully.

The speech must be clear as well as the speaker must have a very good non-verbal
communication with the audience like eye contact. This example is a classic case of Aristotle
Model of Communication depicting all the elements in the model.

Critical Elements of a Good Communicator

Aristotle has given 3 elements that must be present in a good communicator or public speaker.
These elements are related to each other and they reinforce the other elements.

Ethos is the characteristic which makes you credible in front of the audience. If there is no
credibility, the audience will not believe in you and will not be persuaded by you. Expertise and
positions also give credibility to a person. For instance, the mass will not listen to the promises
of a corrupt politician, but if a politician is known for his good deeds, there’s a high change his
speech will be heard.

Pathos - if what you say matters to them and they can connect with it, then they will be more
interested and they will think you are more credible. Emotional bonds will make the audience
captivated and they feel the speaker is one of their own people. For instance, if people of a
village needs water and the politician tells them that he will help in building roads, the people
will not get influenced but might be more influenced if he says he’ll build a dam for drinking
water and irrigation.

Logos is logic. People believe in you only if they understand what you are trying to say. People
find logic in everything. If there is no logic behind the speaker’s work or time, they do not want
to get involved. Everybody has a sense of reason. You must present facts to the audience for
them to believe in you. For example, a presenter using factual data in an awareness program
will attract the audience’s attention and will make them believe in the need of awareness in the

particular matter.

Criticisms of Aristotle’s Model of Communication

There are few criticisms around this model. Some of them are; there is no concept of feedback,
it is one way from speaker to audience; there is no concept of communication failure like noise
and barriers; this model can only be used in public speaking.

Shannon Weaver Model was created in 1948 when Claude Elwood Shannon wrote an article “A
Mathematical Theory of Communication” in Bell System Technical Journal with Warren Weaver.

Shannon was an American mathematician whereas Weaver was a scientist. The Mathematical
theory later came to be known as Shannon Weaver model of communication or “mother of all
models.” This model is more technological than other linear models.

Concepts in Shannon Weaver Model

Sender(Information source) –is the person who makes the message, chooses the channel and
sends the message.

Encoder (Transmitter) - is the sender who uses machine, which converts message into signals or
binary data. It might also directly refer to the machine.
Channel – is the medium used to send message.

Decoder (Receiver) – is the machine used to convert signals or binary data into message or the
receiver who translates the message from signals.

Receiver (Destination) – is the person who gets the message or the place where the message
must reach. The receiver provides feedback according to the message.

Noise – is the physical disturbances like environment, people, etc. which does not let the
message get to the receiver as what is sent.

Explanation of Shannon Weaver Model

The sender encodes the message and sends it to the receiver through a technological channel
like telephone and telegraph. The sender converts the message into codes understandable to
the machine. The message is sent in codes through a medium.

The receiver has to decode the message before understanding it and interpreting it. The
receptor machine can also act as a decoder in some cases. The channel can have noise and the
receiver might not have the capacity to decode which might cause problems in communication
process.

Here, for instance, brain might be the sender, mouth might be the encoder which encodes to a
particular language, air might be the channel, another person’s ear might be the receptor and
his brain might be the decoder and receiver.

Similarly, air is the channel here, the noise present in his environment that disturbs them is the
noise whereas his response is the feedback. There were only 5 components when the model
was made. Noise was added later.

As Shannon was an engineer, this model was first made to improve technical communication,
mainly for telephonic communication. It was made to to maximize telephone capacity with
minimum noise.

Later, Weaver applied it for all kind of communications to develop effective communication and
the model became famous as Shannon Weaver model. In engineering, Shannon’s model is also
called information theory and is used academically to calculate transmission through machines
and also has a formula.
Levels of Communication Problems

There are three levels of problems of communication according to Shannon Weaver. They are:

Technical problem –How a channel causes a problem

Semantic problem –Is the meaning of message sent and received very different

Effectiveness problem –How effectively does the message cause reaction

Advantages of Shannon Weaver Model

Concept of noise helps in making the communication effective by removing the noise or
problem causing noise.

This model takes communication as a two way process. It makes the model applicable in general
communication.

Communication is taken as quantifiable in Shannon Weaver model.

Criticisms of Shannon Weaver Model

It can be applied more for interpersonal communication than group communication and mass
communication.

Receiver plays the passive part in the communication process as sender plays the primary role
that sends messages.

Feedback is taken as less important in comparison to the messages sent by the sender.

The model is taken by some critics as a “misleading misrepresentation of the nature of human
communication” as human communication is not mathematical in nature.

Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model

In 1960, David Berlo postulated Berlo’s Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver (SMCR) model of

communication from Shannon Weaver’s Model of Communication (1949). He described factors
affecting the individual components in the communication making the communication more
efficient.

The model also focuses on encoding and decoding which happens before sender sends the
message and before receiver receives the message respectively.
Berlo’s Model has mainly, four components to describe the communication process. They are
sender, message, channel and receiver. Each of the component is affected by many factors.

Components of Berlo’s Model of Communication

S -Sende - is the source of the message or the person who originates the message. The person
or source sends the message to the receiver. The following are the factor related to sender and
is also the same in the case of receiver.

a) Communication skills of a person is a factor that affects the communication process. If the
sender has good communication skills, the message will be communicated better than if the
sender’s communication skills are not good. Similarly, if the receiver can not grasp the message,
then the communication will not be effective. Communication skills include the skills to speak,
present, read, write, listening, etc.

b) Attitude of the sender and the receiver creates the effect of the message. The person’s
attitude towards self, the receiver and the environment changes the meaning and effect of the
message.

c) Knowledge - familiarity with the subject of the message makes the communicated message
have its effect more. Knowledge on the subject matter makes the communicator send the
message effectively.
d) Social Systems - values, beliefs, laws, rules, religion and many other social factors affect the
sender’s way of communicating the message. It creates difference in the generation of message.
Place and situation also fall under social systems.

e) Culture - cultural differences make messages different. A person from one culture might find
something offensive which is very much accepted in another culture.

M-Message - is the substance that is being sent by the sender to the receiver. It might be in the
form of voice, audio, text, video or other media. The key factors affecting the message are

a) Content - is the thing that is in the message. The whole message from beginning to end is the
content.

b) Elements - are the non verbal things that tag along with the content like gestures, signs,
language, etc.

c) Treatment - is the way in which the message is conveyed to the receiver. Treatment also
effects the feedback of the receiver.

d) Structure - of the message or the way it has been structured or arranged, affects the
effectiveness of the message.

e) Code - is the form in which the message is sent. It might be in the form of language, text,
video, etc.

C-Channel - is the medium used to send the message. In mass communication and other forms
of communication, technical machines might be used as a channel like telephone, internet, etc.
But in general communication, the five senses of a human being is the channel for the
communication flow and it affects the effectiveness of the channel.

a) Hearing – We receive the message through hearing.

b) Seeing – We perceive through seeing. We also get non-verbal messages by seeing.

c) Touching – Many of the non-verbal communication happens from touching like holding
hands.

d) Smelling – We collect information from smelling.

e) Tasting – Taste also provides the information to be sent as a message.

R- Receiver - is the person who gets the message sent in the process. This model believes that
the thinking pattern and all other factors mentioned above must be in sync to that of the sender
for the communication to be effective. The message might not have the same effect as intended
if the receiver and sender are not similar. The receiver must also have a very good listening skill.
Other factors are similar to that of the sender; Communication skills; Attitudes; Knowledge;
Social Systems; Culture

Criticisms of Berlo’s SMCR Model

There is no concept of feedback, so the effect is not considered.

There is no concept of noise or any kind of barriers in communication process.

It is a linear model of communication, there is no two way communication.

Both of the people must be similar according to all the factors mentioned above.

Transactional Model of Communication

In transactional model, senders and receivers both are known as communicators and both play
equally important role in communication. Transactional model relates communication with
social reality, cultural up-bringing and relational context (relationships). Non-verbal feedback
like gestures, body language, is also considered as feedback in this model. Different models that
follow transactional model of communication are:

Barnlund’s Transactional Model

Dean Barnlund proposed a transactional model of communication in 1970 for basic

interpersonal communication which articulates that sending and receiving of messages happens
simultaneously between people which is popularly known as Barlund’s Transactional Model of
Communication.

The model has been further adapted and reformed by other theorists as General Transactional
Model. The model shifted from the trend of linear model to dynamic and two way
communication model.
Barnlund’s Transactional Model is a multi-layered feedback system. This is a continuous process
where sender and receiver interchanges their places and both are equally important. The
message passing takes place with a constant feedback being provided from both parties. A
feedback for one is the message for the other.

Components of Barlund’s model

Cues refers to the signs for doing something. As per Barnlund there are: public cues, private
cues and behavioral cues. In the model diagram shown above, spiral lines gives graphic
representation to the assumptions like public cues and private cues.

Public cues (Cpu) are physical, environmental or artificial and natural or man-made.

Private cues (Cpr) are also known as private objects of orientation which include senses of a
person. Both these cues can be verbal as well as non-verbal. Another set of cues are behavioral
cues.

Behavioral cues can be verbal (Cbehv) as well as non-verbal (Cbehnv).

The arrows and their directions show that the message is intentionally sent and actively taken
where the receiver plays a key role of giving feedback. Arrows also show the process of
production of technical encoding, interpretation and decoding.
The jagged lines show that the availability of cues can be unlimited and are denoted as VVVV.

The valence signs, +,0 and – are also attached to these types of cues which illustrates the
amount/degree/strength of attractiveness of the cues in the message.

Speech act refers to particular instance of communication in the model.

Filters are the realities of people engaged in communication. Here the senders’ and receivers’
personal filters might differ according to cultures, traditions, content of the message, etc.

Noise is the problem that arises in communication flow and disturbs the message flow.

Advantages of Barnlund’s Transactional Model of Communication

The model shows shared field experience of the sender and receiver.

Transactional model talks about simultaneous message sending, noise and feedback.

Barnlund’s model is taken by critics as the most systematic model of communication.

Disadvantages of Barnlund’s Transactional Model of Communication

Barnlund’s model is very complex.

Both the sender and receiver must understand the codes sent by the other. So they must each
possess a similar “code book”. (The concept of code book is not mentioned in the model but
understood.)

Helical Model Frank Dance proposed a communication model inspired by a helix in 1967,
known as Helical Model of Communication. A helix is a three dimensional spring like curve in
the shape of a cylinder or a cone.

Helix is compared with evolution of communication of a human since birth to existence or

existing moment. Helical model gives geometrical testimony of communication. The model is
linear as well as circular combined and disagrees the
concept of linearity and circularity individually.

Concept of Helical Model of Communication

Helical model of communication introduces the

concept of time where continuousness of the
communication process and relational interactions
are very important. Communication is taken as a
dynamic process in helical model of communication and it progresses with age as our
experience and vocabulary increases.

At first, helical spring is small at the bottom and grows bigger as the communication progresses.
The same effect can be seen with communication of humans, where you know nothing about a
person at first and the knowledge grows steadily as you know the person better. It considers all
the activities of the person, from the past and present.

Communication is affected by the curve from which it emerges which denotes past behavior
and experiences. Slowly, the helix leaves its lower levels of behavior and grows upward in a new
way. It always depends on the lowest level to form the message. Thus, the communicative
relationship reaches to the next level in which people share more information.

Communication is supposed to be continuous and non-repetitive. It is always growing and

accumulative.

Advantages of Helical Model of Communication

The model assumes sender and receiver to be interchangeable and makes communication
process to be two way.

The model takes the communication process speculative and intellectual.

Disadvantages of Helical Model of Communication

The model is taken as more simple than it should be.

Some critics don’t take it to be a model as it has very few variables.

It is not testable because it is abstract.

It is not represent in a systematic and orderly way.

Variables cannot be differentiated in this model.

Continuity may not always be true for communication. There might be breaks in situations as
well as events can be meaningless, forced or unproductive.

The purpose of communication is not always growth.

Becker’s Mosaic Model

Sam Becker proposed a communication model in “The Prospect of Rhetoric” (1968), which is
known as Becker’s Mosaic Model of Communication. According to him, the classical models of
communication are not very useful in contemporary communication. The model explains the
complexity of human communication. It also describes the randomness of the origin of
messages and communication as a dynamic process. The model is believed to reduce the
limitations of the linear models. The model stresses the meaning of messages. The model was
inspired by Marshall McLuhan’s views and metaphors of television as a collection of light and
dark spots.

Components of Becker’s Mosaic Model of

Communication

Empty cells– Unavailable messages or sources

Vertical layers– Set of similar messages

Cells– Messages and sources

Receivers go through the cells in loops every time

Concepts of Becker’s Mosaic Model of

Communication

Every person lives and exists in the web of

communications which reciprocally makes the
person unique. Messages construct humans and humans construct messages. Message depends
on information source, culture, social situations, and environment. The constructed message is
just a small step to the formation of complicated communication environment which is known
as a “Mosaic”.

The mosaic is formed from the network of bits of information. Bits of information help in
making a complete picture of any situation. There are many sources of information and
messages. Every individual will take the information that he/she needs and ignores all others.
These fragments of information can be about anything, in any time and in any space. The
channels the bits are sent can also vary. These bits are pieced together by a person as per the
needs to form a message. When another person receives the message, the second person not
only interprets according to the bits of information that is in the message, but also interprets it
with the help of all the past bits of information the person can relate the message to.
Communication is shown in a three dimensional cube formed with bits of information and time-
space dimensions. It is taken as non linear.

The mosaic model talks about message environment being a major factor for rhetoric. The
receiver is only exposed to the rhetorical message sent by the sender, and so the message must
make an influence over the receiver. The receiver’s environment is also important as the
message that is received is more essential than the one that is sent.

Communicative acts are formed by linking more than one social situation. The same message
can be sent differently, as the gaps in time, modes of presentation and situations are always
different.

There are two processes in Mosaic model of communication. They are:

Bits of information are always increasing, has a wide range of varieties and sources

Mostly, there is repetitiveness in similar transaction of messages or the message can sometimes
be in isolation

Advantages of the Becker’s Mosaic Model of Communication

The mosaic model of communication shows the complexity of communication and says
communication is dynamic.

The model explains why the exposure to message varies.

The model also talks about individual differences between people.

The message is said to be interpreted in comparison to the information available and

relationship of the bit of information.

Disadvantages of the Becker’s Mosaic Model of Communication

The mosaic model of communication does not explain many dimensions like environmental and
social.

The new bits of information are useless if the last bits are lost.

Interactive Model of Communication

Interactive model or convergence model is similar to transactional model as they are both two
way communication model. But, interactive model is mostly used for new media like internet.
Here, people can respond to any mass communications like videos, news, etc. People can
exchange their views and ideas. Different models that follow interactive model of
communication are:

Schramm’s Interactive Model

Other Communication Models

Dance’s Helical Spiral of Communication

In 1967, Dance made a communication model based on a helix known as helical model. He
explains how a child learns to communicate and the child grows up and continues to
communicate. Communication depends on previous experiences and activities of the speaker
according to this model.

Westley and MacLean’s Conceptual Model

Westley and MacLean’s model explains the difference between interpersonal and mass
communication as feedback. Feedback can be direct in interpersonal communication whereas
indirect in mass communication. According to this model, communication starts from the
environment and not when the message is spoken or shown.