GENERAL SCIENCE POINTERS |1

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY • Genetics: The study of heredity.

Science - is a systematic study that is concerned with facts • Medicine: The science of diagnosing, treating, and
and principles, and methods that could be observed in our preventing illness, disease, and injury.
natural or physical and social environment. It comes from
the Latin word ‘scire’ that means 'to know’. - is both a body
of knowledge and a process – a way of thinking, a way of SCIENTIFIC METHOD
solving problems Scientific Method - is the logical method used by
scientists to acquire knowledge that is used to explain
The Branches of Science different phenomena in nature. A thing observed by the
THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES senses is called a phenomenon; a scientifically tested
• Physics: The study of matter and energy and the observation is called a fact. The scientific method has
interactions between them. Physicists study such subjects six basic steps, namely:
as gravity, light, and time. Albert Einstein, a famous a. Identify and clearly state the problem. Questions
physicist, developed the Theory of Relativity. arise from something observed as unusual;
• Chemistry: The science that deals with the composition, problem that is specific, measurable, and
properties, reactions, and the structure of matter. The attainable is identified.
chemist Louis Pasteur, for example, discovered b. Gather information pertinent to the problem. This
pasteurization, which is the process of heating liquids such is done by recalling past experiences concerning
as milk and orange juice to kill harmful germs. the problem, interviewing people who are
• Astronomy: The study of the universe beyond the knowledgeable of the problem, and researching
Earth's atmosphere. in libraries and research centers.
THE EARTH SCIENCES c. Formulate hypothesis. Based on information or
• Geology: The science of the origin, history, and structure data gathered, an 'educated guess' can be made.
of the Earth, and the physical, chemical, and biological d. Test the hypothesis. Carrying out experiments.
changes that it has experienced or is experiencing. Controlled experiment - manipulating one of the
• Oceanography: The exploration and study of the ocean. conditions or factors that may affect the result of
• Paleontology: The science of the forms of life that experiment.
existed in prehistoric or geologic periods.
• Meteorology: The science that deals with the 1. Trials - number of times experiment is repeated.
atmosphere and its phenomena, such as weather and 2. Controls - factors that are kept constant
climate. throughout the experiment
3. Variables - factors that change during the
THE LIFE SCIENCES (BIOLOGY) experiment. Independent - factors that are
• Botany: The study of plants. changed. Dependent - factors that change as
• Zoology: The science that covers animals and animal a result of changes in the independent variable.
life.
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Presentation of Data Two factors affect the degree of measurements. They

1. Tables - easy to read, organized presentations. are (a.) the ability to use the measuring instruments
2. Graphs - readily show patterns of data. Line - properly and (b.) the precision of the instrument. The
proper to use when comparing two continuously unit factor method is a systematic technique for
changing variables. Bar - appropriate to use when solving numerical problems. The factors are derived
comparing a changing value with an unchanging from fixed relationships between quantities. The main
value. purpose is to cancel units not desired using fixed
e. Draw a generalization or conclusion. relationships, leaving behind the unit desired. Units of a
Conclusion - a statement about the result of the derived quantity like density may be inverted to be able
experiment. to cancel the unit not desired.
Law - a statement which describes what happens but
Metric Prefixes
does not explain the cause of the occurrence.
Theory - hypothesis that can be explained from Prefix Symbol Factor
observations. giga G 109 =1,000,000,000
f. Apply the principle (conclusion) to other situations. mega M 106 = 1,000,000
kilo k 103 = 1,000
hecto h 102 = 100
MEASUREMENT deka da 101 = 10
International System (SI) of Measurement
deci d 10-1 = 0.1
Measurement is the process of comparing a quantity with a
centi c 10-2 = 0.01
chosen standard. The International System (SI) is the milli m 10-3 = 0.001
system of units that scientists have agreed upon and is micro µ 10-6 = 0.000,001
legally enforced in almost all parts of the world. There are nano n 10-9 = 0.000,000,001
seven basic quantities in this system: pico p 10-12 = 0,000,000,000,001

Quantity Unit Temperature

Length Meters (m) Fahrenheit temperature is a scale based on 32 for the
freezing point of water and 212 for the boiling point of
Mass Kilograms (kg)
water, the interval between the two being divided into
Time Seconds (s) 180 parts.
Electric current Amperes (amp)
Celsius temperature scale also called centigrade
Temperature Kelvin (K) temperature scale, is the scale based on 0 for the
Amount of substance Moles freezing point of water and 100 for the boiling point of
Luminous intensity / light Candelas water.
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VOLUME DENSITY
Volume refers to the amount of space that an object Density is the mass of the object per unit volume.
occupies. It is often used to signify more accurate Substances differ in their densities. Each substance has
measurements. a specific density.
Volume of a Liquid. In reading the measurement of the All materials with a density less than 1 g/c3 (density of
volume of clear liquid, read the lower meniscus. For water) will float on water, and all those with density
colored liquids, read the upper meniscus. (meniscus – the greater than 1 g/c3 will sink.
curve in the upper surface of a liquid close to the surface of
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑀)
the container or another object , caused by surface 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝐷) =
tension.) 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒(𝑉)

Liquid Volume Equivalents Ex. The volume of an object weighing 2.5 g is 1.4 c3.
3 1liter (L) Will the object float or sink on water?
1dm
3 Given:
1 cm a milliliter (mL)
3
V = 1.4 c3
1000 cm 1liter M= 2.5 g
Volume of an Irregular Solid. An irregular solid is one Solution:
where a dimension cannot be measured in a single straight 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑀)
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝐷) =
line the displacement method by Archimedes is used to 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒(𝑉)
determine the volume of irregular solids.
= 2.5 g / 1.4 c3
Ex. A cylinder contains 25.9 mL of water. When a small = 1.79 g/c3
rock is placed in it, the water rises to 34.7 mL. What is the
volume of the rock?
Given: FORCE
V1 = 25.9 mL - normally refers to the measurement of a push or a pull
V2 = 34.7 ml - anything that changes the speed and direction of
Solution: moving objects or that which causes a stationary object
Vrock = 34.7 mL – 25.9 mL to start moving in a straight line
= 8.8 ml Types of Forces
NOTE: For the Volume of Regular Solid see Gravitational force – downward force that the earth
MATHEMATICS-REVIEWER pg. 27 exerts on objects
a. Inertia – tendency of an object to remain at
rest or maintain its motion unless disturbed by
a force
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b. Friction - resists / opposes the relative sliding Force - anything that causes motion or a change in
movement of two surfaces in contact with one motion
another. Displacement – the distance and direction through
c. Centripetal force – drive a thing inward toward a which an object is moved
center or rotation. It keeps an object moving in a
Ex. How much work do you do by pushing a sack of rice
circular path.
with a force of 50 N across a distance of 10 meters?
d. Force of Gravity – that which is acting on an object
Given:
which enables it to exert an equal and opposite force
F = 50 N (Newton)
on its support.
D = 10 m (Meters)
Nuclear Force - the strongest known force which holds Solution:
together the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an W=Fxd
atom. = 50 N x 10 m
= 500 N(m) or 500 J (Joules)
Electromagnetic Force - binds electrons to the atomic
nucleus, atoms in the molecules, ions in solid matter, and NOTE: Newton multiplied by meters is equal to Joules
molecules into liquids and solids.

MACHINES
MASS VS. WEIGHT Machine is any mechanical device that we use yo help
Mass indicates the quantity of matter in a material object. It us do our work, or make our work easier
does not change, thus it a property that is constant. It is
Simple Machines – machines that have only one or
measured in a unit called kilogram. Weight on the other
two parts
hand, is the measure of the pull of gravity on an object. On
a) Lever – any rigid body which is pivoted about a
earth, it depends on the mass of the object and its
point called fulcrum (e.g. crowbar, hammer,
distance from the venter of the earth. The greater the
pliers, nutcracker, tongs, table knife)
mass of an object, the greater is its weight. The closer is to
b) Pulley- a wheel with a grooved rim over which a
the center of the earth, the greater is its weight. Weight is
rope passes.( as in flag pole)
expressed in N unit. 100g = 1N
c) Wheel and axle – consists of a wheel attached to
an axle so that if you push on the wheel, the axle
WORK turns also ( e.g. doorknob, eggbeater, screw
In science, work is done only when the force applied to an driver)
object actually moves the object in the direction of the d) Inclined plane –a flat surface with one and higher
force. This is represented as: than the other. The longer it is in relation to its
height, the larger is its mechanical advantage
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (e.g. plank, ladder, winding road)
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e) Wedge – an inclined plane with either one or two f. Radiant Energy – energy of the electromagnetic
sloping sides. The smaller the angle of the wedge, waves , radio waves, infrared rays, visible light,
the greater the mechanical advantage (nail, ultraviolet rays, x rays and gamma rays.
scissors, chisel, knife) g. Nuclear Energy – energy released from nuclear
f) Screw – spiral inclined planes. Works by transferring fusion or fission of atomic nuclei of heavy element
force exerted on the circumference of the screw or light element.
(food grinder, metal screws)
Methods of Heat Transfer
Compound Machines – machines that make use of or Conduction - The molecules in a material are always
more simple machines moving. When one part of a material is heated, the
molecules in that part move faster and collide with other
molecules. As this goes on, heat is conducted from
ENERGY molecule to molecule until the heat is spread throughout
The term energy is derived from the Greek word, energeial the material. This is conduction. A conductor is the
(en meaning in and ergon , meaning work). Anything that is material through which heat passes easily. An insulator
able to do work possesses energy. Energy is the ability to is a material that conducts heat poorly.
do work or the ability to exert force on an object and make Convection - The movement of a gas or liquid brought
it move. about by temperature differences creates convection
Forms of Energy current. Heat is transferred by Convection when a gas
a. Mechanical Energy : kinetic energy – energy or liquid moves from one place to another.
possessed by an object or a body in motion : potential Radiation - Heat transfer when heat is given of in all
energy - energy possessed by a body because of its directions around them is radiation. The sun and other
position or state hot objects radiate energy.
b. Internal Energy or Thermal Energy – total energy
coming from the attractive and repulsive forces of all Energy Resources
the particles or molecules in a body a. Fossil Fuels
c. Heat Energy – energy which flows from one body to 1. Coal – being mined formed from trees and other
another due to a temperature difference between vegetation buried in swamps crated by the
them, and the flow is always from the hotter to the encroaching sea
colder body 2. Petroleum - a liquid mixture of gaseous liquid
d. Electrical Energy – electricity is the energy of and solid hydrocarbons.
electrons flowing through conductors. 3. Natural Gas- composed entirely of carbon and
e. Chemical Energy – energy stored in matter due to hydrogen. It is 50 to 94% methane and other
forces of attraction and to the arrangement of hydrocarbons.
subatomic particles in atoms and of atoms in the b. Hydroelectric Power pertains to the production of
molecules of substances electricity by means of generators driven by water
turbines

c. Geothermal Energy - Thermal energy inside the

earth, energy of steam from beneath the earth’s surface
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c. Geothermal Energy - Thermal energy inside the earth, FORMATION OF SOLAR SYSTEM
energy of steam from beneath the earth’s surface As matter began to condense and stars began to
d. Wind Energy - energy harnessed through the windmill form, one such star appeared where the Sun now
e. Solar Energy - energy from the sun, radiant energy. The appears within the Milky Way Galaxy. After igniting with
visible light is harnessed to produce the electricity by fusion and burning its usable hydrogen and other larger
means of so-called solar cells or photovoltaic cells, which elements, the star exploded, sending matter out in all
generate electricity when exposed to sunlight directions. Once again, through gravitational forces, this
G matter eventually cooled and collected in a few key
areas, forming the planets and the asteroid belt. The
FORMATION OF EARTH asteroid belt is simply an early form of the collection of
Big Bang Theory matter that was not able to completely form a planet
due to Jupiter's gravity. Some early planets may have
In the beginning there is only a super-massive collided with other early planets, creating larger planets,
gaseous point in our empty universe. Instantaneously and moons, or possibly space rocks. In the meantime, a
randomly, enough energy is created to break the smaller star began to form at the center of the previous
gravitational bond holding this massive body together, explosion and our Sun started its fusion process again.
exploding the super-heated particles throughout space. In
less than one millionth of a second, protons, neutrons,
electrons, and their anti-particles begin to form. EARTH’S STRUCTURE
As time moves on, particles begin to cool by giving off
energy, which allows them to combine to create the first Core - The inner part of the earth is the core. This part
and most simple ion, hydrogen, as well as a few more of the earth is about 1,800 miles (2,900 km) below the
massive atoms. More time passes; the atoms are earth's surface. The core is a dense ball of the elements
becoming more abundant in the universe. They begin to iron and nickel. It is divided into two layers, the inner
pull together through atomic forces and the gravitational core and the outer core.
force. Gaseous bodies become more massive, attracting The inner core - the center of earth - is solid and about
more atoms and becoming more massive. The gravitational 780 miles (1,250 km) thick. The outer core is so hot
force of these early bodies is so great that they collapse in that the metal is always molten, but the inner core
on themselves, beginning fusion. pressures are so great that it cannot melt, even though
Hydrogen atoms combine, yielding larger atoms and temperatures there reach 6700ºF (3700ºC).
enormous amounts of energy; enough energy to keep
these stars from collapsing. Eventually, the fusion process The outer core is about 1370 miles (2,200 km) thick.
has to end and the star will explode, sending out more Because the earth rotates, the outer core spins around
massive atoms into the universe. Over time, these atoms the inner core and that causes the earth's magnetism
collect and combine to create planets, smaller stars,
asteroids, and numerous other solid bodies.
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Mantle - The layer above the core is the mantle. It begins PLATE TECTONICS
about 6 miles (10 km) below the oceanic crust and about
19 miles (30 km) below the continental crust (see Crust). The earth's crust consists of a number of moving
The mantle is to divide into the inner mantle and the outer pieces or plates that are always colliding or pulling apart.
mantle. It is about 1,800 miles (2,900 km) thick and makes The Lithosphere consists of nine large plates and twelve
up nearly 80 percent of the Earth's total volume. smaller ones. The continents are imbedded in continental
plates; the oceanic plates make up much of the sea floor.
Crust - The crust lies above the mantle and is the earth's The force that causes the movement of the tectonic plates
hard outer shell, the surface on which we are living. In may be the slow churning of the mantle beneath them.
relation with the other layers the crust is much thinner. It Mantle rock is constantly moved upwards to the surface by
floats upon the softer, denser mantle. The crust is made the high temperatures below and then sinks by cooling.
up of solid material but these material is not everywhere This cycle takes millions of years.
the same. There is an Oceanic crust and a Continental
crust. The first one is about 4-7 miles (6-11 km) thick and Continental Drift - The drift of the plates across the
consists of heavy rocks, like basalt. The Continental crust surface of the earth has been going on over millions of
is thicker than the Oceanic crust, about 19 miles (30 km) years, which still changes the outward appearance of the
thick. It is mainly made up of light material, like granite. earth.
Diverging Plates - Where plates pull apart, hot molten
rock (fluid magma) emerges as lava and so new matter is
added to the plates. In this way new oceanic plates are
formed. The place where this happens is known as a mid-
ocean ridge. Mid-ocean ridges are rarely more than about
4,920 ft. (1,500 m) high, but they may snake along the
ocean bed for thousands of miles
Converging Plates - huge plates are slowly moving
together with unimaginable force. Sometimes the edge of
one plate is gradually destroyed by the force of collision;
sometimes the impact simply crimps the plates' edges,
thereby creating great mountain ranges. When one tectonic
plate bends (a dense oceanic plate) beneath the other
(lighter continental plate), it is called subduction. The
oceanic plate dips beneath into the Asthenosphere.
Through the heat of the Asthenosphere the subducted
plate melts. At the surface an ocean trench is created,
followed by an arc of islands
Fig.1
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Seafloor Spreading - When continental plates collide, one VOLCANOES

of the plates splits up into two layers: a lower layer of Volcano is a gap in the earth where molten rock
dense mantle rock and an upper layer of lighter crystal and other materials come to the earth's surface. Magma
rock. As the mantle layer subducts, the upper layer is is molten rock that occurs by partial melting of the crust
peeled off and crumples up against the other plate, thus and the mantle by high temperatures deep down in the
forming mountain ranges, like the Alps. These are called ground. Once magma comes to the earth's surface it is
crumpled mountains. called lava.
There are volcanoes in different phases of activity:
Active volcanoes, which are likely to erupt at any
moment, dormant volcanoes, which lie dormant for
centuries, but then erupt suddenly and violently, and
extinct volcanoes, ones no longer likely to erupt.
Types of Volcanoes
This is a broad, shallow
volcanic cone, which arises
Shield Volcano because the running lava,
which is fluid and hot, cools
slowly
This one has a steep,
Dome Volcano convex slope from thick, fast-
cooling lava
Throws out - besides lava -
much ash into the air.
Through this the volcanic
Ash-Cinder Volcano
Fig.2 cone is built up from
alternate layers of ash and
cinder
Diastrophism - the process which involves movements of
These are also built up from
the earth’s crust such that a portion id pushed up, push
alternate layers of lava and
down or forced sideways Composite Volcano ash but, besides its main
 Folding – the process when the sideward forces crater, it has many little
acting on rocks deform the rocks into wavelike folds craters on its slope.
after tilting, bending of wrinkling. An older volcano with a large
crater which can be 62
 Faulting sliding or moving over of rock layers over Caldera Volcano miles(100km) wide. In this
one another along the break or fracture, may occur crater many little new craters
vertically or horizontally. are formed.
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EARTHQUAKES Rock Cycle

An Earthquake is in fact the shaking of the ground The three major types of rocks, igneous,
caused by sudden movements in the earth's crust. The sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks are interrelated by
biggest earthquakes are set off by the movement of a series of natural processes. Igneous rocks form from
tectonic plates. By this, vibrations or shock waves are the cooling and crystallization of hot molten lava and
caused, which go through the ground. It is these vibrations magma. Igneous rocks undergo weathering and
or seismic waves which cause an earthquake. The closer erosion to form sediments.
to the source of the earthquake (the focus or hypocenter), Sediments are deposited and lithified by
the more damage occurs. Earthquakes are classified compaction and cementation to form sedimentary
according to the depth of the focus. The closer the focus to rocks. Sedimentary rocks become buried by additional
the surface, the heavier the earthquake is. The earthquake sedimentary deposition, and when they are deep within
is always the most intense on the surface directly above the Earth, they are subjected to heat and pressure
the focus (Epicenter). In general big earthquakes begin which causes them to become metamorphic rocks.
with light vibrations (foreshocks). These are the initial With further burial and heating, the metamorphic rocks
fractures in the rocks. After the main shock, there may be begin to melt. Partially molten metamorphic rocks are
minor aftershocks, most of the time for months. This occurs known as magmatite.
as the rocks settle down. As melting proceeds with increasing temperatures
and depths of burial, eventually the rock becomes
molten and becomes magma, which cools and
ROCKS crystallizes to form plutonic igneous rock, or which is
erupted onto the Earth's surface as lava, and cools and
Rocks are classified in three types based on how they are crystallizes to form volcanic igneous rock.
formed.
Further complications within the rock cycle include
a) Igneous rocks are formed when magma cools and (1) weathering of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks
solidifies. Intrusive igneous rocks solidify beneath (in addition to igneous rocks), and (2) metamorphism of
Earth's surface; Extrusive igneous rocks solidify at igneous rocks and repeated metamorphism of
the surface. Examples: Granite, basalt, obsidian metamorphic rocks.
b) Sedimentary rocks are formed when sediment (bits
of rock plus material such as shells and sand) gets Weathering - Breaking down of rocks brought about by
packed together. They can take millions of years to either physical or chemical means giving rise to
form. Examples: Limestone, sandstone, shale sediments or their rock fragments
c) Metamorphic rocks are sedimentary or igneous Types of Weathering
rocks that have been transformed by heat, pressure
or both. Metamorphic rocks are usually formed deep A. Physical or mechanical weathering
within Earth, during a process such as mountain  Frost wedging - water expands when it freezes
building. Examples: Schist, marble, slate
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 Exfoliation or unloading - rock breaks off into leaves  Oxidation

or sheets along joints which parallel the ground  Oxygen combines with iron-bearing silicate
surface; caused by expansion of rock due to uplift minerals causing "rusting"
and erosion; removal of pressure of deep burial  Iron oxides are produced. Iron oxides are
 Thermal expansion - repeated daily heating and red, orange, or brown in color
cooling of rock; heat causes expansion; cooling  Mafic rocks such as basalt (which may
causes contraction. Different minerals expand and contain olivine, pyroxene, or amphibole)
contract at different rates causing stresses along weather by oxidation to an orange color
mineral boundaries.  "Georgia Red Clay" derives its color from
the oxidation of iron bearing minerals
B. Chemical weathering  Hydrolysis
 Dissolution (or solution)
 Several common minerals dissolve in water C. Biological weathering
o Halite
Organisms can assist in breaking down rock into
o Calcite
sediment or soil.
 Limestone and marble contain calcite and are
soluble in acidic water 1. Roots of trees and other plants
 Marble tombstones and carvings are 2. Lichens, fungi, and other micro-organisms
particularly susceptible to chemical weathering 3. Animals (including humans)
by dissolution. Note that the urn and tops of Erosion - the process by which rock fragments and
ledges are heavily weathered, but the sediments are carried along by such agents as wind
inscriptions are somewhat sheltered and and running water
remain legible. Deposition - the process by which rock fragments and
 Caves and caverns typically form in limestone sediments ae carried by agents of erosion are dropprd
o speleothems are cave formations or deposited in other places.
o speleothems are made of calcite Compacting – the process by which rock fragments
o form a rock called travertine and other materials that accumulated, usually at the
o stalactites - hang from ceiling bottom of a thick column of water, get cemented
o stalagmites - on the ground together and harden into rock
 Karst topography forms on limestone terrain Methamorphism - a change in constitution of a rock
and is characterized by: brought about by pressure, heat and chemical action
o caves/caverns, resulting in a more compact and highly crystalline
o sinkholes, condition of the rock
o disappearing streams, Melting
o springs Cooling and Solidifying
 E A R T H P O I N T E R S | 25

MINERALS AND GEMS The troposphere is normally warmest at ground level

Minerals are solid, inorganic (not living) substances that and cools higher up where it reaches its upper
are found in and on earth. Most are chemical compounds, boundary (the tropopause). The tropopause varies in
which mean they are made up of two or more elements. height. At the equator it is at 11.2 miles(8 km) high, at
For example, the mineral sapphire is made up of 50 N and 50 S, 5.6 miles(9 km) and at the poles 3.7
aluminum and oxygen. A few minerals, such as gold, silver miles(6 km) high.
and copper, are made from a single element. Minerals are Stratosphere - extends from the tropopause up to its
considered the building blocks of rocks. Rocks can be a boundary (the Stratopause), 31 miles (50 km) above
combination of as many as six minerals. the Earth's surface. In this layer there are 19 percent of
Gems are minerals or pearls that have been cut and the atmosphere's gases and it contains little water
polished. They are used as ornaments, such as jewelry. vapor. Compared to the troposphere it is calm in this
Precious stones are the most valuable gems. They include layer. The movements of the gases are slow. Within the
diamonds, rubies and emeralds. stratosphere is the ozone layer, a band of ozone gas
that absorbs harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun. The
higher you get in the atmosphere, the warmer the air
ATMOSPHERE gets. The temperature rises from -76 ºF (-60 ºC) at the
The earth is surrounded by all kind of gases. This layer is bottom to a maximum of about 5 ºF(10 ºC) at the
called the earth's Atmosphere. Without this atmosphere stratopause.
life on earth isn't possible. It gives us air, water, heat, and
protects us against harmful rays of the sun and against Mesosphere - is the next layer above the stratopause
meteorites and extends to its upper boundary (the Mesopause), at
This layer around the earth is a colorless, odorless, 50 miles (80 km) above the ground. The gases in the
tasteless 'sea' of gases, water and fine dust. The mesosphere are too thin to absorb much of the sun's
atmosphere is made up of different layers with different heat, although the air is still thick enough to slow down
qualities. It consists of 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent meteorites hurtling into the atmosphere. They burn up,
oxygen, 0.93 percent argon, 0.03 percent carbon dioxide leaving fiery trails in the night sky. The temperatures in
and 0.04 percent of other gases. the mesosphere drop to -184 ºF (-120 ºC) at the
mesopause.
Layers of the Atmosphere
Thermosphere - is the layer above the mesopause.
Troposphere - is the lowest layer of the atmosphere and The gases of the thermosphere are even thinner than
measures about 7 miles (12 km). It contains over 75 those in the mesosphere, but they absorb ultraviolet
percent of all the atmosphere's gases and vast quantities light from the sun. Because of this, the temperatures
of water and dust. As the sun heats the ground, it keeps rise to 3,600 ºF (2,000 ºC) at the top. This is at a height
this thick mixture churning. The weather is caused by these of 430 miles (700 km) of the earth's surface.
churnings of the mass.
 E A R T H P O I N T E R S | 26

Ionosphere - is part of the thermosphere and extends of

62 miles (100 km) to 190 miles (300 km) of the earth's
surface. It is made of electrically charged gas particles
(ionized). The particles get this electric charge by ultraviolet
rays of the sun. The ionosphere has the important quality
Fig.3
of bouncing radio signals, transmitted from the earth.
That’s why places all over the world can be reached via Land Breeze (fig.4)
radio. On clear and calm evenings, the earth's surface cools
by radiating (giving off) heat back into space, and this
Exosphere - is the outermost layer of the atmosphere and
result in a cooling of the immediately overlying air.
extends from 430 miles (700 km) to 500 miles (800 km)
above the ground. In this layer gases get thinner and Since the air over land cools more rapidly than the air
thinner and drift off into space. over water, a temperature difference is established, with
cooler air present over land and relatively warmer air
located over water
AIR
Air Movement - Warm air is less dense than cold air.
Thus, warm air rises above cold air making the pressure
below lower. The horizontal movement of air from high
Fig.4
pressure area to lower pressure area produces wind.
Air Pollution
Sea Breeze (fig. 3) When large amount of dust, soot, bacteria, and other
The sun's energy begins to warm the land more rapidly harmful gases get into the air, air is being polluted.
than the water. By later in the day, the temperatures of the Today, the main sources of air pollution in the
land increases while the temperature of the water remains Philippines are: 1) industry and 2) transportation
relatively constant. This occurs because water, especially Major Air Pollutants
large bodies of water like a lake or ocean, are able to
absorb more energy than land without warming. As the
land absorbs energy from the sun, heat is radiated back
into the atmosphere (from the earth), warming the overlying
air. Some of this heat is transported to higher levels in the
atmosphere through convection. On the other hand, since
the temperature of the water remains relatively constant
throughout the day, the air over the water is not heated
from below (as over land), resulting in lower air
temperatures over the water.
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WEATHER AND CLIMATE Thunderstorms affect small areas when compared

Weather - describes the condition of the atmosphere in a with hurricanes and winter storms. The typical
particular time (cool and dry, humid, windy, rainy, or thunderstorm is 15 miles in diameter and lasts an
stormy) average of 30 minutes. Nearly 1,800 thunderstorms are
Climate - average weather in a region over a number of happening at any moment around the world.
years or usually decades (tropical) Despite their small size, all thunderstorms are
Clouds - little drop of water or ice hanging in the dangerous. Every thunderstorm produces lightning,
atmosphere. A ceilometer measures the height of clouds. which kills more people each year than tornadoes.
Descriptive Strong winds, hail, and tornadoes are also dangers
Cloud Type Description
Name associated with some thunderstorms.
Cirrus Mare’s tail thin, feathery Thunderstorms need three things:
small patches of  Moisture — to form clouds and rain.
Cirrocumulus Mackerel sky  Unstable Air — relatively warm air that can rise
white
rapidly.
Cirrostratus Bed sheet clouds thin, white sheets
 Lift— fronts, sea breezes and mountains are
Stratus High fogs low, gray blanket capable of lifting air to help form thunderstorms.
flat-bottomed, Lightning - the action of rising and descending air
Cumulus Cauliflowers
white puffy within a thunderstorm separates positive and negative
mountains of charges. Water and ice particles also affect the
Cumulonimbus Thunderheads heavy, dark distribution of electrical charge. Lightning results from
clouds the buildup and discharge of electrical energy between
Winds positively and negatively charged areas. Most lightning
The major wind systems in the Philippines are: occurs within the cloud or between the cloud and
a) Northeast Trade Winds – from north, north east and ground.
east The air near a lightning strike is hotter than the surface
b) Southwest Monsoon (habagat) – originates from of the sun! The rapid heating and cooling of air near the
Southeast Trade winds south of the equator lightning channel causes a shock wave that result in
c) Northeast monsoon (amihan)- from east, south east thunder.

Cyclones – low pressure areas in the tropics Ozone Layer

a) tropical depression - with wind speed of less than 63 Ozone is a molecule containing three oxygen atoms. It
kph is blue in color and has a strong odor. Normal oxygen,
b) tropical storm – with wind speed of 63-118 kph which we breathe, has two oxygen atoms and is
c) typhoon – with wind speed of more than 118 kph colorless and odorless. Ozone is much less common
than normal oxygen.
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The ozone layer absorbs a portion of the radiation from galaxy and the temperature in its core is estimated to be
the sun, preventing it from reaching the planet's surface. over 15,000,000 degrees Celsius.
Most importantly, it absorbs the portion of ultraviolet light In the Sun's core, hydrogen is being fused to form
called UVB. UVB has been linked to many harmful effects, helium. The energy created by this process radiates up
including various types of skin cancer, cataracts, and harm to the visible boundary of the Sun and then off into
to some crops, certain materials, and some forms of space. It radiates into space in the form of heat and
marine life. light.
At any given time, ozone molecules are constantly formed Because the Sun is so massive, it exerts a powerful
and destroyed in the stratosphere. The total amount, gravitational pull on everything in our solar system. It is
however, remains relatively stable. Recently, however, because of the Sun's gravitational pull that Earth orbits
convincing scientific evidence has shown that the ozone the Sun in the manner that it does.
shield is being depleted well beyond changes due to
The Sun has several layers: the core, the radiation
natural processes.
zone, the convection zone, and the photosphere (which
CFCs - are stable substances that only exposure to strong is the surface of the Sun). In addition, there are two
UV radiation breaks them down. When that happens, the layers of gas above the photosphere called the
CFC molecule releases atomic chlorine. One chlorine atom chromosphere and the corona.
can destroy over 100,000 ozone molecules. The net effect
The Sun gives off many kinds of radiation other than
is to destroy ozone faster than it is naturally created.
light and heat. It also emits radio waves, ultraviolet rays,
and X-rays. The Earth's atmosphere protects us from
ASTRONOMY the harmful effects of the ultraviolet rays and the X-rays.
The Universe The Sun does rotate, but because it is a large gaseous
 13.7 billion years: Age of the universe sphere, not all parts rotate at the same speed.
 200 million years: Interval between the Big Bang and This is known as a differential rotation.
the appearance of the first stars
 4%: Proportion of the universe that is ordinary matter  Corona - The very hot outermost layer of a star's
 23%: Proportion that is dark matter atmosphere. Our Sun's corona can only be seen
 73%: Proportion that is dark energy during a total solar eclipse.
 Solar Flares - A magnetic storm on the Sun's
The Solar System surface which shows up as a sudden increase in
 Sun brightness.
The diameter of our closest star, the Sun, is  Solar Prominences - Gases trapped at the edge
1,392,000 kilometers. The Sun is thought to be 4.6 of the Sun which appear to shoot outward from
billion years old. The Sun is a medium–size star the Sun's surface.
known as a yellow dwarf. It is a star in the Milky Way  Solar wind - A continuous stream of charged
 E A R T H P O I N T E R S | 30

which are released from the Sun and hurled  Jupiter - A belt of asteroids (fragments of rock
outward into space at speeds up to 800 kilometers and iron) between Mars and Jupiter separate the
per second. Solar winds are very prominent after four inner planets from the five outer planets. It is
solar flare activity. the largest planet in our solar system. About
 Sunspot - A magnetic storm on the Sun's surface 1,300 Earths would fit into it. Viewed through a
which appears as a dark area. A sunspot is large telescope, Jupiter is stunningly colorful—it
approximately 1500 degrees Celsius cooler than its is a disk covered with bands of blue, brown, pink,
surrounding material. The number of sunspots we red, orange, and yellow. Its most distinguishing
see on the Sun at any given time appears to cycle feature is “the Great Red Spot,” an intense
every 11 years. windstorm larger in size than Earth, which has
continued for centuries without any signs of dying
Planets
down. It has 63 moons and 4 rings.
 Mercury - the planet closest to the Sun, has almost
no atmosphere, and its dusty surface of craters  Saturn - the second-largest planet has majestic
resembles the Moon. It travels around the Sun faster rings surrounding it. It was the farthest planet
than any other planet. Mercury is difficult to see from known by the ancients. Saturn's seven rings are
Earth—in fact, the famous astronomer Nicolaus flat and lie inside one another. They are made of
Copernicus, for all his years of research and billions of ice particles. It has 31 moons and
observation, never once was able to see Mercury. about 1000 rings.
 Venus - is often called Earth's twin because the two  Uranus - is a greenish-blue planet, twice as far
planets are close in size, but that's the only from the Sun as its neighbor Saturn. Uranus
similarity. The thick clouds that cover Venus create wasn't discovered until 1781. It has 27 moons
a greenhouse effect that keeps it sizzling at 864°F. It and 11 rings.
is also known as the “morning star” and “evening
star” since it is visible at these times to the unaided  Neptune, it is a stormy blue planet about 30
eye. Venus appears as a bright, white disk from times farther from the Sun than Earth. Neptune
Earth. was discovered when astronomers realized that
something was exerting a gravitational pull on
 Earth - is not perfectly round; it bulges at the Uranus, and that it was possible that an unknown
equator and is flatter at the poles. From space the planet might be responsible. Through
planet looks blue with white swirls, created by water mathematical calculations, astronomers
and clouds. determined there was indeed an undiscovered
 Mars – it’s blood-red color (which comes from iron- planet out in space—a year before it was
rich dust). Three-quarters red, Mars also has dark actually seen for the first time through a
blotches on it and white areas at the poles—these telescope (in 1846). It has 13 satellites and 4
are white polar ice caps. rings.

 Pluto
 Pluto, named after the Roman and Greek god of
 E A R T H P O I N T E R S | 31

 Pluto – it is the coldest, smallest, and outermost Scientists theorize that the Moon was the result of a
planet in our solar system. Pluto and its moon, collision between Earth and an object the size of Mars.
Charon, are called “double planets” because Charon One theory states that the debris from the impact was
is so large it seems less of a moon than another hurtled into space where, due to gravity, it combined.
planet. Pluto was predicted to exist in 1905 and This resulted in the formation of the Moon.
discovered in 1930. It is the only planet that has not
The gravitational pull of the Moon on the Earth affects
yet been studied closely by a space probe. During
the ocean tides on Earth. The closer the Moon is to
each revolution around the sun, Pluto passes inside
Earth, the greater the effect. The time between high
Neptune's orbit for 20 years, making Neptune the
tides is about 12 hours and 25 minutes.
outermost planet for that time. Pluto passed inside
Neptune's orbit in 1979 and remained there until “Full Moon and No Moon describe two phases of the
1999. Moon as it orbits Earth. When the Moon is between the
Sun and the Earth, its sunlit side is turned away from
Moons
the Earth and we say there is no Moon. When the Earth
Earth's Moon is a small ball of gray rock revolving 239,000
is between the Sun and Moon, we can see the entire
miles around Earth. It is just one of many in the solar
sunlit side of the Moon and call it a full Moon.
system. The Moon has no air and no water. It is about one-
fourth as large as Earth.
The Moon travels around Earth in an oval orbit at 36,800
kilometers per hour. The Moon does not have an
atmosphere, so temperatures range from -184 degrees
Celsius during its night to 214 degrees Celsius during its
day except at the poles where the temperature is a
constant -96 degrees Celsius.
The Moon is actually a little lopsided due to the lunar crust Fig. 5
being thicker on one side than the other. When you look at Space Glossary
the Moon, you will see dark and light areas. The dark areas  Galaxies are immense systems containing
are young plains called maria and are composed of basalt. billions of stars. Astronomers have estimated that
The basalt flowed in and flooded the area created by a the universe could contain 40 to 50 billion
huge impact with an asteroid or comet. The light areas are galaxies. Galaxies have different shapes: some
the highlands, which are mountains that were uplifted as a are spiral, others are elliptical, or oval- shaped,
result of impacts. The lunar surface is covered by a fine- and some are irregular.
grained soil called “regolith” which results from the constant  The Milky Way is our own galaxy. Just about all
bombardment of the lunar rocks by small meteorites. that you can see in the sky belongs to our
galaxy—a system of roughly 200 billion stars
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The Milky Way is a spiral-shaped galaxy about disintegrate before reaching Earth. Those that do
100,000 light-years in diameter and about 10,000 not disintegrate completely but fall to Earth are
light-years in thickness. called meteorites.
 Planet is the term used for a body in orbit around  Stars are composed of intensely hot gasses,
the Sun. deriving their energy from nuclear reactions
 Satellite (or moon) is the term for a body in orbit going on in their interiors. Our Sun is the nearest
around a planet. star. Stars are very large — some are even
 Orbit is the term for the path traveled by a body in bigger than planets. Our Sun has a diameter of
space. It comes from the Latin orbis, which means 865,400 miles—making it a comparatively small
circle. Some orbits are nearly circular, but the orbits star
of most planets are ellipses—shaped like ovals.  White dwarfs occur when a star runs out of
 Asteroids, also known as the minor planets, are energy and shuts down. The force of gravity at its
small bodies orbiting the Sun that resemble planets. center pulls the mass of the star in on itself,
More than 5,000 asteroids have been discovered, forcing it to collapse. It resembles the glowing
and most are found between Mars and Jupiter. cinders of a fire that has died down. It is called
Usually having an irregular shape, asteroids—at a white dwarf because it emits a white glow.
least those discovered thus far—can range in size  Brown Dwarfs are also called failed stars. They
from 580 miles (940 km) in diameter, which is the lack enough energy to be true stars but are also
size of the asteroid Ceres, to just 33 ft. (10 m) in too massive and hot to be planets.
diameter.  A supernova is an extremely large exploding
 Comets are made up of frozen dust and gases, and star. Just before the star dies, it releases huge
have been described as large, dirty snowballs with amounts of energy, briefly becoming millions of
icy centers. They often travel on extremely times brighter than it was. Then it immediately
elongated orbits around the Sun. Some comets shrinks.
have orbits that take just 10 years to circumnavigate  Neutron stars are formed after a supernova
while other comets have orbits that take hundreds of explodes and shrinks. The shrunken form of the
thousands of years to circulate. The tail of a comet, star becomes incredibly dense and compact as
called a coma, forms when the comet comes within gravity pulls all of its matter inward. It becomes
100 million miles of the Sun. It is then affected by so compressed that a million tons of its matter
the solar wind (hydrogen and helium that travel would hardly fill a thimble. This density crushes
away from the Sun at high speeds), which causes a together the electrons and protons that make up
tail of dust and gases to form behind the comet. its atoms turning them into neutrons.
 Meteors are fragments of comets, planets, moons,  Pulsars are believed to be rapidly spinning
or asteroids that have broken off. It is estimated that neutron stars that give off bursts of radio waves
a billion meteors enter our atmosphere every day. at regular intervals. Pulsar is a shortened version
Contact with our atmosphere causes most to of Puls[ating st]ar.
disintegrate before reaching Earth. Those that do 
not disintegrate completely but fall to Earth are  Quasars (quas[istell]ar objects) are believed to
called meteorites. be the most remote objects in the universe.
 B I O L O G Y P O I N T E R S | 23

 Quasars (quas[istell]ar objects) are believed to be the a) Carbohydrates - are made up of carbon,
most remote objects in the universe. Despite their hydrogen, and oxygen (e.g., sugar, starches, and
small size they produce tremendous amounts of light cellulose) atoms. They have the general formula
and microwave radiation: not much bigger than CnH2nOn. Their sizes range from the small
Earth's solar system, they pour out 100 to 1,000 times simple sugars like glucose and fructose to the
as much light as an entire galaxy containing a large and complex forms like starch and glycogen.
hundred billion stars. Only the simple sugars (monosaccharides) can
 A black hole is created by the total gravitational easily pass across cell membranes. Most
collapse of a massive star or group of stars. It is the carbohydrates serve as energy molecules or
final phase of some stars, in which gravity sucks the energy reserves in living organisms. Cellulose -
star in on itself—it implodes rather than explodes. gives strength and protection to plant cells.
This makes it so dense that not even light can escape b) Lipids – are macromolecules such as fats, oils
its gravitational field. and waxes. They are made up of carbon,
 A nebula is a giant glowing cloud thought to be made hydrogen, and oxygen. The building blocks used
up of dust and gas. Nebulae were thought to have to form fats are fatty acids and glycerol. Some
been galaxies that appeared as a blur because they excess food in the body is stored as fats. Lipids
were so far away, but as more powerful telescopes that are liquid at room temperature are known as
were created, they showed that nebulae were not oils. Waxes serves as protective body covering to
clumps of stars but in fact a hazy cloud of gasses. A organisms. They make plant and animal tissues
nebula is illuminated by bright stars nearby. More water-resistant.
than 300 nebulae have been named. c) Proteins - are made up of repeating units of
amino acids. They are a component of the
muscles and all other tissues. In the form of
BIOLOGY enzymes, they control the rate of chemical
- the area of science dealing with living things. It includes reactions inside the cell. Without the enzymes,
biological concepts and process skills, technology and such chemical processes hardly occur.
attitudes and values for addressing the needs and d) Enzymes - are proteins that act as catalysts
problems of society. In recent years, the development (substances that can increase or speed up
of techniques in genetic engineering and increased chemical reaction). Enzymes are specific in their
understanding of the molecular basis of cellular actions. They are not used up in the reaction.
processes have led to the emergence of a new and e) Nucleic Acids - are carriers of hereditary
exciting field of scientific research called biotechnology. information in living organisms. What an
organism looks like, and what it can do, are
Organic Compounds controlled by nucleic acids.
- characterized by the presence of carbon. f) Vitamins - are substances necessary in very small
amount for body growth and activity.
 B I O L O G Y P O I N T E R S | 24

Vitamins are organic substances essential to life but not d) An internal balance in all aspects of metabolism
the required as energy sources. Sources of most vitamins and biological function is called homeostasis.
are plants and bacteria. e) Digestion is a special form of catabolism that
Inorganic Compounds breaks food down into smaller molecules and
- characterized by the absence of carbon. releases energy.
a) Water - is the most abundant inorganic compound. f) Absorption allows small molecules to pass
About 65% to 95% of the substances of every living through cell membranes throughout the body
thing is water. It is the medium of transport for food, tissues. This allows for a gas exchange and in
minerals and other substances in living system. some species such as plants and fungi nutrients
b) Carbon dioxide - supplies the carbon found in are obtained by absorption from soil and water.
substances made by living things. - are chemical g) The behavior of living things is a response to
elements or compounds occurring naturally. They stimuli in the environment. These stimuli may
may come from the soil maybe dissolved in water, or include things such as light, chemical signals,
maybe found as salt in seawater. Minerals are noise, or a change in the seasons.
absorbed by plant roots in the form of ions. h) Excretion is the elimination of waste products.
Life Functions i) Reproduction is the process by which an
a) Nutrition is the process of ingesting and absorbing organism produces offspring. Its main purpose is
food to provide the energy for life, promote growth, for the perpetuation of species.
and repair or replace damages tissues. j) Asexual - is the reproduction without the use of
b) Transport involves movement of nutrients water, gametes or sex cells. One parent organism ran
ions, and other materials into and out of the various reproduce by itself.
cells and tissues of organisms. This process  Fission - is the splitting of the body of an
includes absorption of small molecules across cell organism into two identical parts. (e.g.,
membranes and secretion of biochemical such as Paramecia and planaria)
enzymes, mucous, and hormones. In many species,  Budding - is the growing of bud out of the
the circulatory system plays an important role in parent cells of bodies which when
transport. detached can grow into another organism
c) Metabolism includes the process by which nutrients that resembles the appearance of parent
and simple molecules are used to form more (e.g., sponges, and yeast)
complex molecules for growth, repair, and  Sporulation - is the spore formation as in
reproduction (anabolism). Metabolism also includes fern plant and mushrooms.
the process of breaking down complex molecules to
release energy from chemical bonds (catabolism) k) Sexual - requires the union of male and female
and to provide small molecules such as simple gametes called "fertilization. Male gametes are
sugars and amino acids as budding blocks for more called sperm cells and female gametes are
complex molecules (anabolism). called egg cells.
 B I O L O G Y P O I N T E R S | 25

 External Fertilization - the union of sperm

cells and egg cells happen outside the body of
the female organisms. (e.g., seashells,
starfishes, frogs, fishes)
 Internal Fertilization - the union of sperm cells
and egg cells happen inside the body of a
female organism (e.g., higher forms of animals
and human)

CELL
- are the smallest structures capable of basic life
processes, such as taking in nutrients, expelling waste,
and reproducing. All living things are composed of cells.
Some microscopic organisms, such as bacteria and
protozoa, are unicellular, meaning they consist of a Fig. 6
single cell. Plants, animals, and fungi are multicellular;
that is, they are composed of a great many cells Anatomy of a Simple Bacterium
working in concert. Bacteria cells typically are surrounded by a rigid,
Cell Structure protective cell wall. The cell membrane, also called the
plasma membrane, regulates passage of materials into
Prokaryotic Cell and out of the cytoplasm, the semi-fluid that fills the cell.
- found only in bacteria and archaebacteria, all the The DNA, located in the nucleoid region, contains the
components, including the DNA, mingle freely in the genetic information for the cell. Ribosomes carry out
cell’s interior, a single compartment. protein synthesis. Many bacteria contain a pilus (plural
- are among the tiniest of all cells, ranging in size from pili), a structure that extends out of the cell to transfer
0.0001 to 0.003 mm (0.000004 to 0.0001 in) in DNA to another bacterium. The flagellum, found in
diameter. numerous species, is used for locomotion.Some bacteria
- can be rod like, spherical, or spiral in shape, are contain a plasmid, a small chromososme with extra
surrounded by a protective cell wall. genes. Others have a capsule, a sticky substance
- live in a watery environment, whether it is soil external to the cell wall that protects bacteria from attack
moisture, a pond, or the fluid surrounding cells in the by white blood cells. Mesosomes were formerly thought
human body. Tiny pores in the cell wall enable water to be structures with unknown functions, but now are
and the substances dissolved in it, such as oxygen, known to be artifacts created when cells are prepared for
to flow into the cell; these pores also allow wastes to viewing with electron microscopes.
flow out.
 B I O L O G Y P O I N T E R S | 26

 Plasma Membrane is a thin membrane pushed up Eukaryotic Animal Cell

against the inner surface of the prokaryotic cell wall. - are typically about ten times larger than
The plasma membrane, composed of two layers of prokaryotic cells. In animal cells, the plasma
flexible lipid molecules and interspersed with membrane, rather than a cell wall, forms the
durable proteins, is both supple and strong. Unlike cell’s outer boundary. With a design similar to the
the cell wall, whose open pores allow the plasma membrane of prokaryotic cells, it
unregulated traffic of materials in and out of the cell, separates the cell from its surroundings and
the plasma membrane is selectively permeable, regulates the traffic across the membrane.
meaning it allows only certain substances to pass
through. Thus, the plasma membrane actively
separates the cell’s contents from its surrounding
fluids.

 Cytoplasm is the semifluid that fills the cell

enclosed in the plasma membrane. Composed of
about 65 percent water, the cytoplasm is packed
with up to a billion molecules per cell, a rich
storehouse that includes enzymes and dissolved
nutrients, such as sugars and amino acids. The
water provides a favorable environment for the
thousands of biochemical reactions that take place
in the cell. Within the cytoplasm of all prokaryotes is
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), a complex molecule in
the form of a double helix, a shape similar to a spiral Fig. 7
staircase. An animal cell typically contains several types of
membrane-bound organs, or organelles. The nucleus
 Ribosomes, also immersed in the cytoplasm are directs activities of the cell and carries genetic
the only organelles in prokaryotic cells—tiny bead- information from generation to generation. The
like structures. These are the cell’s protein factories. mitochondria generate energy for the cell. Proteins are
Following the instructions encoded in the DNA, manufactured by ribosomes, which are bound to the
ribosomes churn out proteins by the hundreds every rough endoplasmic reticulum or float free in the
minute, providing needed enzymes, the cytoplasm. The Golgi apparatus modifies, packages, and
replacements for worn-out transport proteins, or distributes proteins while lysosomes store enzymes for
other proteins required by the cell. digesting food. The entire cell is wrapped in a lipid
membrane that selectively permits materials to pass in
and out of the cytoplasm.
 B I O L O G Y P O I N T E R S | 27

 Eukaryotic cell cytoplasm is similar to that of the  Nucleus of a cell is the largest organelle in an
prokaryote cell except for one major difference: animal cell. It contains numerous strands of DNA,
Eukaryotic cells house a nucleus and numerous other the length of each strand being many times the
membrane-enclosed organelles. Like separate rooms diameter of the cell. The nucleus, present in
of a house, these organelles enable specialized eukaryotic cells, is a discrete structure containing
functions to be carried out efficiently. The building of chromosomes, which hold the genetic information
proteins and lipids, for example, takes place in for the cell. Separated from the cytoplasm of the
separate organelles where specialized enzymes cell by a double-layered membrane called the
geared for each job are located. nuclear envelope, the nucleus contains a cellular
 The plasma membrane that surrounds eukaryotic material called nucleoplasm. Nuclear pores,
cells is a dynamic structure composed of two layers of present around the circumference of the nuclear
phospholipid molecules interspersed with cholesterol membrane, allow the exchange of cellular
and proteins. Phospholipids are composed of a materials between the nucleoplasm and the
hydrophilic, or water-loving, head and two tails, which cytoplasm.
are hydrophobic, or water-hating. Tiny gaps in the
 Endoplasmic Reticulum is an elongated
membrane enable small molecules such as oxygen
membranous sac attached to the nuclear
(upper right) to diffuse readily into and out of the cell.
membrane.
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is so
called because it appears bumpy under a
microscope. It functions on synthesis of membrane
proteins, secretory proteins and hydrolytic
enzymes and also formation of transport vesicles.
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) functions
on lipid synthesis, carbohydrate metabolism in
liver cells, detoxification in liver cells and calcium
ion storage. It lacks ribosomes and has an even
surface. Within the winding channels of the
smooth endoplasmic reticulum are the enzymes
needed for the construction of molecules such as
carbohydrates and lipids. The smooth
endoplasmic reticulum is prominent in liver cells,
where it also serves to detoxify substances such
as alcohol, drugs, and other poisons..
Fig.8
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 Ribosomes in eukaryotic cells have the same  Mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell.
function as those in prokaryotic cells—protein Within these long, slender organelles, which can
synthesis—but they differ slightly in structure. appear oval or bean shaped under the electron
Eukaryote ribosomes bound to the endoplasmic microscope, enzymes convert the sugar glucose
reticulum help assembles proteins that typically are and other nutrients into adenosine triphosphate
exported from the cell. The ribosomes work with other (ATP). This molecule, in turn, serves as an energy
molecules to link amino acids to partially completed battery for countless cellular processes, including
proteins. These incomplete proteins then travel to the the shuttling of substances across the plasma
inner chamber of the endoplasmic reticulum, where membrane, the building and transport of proteins
chemical modifications, such as the addition of a and lipids, the recycling of molecules and
sugar, are carried out. Chemical modifications of organelles, and the dividing of cells. Muscle and
lipids are also carried out in the endoplasmic liver cells are particularly active and require
reticulum. dozens and sometimes up to a hundred
mitochondria per cell to meet their energy needs.
 Golgi apparatus, an organelle that resembles a stack Mitochondria are unusual in that they contain their
of deflated balloons. It is packed with enzymes that own DNA in the form of a prokaryote-like circular
complete the processing of proteins. These enzymes chromosome; have their own ribosomes, which
add sulfur or phosphorous atoms to certain regions of resemble prokaryotic ribosomes; and divide,
the protein, for example, or chop off tiny pieces from independently of the cell.
the ends of the proteins. The completed protein then  Cytoskeleton, a dynamic network of protein
leaves the Golgi apparatus for its final destination tubes, filaments, and fibers, crisscrosses the
inside or outside the cell. During its assembly on the cytoplasm, anchoring the organelles in place and
ribosome, each protein has acquired a group of from providing shape and structure to the cell. Many
4 to 100 amino acids called a signal. The signal works components of the cytoskeleton are assembled
as a molecular shipping label to direct the protein to and disassembled by the cell as needed. During
its proper location. cell division, for example, a special structure called
a spindle is built to move chromosomes around.
 Lysosomes are small, often spherical organelles that After cell division, the spindle, no longer needed, is
function as the cell’s recycling center and garbage dismantled. Some components of the cytoskeleton
disposal. Powerful digestive enzymes concentrated in serve as microscopic tracks along which proteins
the lysosome break down worn-out organelles and and other molecules travel like miniature trains.
ship their building blocks to the cytoplasm where Recent research suggests that the cytoskeleton
they are used to construct new organelles. also may be a mechanical communication
Lysosomes also dismantle and recycle proteins, structure that converses with the nucleus to help
lipids, and other molecules. organize events in the cell.
 B I O L O G Y P O I N T E R S | 29

Eukaryotic Plant Cell  Chloroplasts, like mitochondria, possess a

- Plant cells have all the components of animal cells circular chromosome and prokaryote-like
and boast several added features. Chloroplasts ribosomes, which manufacture the proteins that
convert light energy—typically from the Sun—into the chloroplasts typically need.
the sugar glucose, a form of chemical energy, in a  Central vacuole of a mature plant cell typically
process known as photosynthesis. takes up most of the room in the cell. The vacuole,
- contain a variety of membrane-bound structures a membranous bag, crowds the cytoplasm and
called organelles. These include a nucleus that organelles to the edges of the cell. The central
carries genetic material; mitochondria that vacuole stores water, salts, sugars, proteins, and
generate energy; ribosomes that manufacture other nutrients. In addition, it stores the blue, red,
proteins; smooth endoplasmic reticulum that and purple pigments that give certain flowers their
manufactures lipids used for making membranes colors. The central vacuole also contains plant
and storing energy; and a thin lipid membrane that wastes that taste bitter to certain insects, thus
surrounds the cell. Plant cells also contain discouraging the insects from feasting on the
chloroplasts that capture energy from sunlight and plant.
a single fluid-filled vacuole that stores compounds  Cell wall surrounds and protects the plasma
and helps in plant growth. Plant cells are membrane. Its pores enable materials to pass
surrounded by a rigid cell wall that protects the cell freely into and out of the cell. The strength of the
and maintains its shape. wall also enables a cell to absorb water into the
central vacuole and swell without bursting. The
resulting pressure in the cells provides plants with
rigidity and support for stems, leaves, and flowers.
Without sufficient water pressure, the cells
collapse and the plant wilts.
Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic

Animal Cell vs. Plant Cell

Plant cells contain cell walls, vacoules, and chloroplasts
that animal cells don’t. On the other hand, animal cells a
Fig.9 have centiroles and lysosomes that plant cells don’t.
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LIFE CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISM The most important characteristic of plants is their

ability to photosynthesize. During photosynthesis,
Domain > Kingdom > Phylum > Class > Order > Family > plants make their own food by converting light energy
Genus > Species into chemical energy—a process carried out in the
 Kingdom green cellular organelles called chloroplasts A few
 Monera – unicellular and colonial-including the plants have lost their chlorophyll and have become
true bacteria (eubacteria) and cyanobacteria saprophytes or parasites—that is, they absorb their
(blue-green algae) food from dead organic matter or living organic matter,
 Animalia - is comprised of eukaryotic, multi- respectively—but details of their structure show that
celled organisms, without cell walls and without they are evolved plant forms.
photosynthetic pigments, forming diploid Classification
blastula.
 Plantae - is composed of eukaryotic, multi-  Non- flowering or non-seed forming plants –
celled organisms. Haplo-diploid life cycles, produces pores for propagation
mostly autotrophic, retaining embryo within  Flowering or seed plants
female sex organ on parent plant  Gymgiosperms – seeds are exposing or
 Fungi - comprised of non-motile cells that have naked, meaning they are not enclosed within
cell walls made of chitin (the same hard stuff fruits. They do not produce fruits, instead they
that the outer bodies of insects are made of) form cones.
and not cellulose. Fungi develop from spores  Angiosperms – sees are found within fruits.
without any embryonic stage. They digest other - monocotyledons
living things outside their bodies by releasing - dicotyledons
enzymes and then absorbing the product. Plant Tissue System
 Protista – Unicellular protozoans and
unicellular and multicellular (macroscopic)  Meristems - are located either at the stem and root
algae with 9+2 cilia and flagella (called tips (apical meristems), where they are responsible
undilopodia) for the primary growth of plants, or laterally in
stems and roots (lateral meristems), where they are
responsible for secondary plants growth.
PLANTS Dermal System
- multicellular eukaryotes—that is, their cells contain - consists of the epidermis, or outermost layer, of
membrane-bound structures called organelles. Plants the plants body. It forms the skin of the plants,
differ from other eukaryotes because their cells are covering the leaves, flowers, roots, fruits, and
enclosed by more or less rigid cell walls composed seeds. Epidermal cells vary greatly in function
primarily of cellulose. and structure.
 B I O L O G Y P O I N T E R S | 31

Vascular System  Collenchyma - is also living at maturity and is

made up of cells with unevenly thickened primary
 Xylem - consists of two types of conducting cells:
cell walls. Collenchyma tissue is pliable and
tracheids and vessels. Elongated cells, with tapered
functions as support tissue in young, growing
ends and secondary walls, both types lack cytoplasm
portions of plants.
and are dead at maturity. The walls have pits—areas in
 Sclerenchyma - tissue, the third type, consists
which secondary thickening does not occur—through
of cells that lack protoplasts at maturity and that
which water moves from cell to cell. Vessels usually
have thick secondary walls usually containing
are shorter and broader than tracheids, and in addition
lignin. Sclerenchyma tissue is important in
to pits they have perforation—areas of the cell wall that
supporting and strengthening those portions of
lack both primary and secondary thickenings and
plants that have finished growing.
through which water and dissolved nutrients may freely
pass. Plant Organs
 Phloem - or food-conducting tissue, consists of cells
 Roots - anchor the plants substrate and to
that are living at maturity. The principal cells of phloem,
absorb water and minerals. The root hairs
the sieve elements, are so called because of the
increase the surface area of the roots and serve
clusters of pores in their walls through which the
as the surface through which water and nutrients
protoplasts of adjoining cells are connected. Two types
are absorbed.
of sieve elements occur: sieve cells, with narrow pores
 Stems - Are usually above ground, grow upward,
in rather uniform clusters on the cell walls, and sieve-
and bear leaves, which are attached in a regular
tube members, with larger pores on some walls of the
pattern at nodes along the stem. The portions of
cell than on others. Although the sieve elements contain
the stem between nodes are called internodes.
cytoplasm at maturity, the nucleus and other organelles
Stems increase in length through the activity of
are lacking. Associated with the sieve elements are
an apical meristem at the stem tip.
companion cells that do contain nuclei and that are
 Leaf - are usually flattened blades that consist,
responsible for manufacturing and secreting substances
internally, mostly of parenchyma tissue called the
into the sieve elements and removing waste products
mesophyll, which is made up of loosely arranged
from them.
cells with spaces between them. The spaces are
Ground System filled with air, from which the cells absorb carbon
dioxide and into which they expel oxygen. The
 Parendhyma -is found throughout the plants and is
mesophyll is bounded by the upper and lower
living and capable of cell division at maturity. Carry out
surface of the leaf blade, which is covered by
many specialized physiological functions—for example,
epidermal tissue. A vascular network runs
photosynthesis, storage, secretion, and wound healing.
through the mesophyll, providing the cell walls
They also occur in the xylem and phloem tissues.
with water and removing the food products of
photosynthesis to other parts of the plants.

 The leaf blade is connected to the stem through
a narrowed portion called the petiole, or stalk,
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ANIMALS Cold-Blooded or Ectoderm - an animal whose

Types of Animals temperature is dictated by its surroundings for example,
Reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Although they do not
Vertebrates - all have a flexible supporting rod, called a maintain a constant warm temperature, some of these
notochord, running the length of their bodies. In the great animals do manage to raise their body temperature far
majority of chordates (phylum of animals, includes above that of their surroundings. They do this by
mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish together behavioral means, such as basking in direct sunshine
with a collection of lesser-known organisms, such as sea when the surrounding air is cool.
squirts and their relatives), the notochord is replaced by a
series of interlocking bones called vertebrae during early Warm- Blooded or Endoderm -- an animal that
development. keeps its body at a constant warm temperature by
generating internal heat. These animals generate heat
through their metabolic processes, and they retain it by
having insulating layers of fat, fur, or feathers. Because
their bodies are always warm, they can remain active in
some of the coldest conditions on earth.
Carnivores - live on flesh from other animals that is
often nutrient-rich and easy to digest but difficult to
obtain
Plant-eaters or Herbivores - often do not have to
search far to find things to eat.. The disadvantage of a
plant-based diet is that it can be difficult to digest and is
often low in nutrients.
Omnivores - an animal that eats both animal flesh and
vegetable matter. The term omnivore indicates
similarities in the behavior and physiology of many
unrelated animals.
Fig.10 Animals Reproduction
Invertebrates - are far more numerous and diverse and Asexual reproduction - animals produce offspring
include an immense variety of animals from sponges, without needing a partner. Asexual reproduction is most
worms, and jellyfish to mollusks and insects. Compose the common in simple animals such as flatworms and
98 percent of the animal kingdom. The only feature these cnidarians.
diverse creatures share in common is the lack of a
backbone.
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Sexual reproduction - involves two parents. The parents Nervous System

produce sperm and egg cells (gametes), which are brought
together to form a fertilized cell (zygote) with a new and
unique combination of genes. In most cases, each partner
is either male or female, but in some animals—such as
earthworms, slugs, and snails–each one is a
hermaphrodite, an animal that has both male and female
organs. Hermaphrodites usually fertilize each other, with
both partners producing young. Internal fertilization takes
place inside the female's body. The male typically has a
penis or other structure that delivers sperm into the
female's reproductive tract. Internal fertilization does not
necessarily require that the developing embryo remains
inside the female's body. In honey bees, for example, the
queen bee deposits the fertilized eggs into special
compartments in the honeycomb. These compartments are
supplied with food resources for the young bees to use as Fig.11
they develop.  Central nervous system, which includes the brain
and spinal cord, processes and coordinates all
incoming sensory information and outgoing motor
ORGAN SYSTEM OF THE BODY commands, and it is also the seat of complex brain
functions such as memory, intelligence, learning,
Musculoskeletal System
and emotion.
The human skeleton consists of more than 200 bones  Brain - The human brain has three major
bound together by tough and relatively inelastic connective structural components (Fig.12) : the large
tissues called ligaments. The different parts of the body dome-shaped cerebrum (top), the smaller
vary greatly in their degree of movement. Thus, the arm at somewhat spherical cerebellum (lower right),
the shoulder is freely movable, whereas the knee joint is and the brainstem (center). Prominent in the
definitely limited to a hinge like action. The movements of brainstem are the medulla oblongata (the
individual vertebrae are extremely limited; the bones egg-shaped enlargement at center) and the
composing the skull are immovable. Movements of the thalamus (between the medulla and the
bones of the skeleton are effected by contractions of the cerebrum). The cerebrum is responsible for
skeletal muscles, to which the bones are attached by intelligence and reasoning. The cerebellum
tendons. These muscular contractions are controlled by the helps to maintain balance and posture. The
nervous system. medulla is involved in maintaining involuntary
functions such as respiration, and the
 B I O L O G Y P O I N T E R S | 34

thalamus acts as a relay center for electrical impulses the body for quick responses to unusual
traveling to and from the cerebral cortex. Lack of situations. In contrast, the parasympathetic
blood flow to any part of the brain results in a stroke, nervous system, sometimes called the “rest and
permanent damage that interferes with the functions repose” system, conserves energy and controls
of the affected part of the brain. sedentary activities, such as digestion.
Circulatory System
It is composed of the muscular heart and an intricate
network of elastic blood vessels known as arteries,
veins, and capillaries. These structures work together to
circulate blood throughout the body, in the process
delivering life-preserving oxygen and nutrients to tissue
cells while also removing waste products.
Immune System
The body defends itself against foreign proteins and
infectious microorganisms by means of a complex dual
system that depends on recognizing a portion of the
surface pattern of the invader. The two parts of the
system are termed cellular immunity, in which
lymphocytes are the effective agent, and humeral
Fig.12 immunity, based on the action of antibody molecules.
 Peripheral nervous system includes all neural Respiratory System
tissue outside of the central nervous system. It is
responsible for providing sensory, or afferent, Respiration is carried on by the expansion and
information to the central nervous system and contraction of the lungs; the process and the rate at
carrying motor, or efferent, commands out to the which it proceeds are controlled by a nervous center in
body’s tissues. Voluntary motor commands, such as the brain. Air travels to the lungs though a series of
moving muscles to walk or talk, are controlled by the tubes and airways. The two branches of the trachea,
somatic nervous system, while involuntary motor called bronchi, subdivide within the lobes into smaller
commands, such as digestion and heartbeat, are and smaller air vessels. They terminate in alveoli, tiny
controlled by the autonomic nervous system. The air sacs surrounded by capillaries. When the alveoli
autonomic nervous system is further divided into two inflate with inhaled air, oxygen diffuses into the blood in
systems. The sympathetic nervous system, the capillaries to be pumped by the heart to the tissues
sometimes called the “fight or flight” system, of the body, and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood
increases alertness, stimulates tissue, and prepares into the lungs, where it is exhaled.
the body for quick responses to unusual situations.
In contrast, the parasympathetic nervous system,
sometimes called the “rest and repose” system,
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Female Reproductive System - The bones of the

human female pelvis form a bowl-shaped cavity that
supports the weight of a developing fetus and encloses
the organs of the female reproductive tract. Two
ovaries, the female gonads, produce mature eggs.
Leading away from the ovaries are the fallopian tubes,
or oviducts, the site of fertilization. The uterus, a
muscular organ with an expandable neck called the
cervix, houses the developing fetus, which leaves the
woman's body through the vagina, or birth canal.
Male Reproductive System - The organs of the male
reproductive system enable a man to have sexual
intercourse and to fertilize female sex cells (eggs) with
sperm. The gonads, called testicles, produce sperm.
Sperm pass through a long duct called the vas deferens
to the seminal vesicles, a pair of sacs that lies behind
the bladder. These sacs produce seminal fluid, which
Fig.13 mixes with sperm to produce semen. Semen leaves the
seminal vesicles and travels through the prostate gland,
Reproductive System which produces additional secretions that are added to
Reproduction is accomplished by the union of male sperm semen. During male orgasm the penis ejaculates
and the female ovum. In coitus, the male organ ejaculates semen.
more than 250 million sperm into the vagina, from which Endocrine System
some make their way to the uterus. Ovulation, the release The pituitary gland secretes hormones that control the
of an egg into the uterus, occurs approximately every 28 activity of other endocrine glands and regulate various
days; during the same period the uterus is prepared for the biological processes. Its secretions include growth
implantation of a fertilized ovum by the action of hormone (which stimulates cellular activity in bone,
estrogensIf a male cell fails to unite with a female cell, cartilage, and other structural tissue); thyroid stimulating
other hormones cause the uterine wall to slough off during hormone (which causes the thyroid to release
menstruation. From puberty to menopause, the process of metabolism-regulating hormones); antidiuretic hormone
ovulation, and preparation, and menstruation is repeated (which causes the kidney to excrete less water in the
monthly except for periods of pregnancy. The duration of urine); and prolactin (which stimulates milk production
pregnancy is about 280 days. After childbirth, prolactin, a and breast development in females). The pituitary gland
hormone secreted by the pituitary, activates the production is influenced both neurally and hormonally by the
of milk. hypothalamus
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Digestive System CELL DIVISION AND REPRODUCTION

The human digestive system consists of a series of organs Mitosis - Cell division produces two daughter cells in
and structures that help break down food and absorb each succession that are roughly identical copies of the
nutrients for use throughout the body. Food enters the parental cell before it starts to enlarge or grow.
digestive system through the mouth and passes through  Prophase - each chromosome gradually
the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, condenses and thickens, and becomes more
and rectum. Other organs, such as the liver, further aid in visible even under an ordinary light microscope;
the breakdown of food, absorption of nutrients, and the nuclear membrane and nucleolus gradually
elimination of indigestible materials from the body. dissociate and spindle fibers radiating from two
opposite poles are formed.
Excretory System  Metaphase - each chromosome moves toward
The skin is an organ of double-layered tissue stretched an imaginary line, called the equatorial plate that
over the surface of the body and protecting it from drying or divides the cell into two; the chromosomes are
losing fluid, from harmful external substances, and from perpendicular to the long axes of the spindle
extremes of temperature. The inner layer, called the fibers.
dermis, contains sweat glands, blood vessels, nerve  Anaphase - the kinetochore that joins two sister
endings (sense receptors), and the bases of hair and nails. chromatids together splits and each chromatid or
The outer layer, the epidermis, is only a few cells thick; it single stranded chromosome moves toward
contains pigments, pores, and ducts, and its surface is opposite poles.
made of dead cells that it sheds from the body. (Hair and  Telophase - the single stranded chromosomes
nails are adaptations arising from the dead cells.) The relax into the extended state upon reaching the
sweat glands excrete waste and cool the body through poles; the nuclear membrane and nucleolus re-
evaporation of fluid droplets; the blood vessels of the form in each pole. Cytokinesis, which divides
dermis supplement temperature regulation by contracting the cytoplasm, usually occurs at the latter part of
to preserve body heat and expanding to dissipate it. this stage.
Separate kinds of receptors convey pressure, temperature, Meiosis - two cell divisions occur to produce four
and pain. Fat cells in the dermis insulate the body, and oil daughter cells from the original parent cell. Each
glands lubricate the epidermis. resulting cell has half the chromosomal DNA of the
parent cell. A half set of chromosomes in an organism is
Structure of the Skin known as the haploid number. It will produce a zygote
The skin consists of an outer, protective layer (epidermis) that has received one set of chromosomes from both
and an inner, living layer (dermis). The top layer of the parents to form a full set of chromosomes. The entire
epidermis is composed of dead cells containing keratin, the set of chromosomes in an organism is known as the
horny scleroprotein that also makes up hair and nails. diploid number. Once formed, the zygote continues to
divide and grow through the process of mitosis.
 B I O L O G Y P O I N T E R S | 37

HEREDITY Females have two X chromosomes, and males have

- process of transmitting biological traits from parent to one X and one Y chromosome. The Y chromosome is
offspring through genes, the basic units of heredity. about one-third the size of the X chromosome. A sperm,
Heredity also refers to the inherited characteristics of an the reproductive cell produced by the male, can carry
individual, including traits such as height, eye color, and either one X or one Y chromosome. An egg, the
blood type. reproductive cell produced by the female, can carry only
Gene - is a section of a long deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) the X chromosome. When a sperm with an X
molecule, and it carries information for the construction of a chromosome unites with an egg, the result is a child
protein or part of a protein. with two X chromosomes—a female. When a sperm
with a Y chromosome unites with an egg, however, the
Alleles – members of a gene pair result is a child with one X and one Y chromosome—a
Genotype – The genetic composition of a cell or individual. male. Thus, the father determines the gender of the
Genotypes can be: child.
 AA – homozygous dominant (made of two dominant Codominance - when the two alleles in a gene pair
alleles) appear together in the individual that is heterozygous
 Aa – a heterozygous dominant (made of one for the trait.
dominant an one recessive allele Dominant-Recessive Inheritance - The dominant-
 aa – homozygous recessive (made up of two recessive pattern of inheritance, a relatively simple
recessive alleles) pattern, involves paired alleles that influence one trait.
Phenotypes – the expression or manifestation of the In this pattern, one of the two alleles contains
genotype (can be morphological, physiological or information for a certain characteristic. The lavender
biochemical, sexual, behavioral) color of sweet pea flowers, for example—while the
 AA- will exhibit a dominant trait second allele directs the production of an alternate
characteristic—the white flower color. In sweet peas, if
 Aa- will also exhibit a dominant trait
these two alleles occur together, the allele for lavender
 aa – will exhibit the recessive trait
flowers is expressed, and the flowers are lavender. The
Law of Independent Segregation states that members of allele for lavender is therefore called the dominant
a gene 9pair) separate independently of the separation of allele. The allele for white is known as the recessive
the other gene pairs during meiosis or gamete formation allele. Lavender flowers also occur when two alleles for
lavender color are paired. Only when two alleles for the
Law of Independent Assortment states that different
recessive characteristic are paired do white flowers
gene pairs assort to recombine with each other
appear. This genetic rule applies regardless of the
independently of the assortment of the other gene pairs
organism or the trait. In the dominant recessive pattern,
during meiosis or gamete formation.
the recessive trait shows up only when two recessive
alleles are paired.
 B I O L O G Y P O I N T E R S | 38

Polygenic Inheritance - A significant number of human ECOLOGY

traits, such as eye color, skin color, height, weight, and The study of the relationship of plants and animals to
muscle strength are typically regulated by more than one their physical and biological environment. The physical
allele in a pattern known as polygenic inheritance. Several environment includes light and heat or solar radiation,
thousand alleles, for example, may combine to determine a moisture, wind, oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients in soil,
person’s potential for pole-vaulting, and several hundred water, and atmosphere. The biological environment
may play a role in establishing a person’s normal weight. includes organisms of the same kind as well as other
Certain diseases may result from mutations in one or more plants and animals.
alleles involved in polygenic inheritance. Researchers have
identified nearly a dozen mutated alleles that are Food Chain - A succession of organisms in an
associated with diabetes mellitus, and a similar number are ecological community that constitutes a continuation of
linked to asthma. Heart disease may be linked to two or food energy from one organism to another as each
three times that number. Some types of cancer may be consumes a lower member and in turn is preyed upon
correlated with more than 100 different genes. Polygenic by a higher member.
inheritance is quite complex, and the ways in which Food Web - A set of interconnected food chains by
multiple genes interact to produce traits are not fully which energy and materials circulate within an
understood. ecosystem. The food web is divided into two broad
X-Y Linked Inheritance - X-Y linked, or sex-linked, categories: the grazing web, which typically begins with
inheritance results from the size differences between the X green plants, algae, or photosynthesizing plankton, and
and Y chromosomes. The longer X chromosome carries an the detrital web, which begins with organic debris.
estimated 250 genes, which are responsible for critical These webs are made up of individual food chains. In a
biochemical functions. The shorter Y chromosome carries grazing web, materials typically pass from plants to
6 genes, which are responsible for other traits. X-Y linked plant eaters (herbivores) to flesh eaters (carnivores). In
conditions typically occur in a male when the single X a detrital web, materials pass from plant and animal
chromosome carries a mutated allele, one that prevents matter to bacteria and fungi (decomposers), then to
normal blood clotting, for example. A male does not have a detrital feeders (detritivores), and then to their predators
second X chromosome with a normal allele to override the (carnivores).
mutation. As a result, the male in this case will have Ecosystem - Organisms living in a particular
hemophilia. If one of the female’s X chromosomes carries environment, such as a forest or a coral reef, and the
the mutated allele, however, her second X chromosome is physical parts of the environment that affect them. A
usually normal. The normal allele is the dominant allele, so community of interacting living and nonliving things,
the female does not have hemophilia. Thus, females are producers, consumers, decomposers, and abiotic
typically carriers of X-Y linked diseases but do not develop matter form an integrated, functioning whole driven by
them unless they receive a mutated allele from each the Sun’s energy.
parent, an unusual event.
 B I O L O G Y P O I N T E R S | 39

Symbiosis - (Greek symbioun, “to live together”), in FATHER OF . . .

biology, term for the interdependence of different species,  Biology: Aristole
which are sometimes called symbionts. There are three  Modern Biology: Linnaeus
main types of symbiosis, based upon the specific  Antibiotics: Alexander Fleming
relationship between the species involved: mutualism,  Taxonomy: Carolus Linnaeus
parasitism, and commensalism.
 Immunology: Edward Jenner
 Mutualism - results in mutual benefit to the
 Microbiology: Anton van Leenuwenhoek
interdependent organisms.
 Modern Microbiology: Louis Pasteur
 Parasitism - Also known as antagonistic symbiosis,
 Medical Microbiology: Robert Koch
one organism receives no benefits and is often
injured while supplying nutrients or shelter for the  Pathology: Rudolph Virchow
other organism  Bacteriology: Robert Koch
 Commensalism - Is an association between two  Virology: W.M.Stanley
different kinds of nonparasitic animals, called  Embryology: Aristotle
commensal that is harmless to both and in which  Modern Embryology: Ernst Von Baer
one of the organism benefits. Many commensals are  Physiology: Stephan Hales
free to separate. Other commensals function  Modern experimental physiology: Calude
together so completely that they cannot separate. Bernard
They are not considered parasitic, however,  Genetics: Rev. Gregor Mendel
because they do not harm each other.  Modern Genetics: Bateson
 Human Genetics/ Biochemical genetics:
Competition - When a shared resource is in short supply,
Arachibald Garrod
organisms compete, and those that are more successful
survive.  Experimental Genetics : T.H. Morgan
 Haploid Genetics / Neurospora Genetics : Dodge
Predation - One of the fundamental interactions is  Ecology : Theophrastus
predation, or the consumption of one living organism, plant  Cloning : Ian Willmut
or animal, by another. While it serves to move energy and  Plant Anatomy : Grew
nutrients through the ecosystem, predation may also  Histology (Microscopic anatomy) : Malpighi
regulate population and promote natural selection by
 Cytology : Robert Hooke
weeding the unfit from a population.
 Modern Cytology : Swanson
Coevolution - The joint evolution of two unrelated species  Paleontology : Leonard da Vinci
that have a close ecological relationship—that is, the  Modern Paleontology : Cuvier
evolution of one species depends in part on the evolution  Concept of Evolution: Empedocles
of the other.  Botany: Theophrastus
 Modern Botany : Bauhin
Father of Zoology : Aristotle
Father of Biochemistry : Liebig
Father of Epidemiology : John Snow
 C H E M I S T R Y P O I N T E R S | 40

CHEMISTRY Changes in Matter

- is the physical science that deals with the  Physical Change is characterized by a change in
composition, structure, and properties of the phase or state of a substance. Some physical
substances and also the transformations that these properties of the substance are altered, but its
substances undergo. Because the study of chemical composition remains unchanged. Ex.
chemistry encompasses the entire material phase change
universe, it is central to the understanding of other  Chemical change is characterized by a change in
sciences. Several branches of Chemistry are the composition of its molecules changes. The
following: properties of the original substance are lost,
 Organic chemistry – mostly concerned with and new substances with new properties are
the study of chemicals containing the element produced. An example of a chemical change is
carbon the production of rust (iron oxide) when oxygen
 Inorganic chemistry – the study of all in the air reacts with iron.
elements of compounds other than organic Phase Changes and Transitions
compounds
 Analytical Chemistry – the study of qualitative
and quantitative analysis of elements and
compounds.
 Physical Chemistry – the study of reaction
rates, mechanisms, bonding and structure
Matter - is a general term applied to anything that has the
property of occupying space and the attributes of gravity
and inertia.
 Plasma is the collection of charged gaseous particles
containing nearly equal numbers of negative and
positive ions, is sometimes called the fourth state of
matter.
 Solid is characterized by resistance to any change in
shape, caused by a strong attraction between the Fig.14
molecules of which it is composed. Matter exists in various forms, or phases. If the
 Liquids have sufficient molecular attraction to resist
temperature and/or pressure of a sample of matter is
forces tending to change their volume.
 Gas molecules are widely dispersed and move freely, adjusted, the matter may undergo a phase transition.
offers no resistance to change of shape and little During a phase transition, matter shifts between its three
resistance to change of volume. states: solid, liquid, and gas.
 C H E M I S T R Y P O I N T E R S | 41

Elements and Compounds Mass Number - The total number of protons and
 Element is a substance that cannot be neutrons in a nucleus.
broken down into simpler substances by Atomic number - equals to the number of proton in an
ordinary means. Ninety elements are known to electron
occur in nature, and 22 more have been made Isotopes - atoms of the same element having the same
artificially. Out of this limited number of elements, number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
all the millions of known substances are made. The term isotope (from the Greek word meaning "same
 Compounds are substance in which two or more place") defines atoms that have the same number of
elements joined by chemical bonds. A compound protons but a different number of neutrons. That is, they
can be created or broken down by means of a are atoms of the same element that have different
reaction but not by mechanical or physical masses. (Ex. 7H1, 7H1, H71, H1)
techniques. Atomic Weight - the average weight (more correctly,
the mass) of an atom of an element, taking into account
Atoms and Molecules the masses of all its isotopes and the percentage of
 Atom is the smallest unit of an element that has their occurrence in nature.
the properties of the element; a molecule is the
smallest unit of a compound or the form of an Models of an Atom
element in which atoms bind together that has the
properties of the compound or element.
Sub-Atomic Particles
 Nucleus - is very small compared with the rest of
the atom and contains most of the atomic mass (or
weight). The nucleus is about 10-12 cm (3.94 x
10-13 in) in diameter. The size ratio of the atom to
the nucleus is 10,000 to 1.
 Electrons - is about 10-8 cm (3.94 x 10-9 in). It
carries a negative electric charge with an assigned
value of -1. The atom is determined by the size of
this electron cloud.
 Proton - carries a positive electric charge with an
assigned value of +1. The mass of a proton is
1836 times the mass of an electron. Fig.15
An atom of an element is denoted by aXb where X
 Neutron - has nearly the same mass as the proton,
corresponds to the nucleus of the atom (name of the
but the neutron has no electric charge.
atom, e.g. C), a is the mass number and b, the atomic
number. Ex. 12C6
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Electronic Configuration
The electron configuration of an atom is the arrangement of
the atom's electrons with respect to its nucleus. An electron
may occupy a certain energy level (n). An orbital is
generally visualized as a cloud with a specified size and
shape determined, in general, by the energy level of the
electron. Valence electrons are electrons found in the
highest energy level of the electron cloud. Given the
electronic configuration, one can determine its position in
the periodic table. The energy level corresponds to the
period of the periodic table (1-7) while the number of
valence electrons corresponds to the group number of that
element. Example, the electron configuration of Na is 1s2 Fig.16
2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p , the orbital number is
while the valence number is 1. Therefore, Sodium is in Covalent Bonds - When sharing of available outer
group I period. elements of the atoms occur, a covalent bond is formed.
There is no electron transfer in covalent bonding. There
can be multiple covalent bonds between two atoms.
CHEMICAL BONDS, FORMULAS, & EQUATION There can be a double bond or a triple bond.
Elements that do not have a noble-gas configuration (a Chemical Reactions
stable configuration) try to attain such a configuration by All chemical reactions involve the breakage and
entering into chemical reactions. Stable molecules are reformation of chemical bonds of molecules to form
formed when atoms combine so as to have outer shells different substances. Chemical reactions can be
holding eight electrons. expressed through equations that resemble
mathematical equations. The reactants (the substances
Ionic Bonds - electrons are transferred from one atom to that are combined to react with one another) appear on
another to achieve noble gas configuration. The atom the left side of the equation, and the products
giving up the electrons become positively charge (cation), (substances produced by the reaction) are written on
while the atom accepting the electrons becomes negatively the right side of the equation. The reactants and
charged (Anion). Ionic bonds are formed when elements in products are typically connected by an arrow or various
Group IA to IIA (except hydrogen) combines with elements types of double arrows. The single arrow shows that a
in group VIA to VIIA of the periodic table. Ionic solids form reaction only proceeds in the direction indicated, while
crystals. Cations and anions in crystals are arranged in a the double arrow indicates that a reaction can proceed
repeated fixed manner (crystal structure). in either direction (that products are also reacting with
each other to reform reactants).
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Types of Chemical Reactions  Double Displacement reaction is a type of

 Composition Reaction (synthesis or combination reaction wherein cations of two compounds
reaction) is a type of chemical reaction where a more switch anions to form new products.
complex substance is broken down into two or more
simpler substances.

A chemical reaction either absorbs or releases energy.

The energy released is in the form of heat energy. An
 Decomposition Reaction is a type of chemical exothermic reaction is defined as a chemical reaction
that releases energy. Most often, the energy released is
reaction where a more complex substance is broken in the form of heat or light. When a bomb explodes, a
down into two or more simpler substances. tremendous amount of light and heat energy is
released. This is an example of an exothermic reaction.
On the other hand, there are chemical reactions that
There are five classes of decomposition, namely: absorb energy as they take place. This reaction is
1. Decomposition of a metallic carbonate endothermic. Photosynthesis requires light from the
2. Decomposition of a metallic hydroxide sun to precede the reaction. Thus, it is an example of
endothermic reaction.
3. Decomposition of a metallic chlorate
4. Decomposition of some acids Factors Affecting the Rate of a Chemical Reaction
5. Decomposition of metallic oxides  the nature of the reactants – the more reactive
 Single Replacement Reaction is a type of chemical the reactant is to another reactant, the faster the
reaction in which a less reactive element is displaced reaction will proceed
from a compound by a more reactive element.  temperature - generally, the higher the
temperature, the faster the reaction will take place
 concentration of the reactants - the higher the
There are four classes of replacement reactions. They concentration to react with another reactant, the
are as given below: faster the reaction will take place
1. Replacement of a less active metal from a  surface area - the smaller the surface area, the
compound by a more active metal. faster the reaction
2. Replacement of a less active nonmetal from a  effect of catalyst - with the presence of a
compound by more active non-metal. catalyst, the reaction will become faster
3. Replacement of hydrogen from water by metals
4. Replacement of hydrogen from an acid by a more
reactive metal.
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LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION Balancing Equations - With the Laws governing

 Law of definite proportions (also called the law of chemical reactions, the numbers of atoms for each
constant composition). The law states that element should be equal in the reactant side and the
product side. We should therefore balance a chemical
compounds contain elements in certain fixed
reaction. A chemical equation is considered balance if
proportions and in no other combinations, there are exactly the same number of atoms for each
regardless of the method of preparation. Thus, element on both sides of the equation.
chalk, or calcium carbonate, CaCOO, is always 40%
Stoichiometry - is the branch of chemistry that deals
calcium, 12% carbon, and 48% oxygen, by weight. with quantitative relationships between the reactants
 Law of multiple proportions. This law states that if and products of a chemical reaction.
two elements combine to form more than one In the reaction:
compound, then the ratio of the weights of the
second element (which combines with a fixed weight Two moles of hydrogen is needed to react with one
of the first element) will be small whole numbers. mole of oxygen to yield two moles of water.
For example, carbon and oxygen can form two
compounds, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.
In carbon monoxide 12 g of carbon combine with 16
g of oxygen, and in carbon dioxide, the same weight
of carbon combines with 32 g of oxygen. Thus, the This means that 4 grams of hydrogen is needed to react
oxygen weight ratio that combines with 12 g of completely with 32 grams of oxygen to produce 36
grams of water.
carbon is (32/16), or 2
 Law of combining weights, states that in every Application
compound, the proportion by weight of each element  Mole to Mole
in the compound may be expressed by the atomic
weight or a multiple of the atomic weight of each
element. In the case of water, HMO, each molecule
of water is composed of two atoms of hydrogen
(atomic weight 1) and one atom of oxygen (atomic
weight 16). Thus, all molecules of water consist of 2
parts of hydrogen and 16 parts of oxygen by weight.
All other compounds can be analyzed similarly.
 C H E M I S T R Y P O I N T E R S | 45

 Mole to Mass

 Mass to Mole

 Mass to Mass
 C H E M I S T R Y P O I N T E R S | 46

GASES GAS LAW

Boyle’s Law - Boyle’s Law states that the volume of a
Kinetic Molecular Theory certain amount of dry gas held at constant temperature
Postulate 1: gases are made up of very tiny particles, is inversely proportional to the pressure exerted by the
called molecules. There are big empty spaces between the gas. This statement is expressed mathematically as
molecules of gases. The sizes of the molecules are very P1V1 = P2V2
small compared to the distance between them, thus Ex. What is the volume of a gas at 750 mmHg if it
making them compressible. This also explains why gases exerted pressure of 650mmHg at 700 mL? Assumethat
have low density. temperature is held constant
Postulate 2: gaseous molecules are in constant random
motion. These particles are moving in straight lines at
different speeds and direction. Since they are moving
constantly, gases can easily occupy a large container.
Thus, gases have no definite shape and volume and
exhibits expandability. The random motion of the gaseous
molecules explains the infusibility and effusibility of gases.
Diffusibility is the ability of a gas to scatter in space, while Charle’s Law - Charles’ Law states that the volume of a
effusibility is the ability of a gas to escape through a small certain amount of dry gas at constant pressure is
opening. directly proportional to its absolute temperature. This
Postulate 3: The intermolecular forces of attraction statement is represented as
between gaseous particles (molecules or atoms) are very 𝑉1 𝑉2
weak. This attractive force between molecules was =
𝑇1 𝑇2
discovered by Johannes Diderik van der Waals and is Ex. The volume of a gas at 27 C is 400 mL. What will be
called the Van der Waals force. the volume of that gas at 47 C, if the pressure is held
Postulate 4: The collision of gas particles with each other constant?
or with the walls of its container is perfectly elastic. Thus,
no energy is lost upon collision. This means that the gas
particles continue to move even if they collide with each
other or with the container walls. The collision of molecules
with the walls exerts pressure on the container.
Postulate 5: The average kinetic energy of the gas particles
is directly proportional to the absolute temperature. As
temperature increases, the average kinetic energy of the
gas particles also increases and vice versa.
 C H E M I S T R Y P O I N T E R S | 47

Combined Gas Law - Given a fixed amount of gas at two Ex. A sample of oxygen occupies 8.0 L of space at
different conditions of pressure, temperature and volume, STP. How many moles of oxygen are present in the
we derive the following relationship: sample?
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
Ex. The volume of a Gas at 37 C and 700 mm Hg is
500mL. What is the volume of the gas at 15 C and 600 mm
Hg?

Graham’s Law -Thomas Graham discovered the

relationship between the ability of a gas to pass through
a small opening and its molecular weight. He found out
that the rate of effusion of any gas is inversely
proportional to the square root of its molecular weight.
Thus, the heavier the gas molecule is, the slower the
effusion of that gas.
Avogadro’s Law - Amadeo Avogadro interpreted Gay- Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure - According to John
Lussac’s findings on gas reactions at constant temperature Dalton, the pressure exerted by a mixture of non-
and pressure. Avogadro’s Law states that at a given reacting gases is the sum of the partial pressures that
temperature and pressure, there are same volume of any each gas in the mixture exerts individually.
two gases contain equal number of molecules. The molar Mathemetically, this law is expressed as:
volume of any gas at STP (Standard temperature and 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 + ⋯ 𝑃𝑛
Pressure) is 22.4 L.
Ideal Gas Law - Boyle’s Law, Charle’s Law and SOLUTION
Avogadro’s Law can be combined such that the variables A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more
V,P,T and n are all equated to a single constant, R (the substances whose components are uniformly
universal gas constant or ideal gas constant). The distributed all throughout. Solutions have two
combined equation becomes: components, a solute, the substance to be dissolved
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 and the solvent, the dissolving medium. Usually, the
solvent is greater in quantity than the solute. In a
𝑎𝑡𝑚 ∙𝐿
Where 𝑅 = 0.0821 solution containing sugar and water, the solute is the
𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙𝐾
sugar and the solvent is the water.
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Properties of Solutions Nature of Solutes

 Concentration is the measure of the quantity of a Like dissolves like. Polar solvents will dissolve polar
solute in a given amount of solution or solvent. It can solutes and non-polar solutes dissolve in non- polar
be expressed qualitatively and quantitatively. solvents. Water is the universal solvent because of its
o A concentrated solution contains a large ability to dissolve a great number of polar and ionic
amount of solute per volume of solvent. compounds.
o A dilute solution contains a small amount of
Factors that Affect the Rate of Dissolution
solute per volume of solvent.
 Size of particles - The smaller the solute
o Saturated solution contains as much
particles, the faster it dissolves. Smaller particles
solute as it can dissolve. dissolving and
have greater surface areas exposed to the
crystallizing occur at equal rates. Equilibrium
solvent.
exists between solute and solvent.
 Rate of stirring - The rate of dissolution is
o When a solution can still hold more solute,
increased by stirring constantly. Stirring allows
the solution is still unsaturated.
faster contact between the solute and the solvent
o When a solution has more solute than it
particles. Stirring also increases the kinetic
should normally hold, it becomes
energy of the system.
supersaturated. Excess solute will
crystallize, making it an unstable solution.  Heating - also increases the kinetic energy of the
For liquid in liquid solutions, solubility is described in terms solute and the solvent. This means that
of miscibility. When a solute and a solvent readily dissolution increases as the temperature
dissolve in any amount in each other, they are referred to increases.
as miscible. When the components of a solution only have Modes of Expressing Concentration
limited solubility, then it is only partially miscible. Concentration is the ratio of a specified amount of
Substances which are immiscible do not dissolve in each solute to a specified volume of solvent or solution. The
other. They form two phases or layers. following are various means of expressing
 Solubility is the measure of the amount of solute concentration.
that can be dissolved in a given quantity of solvent  Percent Concentration is the percent of the
at a specific temperature. solute in the solution.
o The solubility of gases in water is inversely o Percent by mass (Pm) is the mass of
proportional to temperature. This means that solute divided by the total mass of solution
an increase in temperature will decrease the multiplied by 100. The mass of solution is
solubility of gases in water. equal to the mass of the solute plus the
o Henry’s Law states that the solubility of a gas mass of the solvent.
in a liquid is directly proportional to the
pressure exerted by the gas on the surface of
the liquid.
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Nv
Nv
N
Vn
V
Nv
N
Vn
DFGDSB
DF
DF
D
GFD
GD
G
DG
D
GD
G
DG
D
GD
GD
G
DG
D
GD
o Percent by volume - To determine percent by FD
volume, simply divide the volume of solute by the DB
total volume of the solution and multiply the result CB
by 100%. The solute and the solution volumes C
have to be expressed in the same units. BC
𝑉 BC
B
CB
CB
C
 C H E M I S T R Y P O I N T E R S | 50

BC
B
CB
C