(I) Introdution:: (A) Definition
(I) Introdution:: (A) Definition
(I) Introdution:: (A) Definition
Development. (水份循環與地形發展的關係)
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(I) INTRODUTION:
(A) Definition:
A drainage basin may be defined as an area of land, drained by the river and its tributaries.
Its boundary is marked by a ridge of highland beyond which precipitation from the
atmosphere falling on it eventually moves downslope to a river system.
The drainage basin is a fundamental unit of the water cycle. It is the most effective part of
water cycle in producing change in the land surface.
The region of the land drained by a particular river system is termed as River Basin.
General speaking, the catchment area of a river is the River Basin. It is bounded by a
watershed (water divide).
A drainage Basin can be viewed as an open system, and it form part of the
hydrological cycle. The major components are group into input, processes and output.
(System: A system is functional unit with energy and material transfer through the
components of input, processes and output).
The basic function of drainage basin system is to take runoff and debris out of the
catchment area.
Within the system, there are different types of subsystems and elements. The drainage
basin system is made up of the weathering, slope, channel and network subsystem.
Together they form a cascading system – where the output from one is the input of
other. One subsystem has the effect on other subsystem.
Importance of Drainage Basin:
1. Drainage Basin are basic areal units within which data on fluvial landforms and
processes can be collected, organized and analyzed. In particular, they are common in
the humid tropics because of the heavy precipitation and the dominance of rivers in
carving out the fluvial landforms.
There are inputs of precipitation and solar radiation, and outputs of discharge,
evapotranspiration and outgoing terrestrial radiation.
A close system: There are no material lose from the system except energy.)
In the system, there are vegetation, slope, soil, bed rock and river channel as the major
parts.
and Deposition.
depositional process.
~ The output of the basin may affect the elements of input and
process.
~ For example, the water vapor (as a output through evaporation) can
Within the drainage basin, there has hydrological cycle with hydrological processes.
~ The hydrological cycle describes the circulation of water from hydrosphere (ocean),
atmosphere and lithosphere (land) in a great series of continuous interchanges of both
geographic position and physical state.
~ Everyday, about 1,400,000 millions m3 of water are evaporated from the earth
surfaces. 1,050,000 millions m3 of water reprecipitated into ocean and 350, 000
millions m3 of water reprecipitated onto lands surfaces eventually flow back into the
oceans.
~ Such great water movement is driven by the solar energy (the heat derived by the
earth from the sun) because this energy is necessary to bring about important changes
in physical state and geographical position of the enormous amounts of water in the
cycle.
~ Water exists in three states: solid (ice), liquid (rain) and gas (water vapor). The
water is ever moving round through a series of processes called the Water Cycle.
General speaking, water cycle describes the movement and storage of water among
four main sectors of the earth system.
a. the atmosphere
b. the biosphere
c. the lithosphere
d. the hydrosphere
Cycle:
~ In the atmosphere, water is in gas form and can be condensed to form precipitation.
~ The precipitation can either return to hydrosphere to complete a simple water cycle
or enter the biosphere and lithosphere.
~ When the precipitation enter the biosphere and lithosphere, water may leaves the
landscapes by one of the two routes:
(1) it forms runoff, makes its way to the ocean and is eventually evaporated into
the atmosphere.
~ By the condensation and precipitation processes, water is back to the biosphere and
lithosphere, thus form the simple water cycle.
~ The largest water cycle in the World is the water in the hydrosphere (sea) is
evaporated by solar Energy and enter the atmosphere to form precipitation in the
lithosphere and biosphere. After the water enter the lithosphere and the biosphere,
water will form surface runoff (e.g. river), underground water back to the hydrosphere.
Also, some of the water will be stored in the biosphere and lithosphere and back to
atmosphere by evapotranspiration.
Different Hydrological Processes:
The constant and continuous supply of moisture from the surface to the atmosphere is
balanced by an equal return of moisture in the opposited through the processes of
condensation and precipitation.
(a) Condensation:
~ Involves a change in the state of the moisture from the gaseous form to the liquid
form.
~ The rapidly moving molecules of the water vapor gas are slowed down by colliding
with each other and with other condensation nuclei in the air (e.g. dust and salt
particles), thus forming into water droplets.
~ As the molecules are slowed down, their kinetic energy, originally derived from the
radiant energy of the sun during evaporation, is converted into heat energy so that
condensation is heating process.
~ Condensation occurs when the temperature of the air falls to a level known as dew
point, which may be defined as the temperature at which the air is 100% saturated
with water vapor. Rain drops are formed around condensation nuclei. Cloud is formed.
As the raindrops become bigger and bigger, precipitation occurs.
(b) Precipitation:
- Applied to all forms of moisture (e.g. rain, snow, hail, frost) which reach the earth
from the atmosphere.
- Occurs when cloud droplets (0.01mm in diameter) are coalesed to form rain drops
(0.2mm in diameter) and become too heavy to be suspended.
- The annual precipitation intensity, amount and seasonality (the length of the
humid season and the portion of annual precipitation total falling in the humid
season) are the determinants of the amount of discharge in a river within the river
basin.
- Tropical thunderstorms downpours are often very localized, i.e. the effect is
limited on the scale of individual catchment. However, steady depressions rainfall
may affect extensive drainage basins.
~ it has hot, humid climate and the precipitation is heavy – over 2000 mm per year.
As warm air is uplift and becomes unstable, cumulonimbus clouds are developed.
~ it has hot, arid climate and the precipitation is small – less than 250 mm per year. As
warm air is sink and becomes stable under the subtropical high pressure belt, sky is
clear with no clouds are developed.
~ it has cold climate and the annual precipitation is low – between 250mm and
500mm, in form of snow, which had little effect on surface hydrological processe
The melting of snow is slow and hence only a small amount of water is contributed to
the drainage basin.
2. Interception:
Vegetation are capable of catching/ trapping (intercepting) incoming ppt. and can
store water temporarily before they finally reach the ground.
If the ppt. continues, the storage spaces of leaves and branches become filled and
water drips through the canopy as throughfall.
Water will also reach the ground surface by running down trees trunks as stemflow.
precipitation.
Duration of storm:
interception storage.
~ if the storm lasts for long period, the amount of interception will
be increased. However, the ability of absorption of the vegetation
Magnitude of storm:
Amount of storm:
will be decreased.
In other words, precipitation falling onto a vegetated area can follow three possible
routes:
~ being caught by the branches, stems and foliage of plants and eventually
reaching the ground as stemflow.
~ being caught by the branches, stems and foliage of plants and returned
directly to the atmosphere by evaporation.
~ much of the precipitation does not fall directly onto the ground,
world’s landscapes.
- In the tundra,
~ the sparse and low height of vegetation also means there is little
interception.
P.S: The low interception rates of tropical deserts and tundra lead to a high proportion
of water being available (80-100%) for surface hydrological processes. However, the
actual amount of water available in tropical deserts and tundra is very low because of
the low precipitation rate and also the quick of conversion of snow into hard ice in the
tundra.
3. Transpiration: (T)
Plants draw the moisture into their systems through vast networks of tiny rootlets.
This water, after being carried upward through the roots and stems into leaves, is
discharged in the form of water vapor, through leaf pores (stomata) into atmosphere.
It is called transpiration.
In other words, this is the excretion of water which has been absorbed by roots and is
produced as the water products of metabolism by plants. It takes place at the stomata
or minute openings at the undersides of leaves.
Transpiration represents a loss of water needed for the reduction of body temperature
and excretion of harmful metabolic wastes by plants. Its rate of occurrence is
dependent on:
- Wind speed
- Leaf size
- Seasonal growth
~ the sparse vegetation are xerophytic, that is. They can store water
~ “The radiant energy provided by the sun causes the molecules of water in
the liquid form to move about more rapidly. These activated molecules
eventually move fast enough to break free from the liquid surface and
pass into the atmosphere in the gaseous state. In doing so, they take
with them their energy of molecular motion called kinetic energy. The
This is the change of liquid water into water vapor on exposed surfaces such as soil,
foliage and water bodies by the action of solar radiation. Like transpiration rates,
evaporation rates are dependent on
- temperature,
- wind speed
relative humidity.
- In the tundra,
5. Evapotranspiration (ET)
This is the compound loss of water by direct evaporation from water on the surface of
vegetation, soil and lands, and from transpiration from plants.
It represents the sum of water loss from both plant and other sources.
- the maximum amount of moisture that can be lost from the soil by
land.
and soil.
Although the water deficits and water surplus in the soil are important for plant
growth, they also affect the level of water available for surface hydrological processes.
The relative amounts of water can be estimated from soil-moisture budget graphs.
Where P < Ep, there is soil moisture deficit
Where P < Ea, there is a withdrawal from storage (soil water utilization)
The potential evapotranspiration is greater than actual evaporation. The plants can
transpire more moisture than is supplied by precipitation. Therefore, they draw upon
the accumulated soil water, but this is inadequate to allow them to transpire as much
as they could.
Where there is abundant rainfall, the precipitation exceeds the losses of moisture
through evapotranspiration. The plants cannot transpire all the moisture which is
supplied by precipitation.
In many places, the two rates are same if rainfall is equal or exceeds the potential
evapotranspiration. Annual actual evapotranspiration can in no case exceed annual
potential evapotranspiration which is already the maximum possible amount of
evapotranspiration loss.
6. Surface storage (Surface detention):
When ppt. reaches the ground surfaces, some of it will accumulate upon the ground
(e.g. snow, pools, lakes, intercepted water…), as surface detention, especially in the
impermeable rocky ground or clayey soil.
Under natural conditions, depression storage absorbs about 2-5mm of rainfall in any
storm.
The eater contained in the surface storage systems is subject to unlimited direct
evaporation and considerable amounts are lost to the atmosphere even in equatorial
rainforest.
7. Infiltration / Percolation:
Most soil surface in their natural state are capable of absorbing the moisture from
light or moderate rain.
Incoming ppt. is drawn into the soil by force of gravity and capillary attraction, a
process known as infiltration. It is important in controlling surface runoff.
Percolation is the downward movement of water, as it passes through the soil into the
underlying rock.
Precipitation which has managed to reach the ground without suffering interception
and subsequent direct evaporation will infiltrates into the ground until the saturation
point is reached.
The soil infiltration capacity is usually great at the start of rain that has been preceded
by a dry spell. However, it drops rapidly as the rain continues to fall and soak into the
soil. After several hours, the soil’s infiltration capacity become almost constant.
When rain falls, water infiltrate or percolate through successive layers of the soil:
~ closest to the ground surface and the space in the subsoil is not always
filled up. There is free movement of water through this zone upward and
downward.
~ occurs even in the rainforest regions, but has more water than the soil water.
When the rainfall intensity is smaller the infiltration capacity, all the rain
reaching the surface will infiltrate.
(b) soil texture (absorption capacity of the soil).: i.e. the size and
Soils which are rich in sand tend to have lower porosity and higher
= Initial drier soils tend to have higher infiltration rates than already
may become sealed. Moisture still present in the soil from a previous
= Extreme dryness where the soil surface is compacted, will lower the
(d) The time from the start of a rain – infiltration rate are high in the first ten minutes
or so after the start of a rain but gradually decreases with time and ultimately reach
small constant values an hour or more late.
Infiltration is checked by the presence if impermeable layer lies next the surface, (e.g.
tropical deserts: cliché; tropical rain forests: duricrust;
Tundra, permafrost). Precipitation cannot percolate or infiltrate for more than a few
meters at most. Infiltration is neglected on rocky or stony surfaces (such as rocky
deserts or stony deserts) although there may be some minor pores, crevices in the rock
through which water can pass.
The bare soil surface will be exposed to the direct raindrop impact of the rain drops.
The rain drop will compact the soil and also wash small particles into the open cracks
and holes. This has the effect of reducing infiltration as rain continues.
On a steep slope, water moves rapidly over the surface and hence has
(g) Animals:
deep openings along plant roots and cracks opened by earthworms and
sealed off if rainfall intensity is too great and if the soil is clayey
in texture.
~ sandy deserts have the highest infiltration rates because of the large number of
macro-pore spaces. Storage is usually at great depth, therefore water is not generally
available to vegetation. In stony or rocky deserts, infiltration is negligible.
- In the tundra,
~ the tundra soils have the lowest infiltration rate because of their thinness and
the permafrost near the soil surface.
between the particles can store water and influence the water movement.
~ when infiltration occurs during heavy and prolonged rains, the water is
lower layers.
~ when soil has been saturated by water and allows no more water to move
9. Throughflow / Interflow:
Throughflow: (表層流)
This is the downslope seepage or movement of moisture through the B horizon of soil
beneath a slope. On a vegetated surface, more of the precipitation seeps into the soil
than runs on the ground. It takes much more time for the infiltration water to reach
water table; rather, most of the water remains within the soil layer and seeps through
the soil layer in a direction more or less parallel to that of the slope surface above.
Throughflow ends up in rivers and hence is an important source of river discharge.
Interflow: (間層流)
Lateral movement of water within the parent rock above the water table.
It is increased by the presence of an impermeable layer which limits percolation to the
water table and force the water to move laterally.
This is the very slow downslope movement of underground water at water table level
to where weathered rock and unweathered bedrock meet. Underground water moves
downslope at this depth because the bedrock beneath is impermeable.
In other words, at some depth beneath the surface, the rock will be saturated and the
ground water zone is called aquifer.
According to Horton, overland flow which occurs when rainfall intensity is so great
that not all the water can infiltrate. It is the gravitational movement of water over the
surface of the earth.
Precipitation which manages to arrive at the ground surfaces somehow (as stemflow
or throughfall) first seeps into the soil until the absorption capacity is reached. The
excess water emerges as overland flow or runoff.
On a slope this occurs as a thin unchannelled film of water covering more or less the
entire surface and is known as sheetwash or sheetflow.
and make the soil more permeable to infiltrating water, thus reducing
in soil porosity.
which keeps the soil saturated, and the soil water surplus.
- In the tundra,
surface ice cover has melted, but the meltwater cannot sink into
Water falling within a drainage basin arrives at the basin floor and
eventually drains the water out of the basin is supplied with water
(a) Water, in one form or another, plays a major role in most of the
environment:
- As atmospheric moisture – an important element of weather and
climate
- It affects the rate and type of channel flow and fluvial processes.
(b) Within the drainage basin, precipitation and solar insolation are capable of
producing weathered debris within a drainage basin. Both unchannelled surface runoff
and channelled river flow can remove the weathered materials and changing the shape
of the slopes and surfaces through which they pass. The effects of weathering, slope
processes and channel processes are outlines in the next topics.
water from 1 form of storage to another. The cycling starts and runs non-
- It assumes that total volumes of water input and output must ultimately
P = ET + RO (discharge)
- the water balances equation must be correct over infinitely long time
period.
- for the finite time of any experiment, the volume of water stored in the
P = ET + RO changes in storage
D S – Depression storage
development
The water cycle may produce changes in the land surface from the moment when the
precipitation first hits the ground to when it re-enters the sea.
The amount of moisture of moisture moving through the soils influences chemical
reactions in the soil as well as its structure and profile. It is the weathering sub-system
of the drainage basin.
Water helps to shape landforms. As water moves between the land, oceans and
atmosphere, it causes degradation and aggregation. The importance of it can be seen
in the slope and channel sub-system.
The drainage basin system is made up of the weathering, slope, channel and network
subsystem. Together they form a cascading system – where the output from one is the
input of other.
Among the various hydrological processes, precipitation, overland flow and channel
flow certainly have greater roles in the formation of landforms.
Precipitation is the ultimate source of supply of liquid water and ice which are
needed for the weathering of rocks.
produces changes to slopes. The main ways by which overland flow causes
Water entering into channels moves towards the outlets of drainage basins because
of the force of gravity.
The geomorphical outcomes of this movement are the erosion or the removal of
weathered debris from the channel perimeter (beds or floor), the transportation of
weathered debris along with the channel flow towards the lower course, and the
deposition of weathered debris at the bottom and along the two sides of the
channels. Spatially, the ways in which these three outcomes are accomplished can
be detailed as follows:
1. River erosion:
(b) Abrasion – the wear and tear of rock particles forced to strike at or being
dragged along the channel bed.
(c) Solution – carbonic acid carried in the river or stream dissolves carbonate
rocks (such as limestone).
for fine particles (such as silt and clay) to move forward without
(b) Traction : larger particles like sand and gravel roll and slide along the
channel bed under the force of forward moving river water.
(c) Saltation – small particles like sand and gravel bounces and jump forward
along the channel bed under the force of forward moving river water.
(3) Deposition:
Rivers lay down their suspended load and bedload upon reaching plains or
other flat surfaces because river velocity is substantially reduced by small
channel gradients or the upstream surge of tidal water.
Given that in the long run the amount of water input into a drainage
it affects the amount of water lost from the drainage basin and the
~ Equatorial rain forest areas experience hot and humid climate. Inputs in the form of
precipitation is high, more than 2000mm per year. Rate of evaporation though high is
lower than it could be because cloud cover reduces energy input. Uplift of warm,
moist, unstable air caused by convergence of tropical air masses and aided by
convection and orographical uplift produces towering cumulus clouds when
condensation takes place due to rising air cooling and becoming saturated.
~ Much precipitation does not fall directly to the ground but is intercepted by dense
vegetation cover—some of the intercepted rain evaporates into the atmosphere but
most reaches the ground by direct throughfall and by running down trunks or dripping
off branches.
~ Vegetation acts as large storage reservoir within the water cycle. Water is absorbed
by vegetation during photosynthesis and by uptake from the soil reservoir. Large
amounts of water vapor are returned to the atmosphere by transpiration.
~ Water reaching the ground either infiltrates into soil or flows across surface as
runoff into streams and lakes. Much water is evaporated from these surfaces and
returned to the atmospheric sector.
~ Water infiltrating into soil forms a large storage reservoir available to plant roots.
Moisture extracted from this reservoir by plant roots is transported up to the biosphere
sector where it may be retained in the form of plant tissue or returned to the
atmospheric sector by transpiration.
(2) The Water Cycle in Desert Landscapes:
- Desert areas experience hot, dry climate. Inputs in form of precipitation is low which
average less than 250mm. It is due to the general subsidence and stable conditions.
Evaporation rates are high because of clear, sunny skies which gives high energy
input and prevailing low atmospheric water content.
- Most precipitation reaching the surface infiltrates into upper layers or more
commonly flows across surface as runoff. Rainfall is often intense though of short
duration. Thus, it produces sheet flow with little surface storage in lakes. Moreover,
water is rapidly evaporated and returned to atmospheric sector due to the high energy
input, hot surface and low humidity.
TUNDRA
large amount of water on ground evapotranspiration rate is rapid, forms a small storage in the
and swamps.
CASE STUDY: SHEET FLOODS AND STREAM FLOOSS
of DESERT
or rillwash.
3. In most of the time, desert stream course are dry, although there may be a
movement of water as underflows through the sands and gravels at the
bottoms of their river beds.
until eventually they reach the uplands edges and spread out
as alluvial fans.
[END]