Boundary Layer Analysis PDF

BOUNDARY LAYER
ANALYSIS
JOSEPH A. SCHETZ
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University
EDUCATION SERIES
Michael R. Mendenhall
Guest Series Editor
Nielsen Engineering and Research
Santa Clara, California
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ISBN 978-1-60086-771-2
NOTATION
Speed of sound and amplification factor

Area or constant
Half-width
Constants
Injection/suction parameters
Average speed of molecules
Fluctuating value of species concentration
Species concentration
Mean value of species concentration
Constants
Specific heat at constant pressure
Specific heat at constant volume
Real and imaginary parts of the phase velocity
Skin friction coefficient
Average skin friction coefficient
Pressure coefficient
Drag coefficient
Diameter and minor axis in three-dimensional jets
Drag
Hydraulic diameter
xvii
xviii Notation
Binary diffusion coefficient

Turbulent diffusion coefficient
Internal energy
Kinetic energy of axial fluctuations at wave number kl
Friction factor
Function of ( * )
Body force vector
Factors in KE model
Element force vector
8 Acceleration of gravity, Clauser similarity variable,
Johnson-King variable, and G/(1 - G,)
Stagnation enthalpy ratio
En t halpy
Film coefficient
Film coefficient for diffusion
Metric coefficients
Stagnation enthalpy
Shape factor
Index
Integrated momentum flux
Thermal conductivity and average roughness size
Crocco-Lees mixing constant
Turbulent thermal conductivity
Wave number of fluctuations
Turbulent kinetic energy
Equilibrium constant
Constants and geodesic curvatures
Element stiffness matrix
Turbulent length scale and arc length
Mixing length
Major axis in three-dimensional jets
Length scale in Johnson-King model
Lewis number
Turbulent Lewis number
Index along surface
Diffusive mass flux of species i
Maximum value of index m and Mach number
Convective Mach number
Mach number in compressibility correction
Index across layer, frequency, and transverse
streamline coordinate
y component of normal vector to surface
Maximum value of index n
Notation xix
Nusselt number
Nusselt number for diffusion
Hedstrom number
Plasticity number
Pressure and exponent for power law fluids
Partial pressure of species i
Fluctuating pressure
Mean pressure, scaled pressure, and perimeter
Total pressure
Power law decay exponents
Prandtl number
Turbulent Prandtl number
Production of turbulent kinetic energy
Heat flux vector
Turbulent heat flux
Wall heat transfer rate
4* Friction velocity in three-dimensional flows
Q Total velocity in three-dimensional flows
r Radial coordinate, recovery factor, and element
coordinate
Body radius
Half-radius
Pipe radius, gas constant, and radius of curvature
Richardson number
Reynolds number
Body nose radius of curvature
Turbulent Reynolds number
Transformed streamwise and streamline coordinate
and element coordinate
Schmidt number
Turbulent Schmidt number
Stanton number
Stanton number for diffusion
Shear parameter
Time
Static temperature
Surface force vector
Bulk temperature
Reference temperature
Total (stagnation) temperature
-
To Time period
T Mean temperature
T' Fluctuating temperature
T* Heat transfer temperaure
Notation
T+ 3 (T, - T)/T*
U Streamwise velocity
Uave Average velocity
Ui Nodal velocity in FEM
-
U Transformed velocity and velocity from previous
iteration in FEM
Mass-weighted mean streamwise velocity
Fluctuating velocity
Friction velocity
3 u/u*
Convective velocity
Mean streamwise and scaled velocity
Primary direction velocity in a channel
Velocity of moving wall
Transverse or radial velocity
Transverse velocity at the wall
Nodal velocity in FEM
Transformed velocity and velocity from previous
iteration in FEM
Mass-weighted mean transverse velocity
Dimensionless transverse velocity at the wall
Fluctuating transverse velocity
Mean transverse, scaled and general velocity
Entrainment velocity
Velocity from scalar potential in a channel
Velocity from vector potential in a channel
Spanwise velocity in three-dimensional flows
Fluctuating spanwise velocity
Mean spanwise velocity in three-dimensional
turbulent flows and channel half-height
Molecular weight
Wake function
Reaction source term
Streamwise coordinate
Transformed streamwise coordinate
Coordinates in three-dimensional flows
Length of potential core
Mole fraction of species i
Scaled streamwise coordinate
Transverse coordinate
Transformed transverse coordinate
Transverse coordinate for the law of the wall
Length scale in Baldwin-Lomax model
Transformed and scaled transverse coordinate
Notation xxi
Half-widths in three-dimensional jets

Spanwise coordinate in three-dimensional flows
Dimensionless mass fraction
-
=
Compressibility factor
Greek
ff Wave number, amplification factor, and atom mass

fraction
kT/pcp
Friction law coefficient for power law fluids
Pressure gradient parameter and wave number
Wall streamline angle
Pressure gradient parameters in three dimensions
Friction law function for power law fluids
Hypersonic interaction parameter
Planar stream function
Axisymmetric stream function
Disturbance stream function
Dissipation of turbulent energy
Truncation error
Strain
Density
Pohlhausen pressure gradient parameter, pipe resis-
tance coefficient, and second viscosity coefficient
Mean free path between molecules
Thwaites-Walz pressure gradient parameter
Shear
Turbulent shear
Yield stress for plastic fluid
Intermittency and vorticity parameter
Element area
Element perimeter
Laminar viscosity
Apparent viscosity for non-Newtonian fluid
Viscosity factor for Bingham plastic fluid
Viscosity factor for power law fluid
Turbulent viscosity
Turbulent viscosity in the streamwise direction
Turbulent viscosity in the crossflow direction
Constant in the law of the wall and inverse of chan-
nel radius of curvature
Constant in the temperature law of the wall
xxii Notation
v Laminar kinematic viscosity

VT Turbulent kinematic viscosity
4i Element interpolation function
4 Amplitude function and dummy variable
6 . 2 Deformation angle
6 Boundary layer thickness
6T Thermal boundary layer thickness
6, Concentration boundary layer thickness
6*, A* Displacement thickness
6k* Kinematic displacement thickness
a**,62" Displacement thicknesses in three-dimensional flows
APS Perry-Schofield length scale
A Clauser integral boundary layer thickness
8 Momentum thickness
811, 812, 821, 8 2 2 Momentum thicknesses in three-dimensional flows
8,8, Excess temperature
5 = 67/6
n Wake parameter
Dummy variable and stretched time
Similarity variable
Transformed transverse coordinate
Dimensionless frequency, viscosity law exponent,
and transformed lateral coordinate
o x , my, Components of vorticity
VK,€,, Prandtl numbers for K , E , T
r See Eq. (10-8)
Y Ratio of specific heats and stability parameter in
three-dimensional flows
5 Transformed streamwise coordinate
Subscripts
C Values on the centerline

e Values on the edge of the boundary layer
j Initial values in a jet
t Stagnation values
W Wall values
co Conditions in the approach flow
CONTENTS
PREFACE xiii
NOTATION xvii
1 INTRODUCTION TO VISCOUS FLOWS 1

1-1 The Importance of Viscous Phenomena 1
1-2 Conditions at a Fluid/Solid Boundary 2
1-3 Laminar Transport Processes 3
1-4 The Boundary Layer Concept 9
1-5 The Navier-Stokes Equations 11
1-6 Reduction of the Navier-Stokes to the
Boundary Layer Equations 16
1-7 Separation and the Kutta Condition 19
1-8 Non-Newtonian Fluid Flow 22
1-9 Basic Notions of Turbulent Flow 23
Problems 28
V
Varying Wall Temperature and Pressure Gradients, 48
Contents vii
3-6 Transformation to Two-Dimensional Form 73

3-7 Mathematical Overview 73
Problems 75
4 EXACT AND NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS FOR LAMINAR,

CONSTANT-PROPERTY, INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 76
4- 1 Introduction 76
4-2 Parallel Flows 77
4-2-1 Steady Flow between Parallel Plates, 77
4-2-2 Unsteady Flow near an 1nJnite Plate, 78
4-3 Similar Solutions for the Velocity Field 79
4-3-1 Exact Solution for Flow over a Flat Plate, 81
4-3-2 Similar Solutions with Pressure Gradient, 85
4-4 Similar Solutions to the Low-Speed Energy Equation 87
4-5 Similar Solutions for Foreign Fluid Injection 89
4-6 Similar Solutions for Non-Newtonian Fluids 92
4-6-1 Power Law Fluid over a Flat Plate, 92
4-6-2 Bingham Plastic Fluid over a Flat Plate, 92
4-7 Numerically Exact Solutions 93
4-7-1 Numerical Analysis of the Linear Model Equation, 97
4-7-2 An Explicit Method for the Boundary Layer Equations, 103
4-7-3 Implicit Methods for the Boundary Layer Equations, 110
4-74 Transformations and Other Matters, 114
4-7-5 FinitP Element Method, 118
Problems 124
5 COMPRESSIBLE LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYERS 127

5-2 The Adiabatic Wall Temperature 128
5-3 The Reference Temperature Method 128
5-4 The Special Case of Prandtl Number Unity 129
5-5 The Recovery Factor for Nonunity Prandtl Number 132
5-6 Compressibility Transformations 134
5-6-1 Howarth-Dorodnitzin Transformation, 134
5-6-2 Crocco Transformation, 136
5-6-3 Levy-Lees Transformation, 136
5-7 Integral Method for Compressible Flow 137
viii Contents
5-8 Exact Solutions for Compressible Flow

over a Flat Plate 138
5-9 Exact Stagnation Point Solutions 142
5-10 Flows with Mass Transfer 144
5-10-1 The Special Case of Pr = Le = I , 144
5-10-2 Foreign Gas Injection through a Porous Wall, 146
5-1 1 Numerical Solutions of Compressible, Laminar Boundary
Layer Flows 149
5-12 Real Gas Effects 157
5-13 Pressure Gradients and Separation
in High-speed Flows 164
5-14 Interactions in Hypersonic Flows 169
Problems 174
6 TRANSITION TO TURBULENT FLOW 176

6-1 Introduction 176
6-2 A Simple Method Based on Res 179
6-3 Hydrodynamic Stability Theory 179
6-4 The e N Method 182
6-5 Other Prediction Methods 188
6-6 Selected Empirical Information 188
6-6-1 The Nature of Transition, 188
6-6-2 Effects of Free Stream Turbulence, 190
6-6-3 Effects of Pressure Gradients, 191
6-6-4 Effects of Roughness, 192
6-6-5 Bluff Bodies at Low Speeds, 194
6-6-6 Density-Stratified Flows, 196
6-6-7 Supersonic Flow, 197
6-6-8 Non-Newtonian Fluids, 198
Problems 200
7 WALL-BOUNDED, INCOMPRESSIBLE TURBULENT

FLOWS 202
7-2 Engineering Requirements of Turbulent Analyses 202
7-3 Empirical Information on the Mean Flow as a Basis
for Analysis 204
7-3-1 Flow over a Flat Plate. 204
Contents ix
7-3-2 Roughness Effects, 214

7-3-3 Injection and Suction through Porous Walls, 216
7 - 3 4 Flows with Axial Pressure Gradients, 220
7-4 Selected Empirical Turbulence Information 224
7-5 The Central Problem of the Analysis of Turbulent
Flows 233
7-6 Mean Flow Turbulent Transport Formulations 237
7-7 Mean Flow Integral Methods 239
7-8 Mean Flow Models for the Eddy Viscosity and the
Mixing Length 246
7-8-1 Models for the Inner Region, 247
7-8-2 Models for the Outer Region, 256
7-8-3 Composite Model for the Whole Boundary Layer, 262
7-9 Numerical Solution Methods for Mean Flow
Formulations 264
7-10 Formulations Based on Turbulent Kinetic Energy 281
7-1 1 Formulations Based on Turbulent Kinetic Energy and a
Length Scale 293
7-12 Formulations Based Directly on the Reynolds Stress 297
7-13 Direct Numerical Simulations 303
7-14 Boundary and Initial Conditions for Higher
Order Models 304
7-15 Non-Newtonian Turbulent Flows 305
Problems 306
8 INTERNAL FLOWS 310

8-2 Laminar Internal Flows 312
8-2-1 Fully-Developed Flows, 312
8-2-2 Entrance Region Flows, 31 7
8-2-3 General Channel Flows, 322
8-3 Transition to Turbulent Flow 327
8-4 Turbulent Flows 328
8-4-1 Fully-Developed Flows, 328
8-4-2 Entrance Region Flows, 341
8-4-3 General Channel Flows, 350
X Contents
8-5 High-speed Flows 355

Problems 357
9 FREE SHEAR FLOWS 359

9-2 Laminar Free Shear Flows 361
9-2-1 The Simple Shear Layer, 361
9-2-2 Jets, 363
9-2-3 Wakes, 365
9-3 Mean Plow and Turbulence Data for a Round Jet
in a Moving Stream 366
9-3-1 Introduction, 366
9-3-2 Constant-Density Flows, 366
9-3-3 Density Variationsfrom Temperature Variations, 371
9-3-4 Density Variationsfrom Composition Variations, 375
9-4 Mean Flow Turbulent Analyses 379
9-4-1 Similarity Analyses, 379
9-4-2 Analyses Based on Eddy Viscosity or Mixing-Length
Models 386
9-5 Analyses Based on Turbulent Kinetic Energy 399
9-6 Analyses Based on Equations for Turbulent Kinetic Energy
and a Length Scale 403
9-7 Analyses Based on the Reynolds Stress 408
9-8 Direct Numerical Simulations 41 1
9-9 Comments on the Use of Higher-Order Models
for Free Mixing Flows 412
Problems 412
10 WALL-BOUNDED TURBULENT FLOWS WITH VARIABLE

DENSITY A N D HEAT A N D MASS TRANSFER 414
10-1 Introduction 414
10-2 Experimental Information 414
10-2-1 Mean Flow Data, 414
10-2-2 Turbulence Data, 426
10-3 Analysis 430
10-3-1 Boundary Layer Equations of Motion 430
10-3-2 Mean Flow Models for the Eddy Viscosity and Mixing
Length, 433
10-3-3 Methods Based on Models for the Turbulent Kinetic
Energy, 445
APPLET EXAMPLES FOR CHAPTER 10
522
546
CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION
FLOWS
TO VISCOUS
1-1 THE IMPORTANCE OF VISCOUS PHENOMENA
An applied fluid dynamicist is generally engaged in the analysis or design of a device

that has a specific practical purpose (e.g., an airplane, a piping system, or a heat ex-
changer). In virtually all such situations, the cost of operation as well as perfor-
mance is of primary importance, and this usually comes down to estimating the re-
sistance of the device to fluid motion. For a vehicle, this resistance is called drag.
For a piping system, one must determine the pressure loss. In other cases, we may
speak simply of frictional losses or, in rotating electrical machines, windage. It
should be clear, then, that the influence of fluid friction can seldom be disregarded
in actual engineering practice, and the inviscid fluid assumption is too restrictive for
most real situations. Thus, the main topic of this book is the dynamics of viscous
fluids at conditions of interest to engineers.
A process that is closely allied to fluid friction is convection heat transfer. This
subject is very important in cases ranging from the heat exchanger in an industrial
boiler to a reentry vehicle. The close linkage that exists between fluid friction and
convection phenomena-on physical grounds, on the basis of similar mathematical
models, and on their practical importance-makes the concurrent study of these
processes attractive, and that path will be followed here.
A third process related to viscous resistance and convection heat transfer is
mass transfer with fluid motion. Examples include industrial drying operations and
1
2 Introduction to Viscous Flows Chap. 1
fuel droplet evaporation. Thus, we shall pursue the study of this process, along with
viscous effects and convection heat transfer.
It has been stressed that the subject matter of interest is concerned with real
phenomena. The reader will find it helpful, therefore, to employ his or her powers of
observation and recollection while studying this material. Take every opportunity to
note and learn from the examples of fluid flow that constantly surround you in the
real world. Observe the cloud patterns, contrails from airplanes, and smoke plumes
from industrial stacks in the sky. Watch the water flow in your bathtub or shower or
behind your boat. You can easily find a myriad of other examples yourself. Try to re-
late them to the material under study. If you cannot, try to find a situation in your
world that involves the subject of interest at the moment. This may all sound too ab-
stract, but the student who tries to follow this advice will find it very helpful in gain-
ing real understanding.
1-2 CONDITIONS AT A FLUID-SOLID BOUNDARY
The mathematical basis of modern fluid dynamics was developed mostly before the
true molecular nature of matter was well understood. Thus, the fluid was considered
a homogeneous, continuous medium, rather than consisting of rather widely spaced
molecules as we now know is the case for gases at modest pressure, for example.
With very few exceptions, such as the highly rarefied air at the outer edge of the at-
mosphere, it has been possible and convenient to retain that continuum mathemati-
cal formulation and apply it successfully to the real world by making certain as-
sumptions. For our purposes here, the most important of these concern the
conditions at the interface between the fluid and a solid surface. On the scale of an
air molecule, even a smoothly machined surface looks like rough terrain. Each
molecule striking the surface will have numerous collisions between the various
peaks and valleys and other molecules and will exchange some of its momentum and
thermal energy with the surface. It is clearly an awesome task to try to follow each
molecule through its history and then sum up on a statistical basis to find the average
momentum and thermal energy exchange at a given location on the surface. Experi-
ments and analytical estimates have shown that an entirely adequate representation
of physical reality is contained in the assumptions that, at a surface, a fluid loses all
of its momentum relative to the surface in the interaction between the two and that
the fluid comes to the same temperature as the surface. An essentially equivalent as-
sumption is made for the case of mass transfer, but the matter can become somewhat
more complicated. A detailed discussion is reserved until mass transfer is treated in
depth in a later chapter.
The foregoing assumptions yield velocity and temperature profiles in the re-
gion near a solid surface resembling those shown in Fig. 1-1. Denoting the local ve-
locity in the streamwise direction as u and the distance normal to the surface as y,
the profile u ( y ) at a given value of the streamwise coordinate x will look as shown.
The velocity at the surface is taken to be zero (often called the no-slip condition).
The no-slip condition leads to the clarifying notion that a surface is a sink for fluid
Sec. 1-3 Laminar Transport Processes 3
ii
T=T, u=U,
Y'6,
T - T, = 0.99(Te - T
),
y= 6
u = 0.99ue
Figure 1-1 Typical velocity and tem-

perature profiles in a boundary layer.
Shown are the definition of the velocity
and temperature boundary layer thick-
x, nesses.
momentum. The velocity at a distance far (on the scale of the viscous region) from
the surface will have some value dependent on the free-stream velocity U, and the
shape of the body. Call this value Ue, to indicate conditions at the outer edge of the
viscous region. Between the values of 0 and U,, we expect the velocity profile to
change smoothly due to the influence of fluid friction on the fluid in the layers just
above and below any point of interest. The profile will blend into the edge value U,
only asymptotically, so it is common to identify the point where 99% of U, is
reached as the thickness 6 of the viscous layer on the solid boundary. (Call this re-
gion from the surface to 6 the boundary layer.)
In a similar way, the temperature profile will vary from T = Tw at the wall to
T = T, at the edge of the thermal boundary layer tiT.We define aT as the point
where T - Tw = O.99(Te - Tw). Note that aT is not necessarily equal to 6; that is,
the thermal boundary layer thickness does not have to be the same as the velocity
boundary layer thickness.
For flows with mass transfer, a composition profile across the layer will resem-
ble those for velocity and temperature just discussed, and there will be a concentra-
tion boundary layer of thickness 6,.
1-3 LAMINAR TRANSPORT PROCESSES
The simplest class of flows in which viscous phenomena are important occurs when
the streamlines form an orderly, roughly parallel pattern. The fluid in the viscous re-
gion may be thought of as proceeding along in a series of layers or laminates with
smoothly varying velocity and temperature from laminate to laminate. Consider a
deck of playing cards resting on a table, and push the first few cards slightly to one
side. Friction from card to card will cause most of the rest of the cards to shift in the
same direction, but by a lesser amount, down through the deck. The displaced pat-
tern of the edge of the deck may be imagined to be a velocity profile, and the flow
so represented would then have the laminated characteristic previously described.
Viscous flows of this class are, therefore, called laminar. They are the simplest type
of viscous flows, but unfortunately, only a fraction of flows of practical interest falls
into this class. Nonetheless, some flows do, and this is a good place to begin the
study of the details of viscous processes.
The reader is likely to be surprised at both the simplicity and crudity of the
physical arguments that form the basis of the mathematical representation of laminar
flows, especially in light of the complexity of the mathematical problem that results.
Some perspective on this may be gained by noting a little history. The physical argu-
ments and the formulation of the additional viscous terms, in their present form, .to
augment Euler’s inviscid equations of motion were accomplished in the early 1800s
by Navier (1823) and Stokes (1845). It was not until the late 1900s, however, that
practical problems could be solved on the basis of the full formulation using the
Navier-Stokes equations, and only then, using large digital computers. Such solu-
tions are still by no means routine. Fortunately, a very imaginative simplification
was developed just after the turn of the last century that can be used in many situa-
tions of engineering interest. We shall introduce that concept in the next section.
One can develop a suitable mathematical representation for the viscous terms
by assembling some physical facts. First, aJluid will not sustain a stress as a result of
a simple static displacement. The fluid will simply shift and then return to rest in a
new stress-free state. That is the important basic mechanical difference between a
fluid and a solid. If stresses in a fluid are to exist, they must result from relative mo-
tion, not position. Thus, in a fluid, stress can occur only in a region of variable ve-
locity. We would also expect that a greater rate of variation would produce a greater
stress. The simplest representation that meets these criteria is
7 --av
an
where T is the viscous stress, V the velocity, and n the direction normal to the direc-
tion of the shear stress. Note that Eiq. (1-1) is based on the rather bold assumption
that only the first derivative is important. We might have included other terms pro-
portional to, for example, d2V/an2,but we choose to try and keep the formulation
as simple as possible.
The adequacy of Eq. (1-1) can be tested in the simple device shown in Fig.
1-2, called a viscometer. The no-slip condition at both solid surfaces and the small
gap thickness produce the linear velocity profile shown. The frictional stress can be
determined from the power required to turn the cylinder. It is found that many com-
mon fluids (e.g., air, water) obey the relation in Eq. (1-1) if we write
7 = p-
av
an
where p is the laminar coefficient of viscosity, which depends strongly on the com-
position of the fluid. Equation (1-2) is referred to as Stokes’s law. Fluids that obey
this law are termed Newtonian; others are termed nun-Newtonian.In non-Newtonian
fluids, such as polymers, the shear stress depends nonlinearly on the rate of shear
strain, as shown in Fig. 1-3. We will return to the subject of non-Newtonian fluids
Fluid in
narrow
gap
Rotating
cylinder
Stationary Figure 1-2 Schematic of a device for

shell measuring fluid viscosity.
later, but, for now, consider the more common and simpler Newtonian case. The
quantity p is called a physical property of the fluid itself, since it does not depend on
the state of fluid motion. Experiment shows that, essentially, p = p ( T ) for a given
fluid; the influence of pressure is negligible in most cases.
Looking at Eq. (1-2), we find that the dimensions of the relation suggest that
p - density X velocity X length (1-3)
Figure 1-3 Variation of shear stress

versus rate of strain for various types of
Rate of strain fluids.
Indeed, an idealized analysis based on molecular processes indicates that, for gases,
p = 0.49pcA" (1-4)
-
where p is the density of the gas, c is the average speed of the molecules ( c fi),
and A* is the mean free path between the molecules. Actually, analytical predictions
of p have generally been of inadequate accuracy, and most workers use experimen-
tal data for p when they are available. Finally, the laminar viscosity p is often com-
bined with the density as v = p / p , where v is called the laminar kinematic vis-
cosity.
As stated earlier, heat transfer almost always accompanies fluid friction if there
is a temperature difference, so we require a representation for those processes also.
The physical basis consists of two facts. First, heat flow occurs only in the presence
of a temperature gradient, and it is proportional to the gradient. Second, heat always
flows from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature. Thus,
we are led to
q = -k- dT (1-5)
dn
where q is the heat flux and k is the laminar thermal conductivity, which depends
strongly on fluid composition. Equation (1-5) is called Fourier's law. The minus
sign ensures the correct direction of heat flow, with k always taken as positive. Ex-
periment verifies the adequacy of Fourier's law and also shows that k = k(T), again
with a very weak dependence on pressure. The laminar thermal conductivity is thus
also a physical property of the fluid and does not depend on fluid motion or the rate
of heat transfer. Indeed, Eq. (1-5) also holds for solids.
There are two dimensionless groups involving the laminar viscosity and ther-
mal conductivity that are useful. The first is the Reynolds number, named after a fa-
mous British fluid dynamicist of the late 18OOs, Osborne Reynolds:
Here, one must select the appropriate characteristic velocity V and length scale L for
a given flow being analyzed. By rearranging Eq. (1-6) as
(1-6a)
we can see that the Reynolds number is proportional to the ratio of inertial forces to
viscous forces in a flow. For most flows of practical concern, this ratio is very large,
on the order of lo3 to lo8.
The second important group is the Prandtl number, named after a German re-
searcher, Ludwig Prandtl, who dominated research into viscous flow in the first half
of this century:
PCP
Pr = -
k (1-7)
Rearranging Eq. (1-7) to the form
(1-7a)
makes it plain that the Prandtl number is proportional to the ratio of the coefficient
for diffusion of momentum to the coefficient for diffusion of heat. For most gases,
- -
Pr 0.7. For liquids such as water, Pr O(10). For liquid metals, Pr << 1.
For the flow of a fluid consisting of a mixture of two (or more) different fluids
with a nonuniform composition, there is a process of molecular diffusion akin to
viscous shear and heat transfer. If the local concentration of a species is described by
a muss fraction cidefined as the mass of species i in a volume divided by the total
mass of all fluids in that volume, the analog of Eqs. (1-2) and (1-5) for diffusion is
h.= -pD..-aci
'I an
where mi is the local mass flux of species i relative to the local mass-averaged veloc-
ity of the fluid. Equation (1-8), called Fick's law, expresses the physical fact that a
species diffuses from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concen-
tration. This simple expression neglects other possible processes of diffusion due to
strong temperature or pressure gradients, which are often not important. The factor
Dijis called the laminar binary diffusion coefJicient and is also a physical property of
the fluids under consideration for laminar flows. In this book, we treat in detail only
mixtures of two species, that is, binary mixtures.
The diffusion coefficient is combined with other properties to form two dimen-
sionless groupings. The first is the Schmidt number,
sc = -P
(1-9)
pDij
The second is the Lewis number,
pcpDij
Le = - (1-10)
k
Obviously,
Pr = Le Sc (1-11)
Thus, the Schmidt number is the ratio of the coefficient for diffusion of momentum
to the coefficient for diffusion of mass, and the Lewis number gives the correspond-
ing ratio for mass transfer to heat transfer.
The determination of physical properties such as the laminar viscosity, thermal
conductivity, and diffusion coefficient of a fluid comprises a separate field of en-
deavor, and the work is largely composed of painstaking experiments. The working
fluid dynamicist must have readily available sources of this critical information.
Some data for air and water are plotted in Figs. 1-4 and 1-5. Note that the Prandtl
number is nearly constant for air. It is also nearly constant for most gases. Further
1 - - 0.5
0 I 1 I I I I ~0
3’2 383.7
(1-12)
T + 110.6
- 2.0 15
--
Y
I
v)
g
- 1.5
‘1
0 10
Y
P 1.0
X t
-5.-
Y
5
0.5
c
X
a
0 I I I I I I I 0
250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650
T(K)
Figure 1-5 Laminar thermophysical properties for liquid water.
Sec. 1-4 The Boundary Layer Concept 9
where T is in degrees Kelvin and p is in millipoise (N - s/m2 X lo4 gives mP). A

simpler form, p -T"(o = 0.76 for air) is often employed.
1-4 THE BOUNDARY LAYER CONCEPT
Because the Navier-Stokes equations that result from the complete viscous additions
to the inviscid equations are very difficult to solve for general flows, they sat largely
unused for several decades and did not contribute significantly to the early develop-
ment of, for example, airplanes or improved shiphulls. When faced with a difficult
mathematical problem, it is natural to seek rigorous or at least reasonable sim-
plifications. This is usually done by comparing the magnitudes of the various terms
in the equation(s) to see whether any terms may be neglected, compared to those re-
tained for conditions of interest. To make this procedure rational, it is necessary first
to nondimensionalize and normalize all the independent and dependent variables,
preferably to approximately order unity. For example, we may scale the local
streamwise velocity u by the free-stream velocity Urnand the axial coordinate x by
the length of the body, the diameter of a pipe, or some other length scale. When
this is done for the Navier-Stokes equations, one is left with the factor 1/Re, multi-
plying all the viscous terms. Now, as we observed earlier, the Reynolds number is
very large for most practical flows, so this factor would be roughly 10 - to 10 - '.
Under such circumstances, it certainly seems safe to neglect all terms multi-
plied by 1/Re, since the other terms in the equations have coefficients of roughly
unity, and we have sought to make all the terms themselves of order unity. This all
seems plausible; the only problem is that one is, in this way, led back to the inviscid
flow equations, which cannot predict frictional drag or heat transfer. The core of the
problem arises because the terms that are neglected are the highest order derivatives.
Depressing the order of the system from second order to first order means that only
one boundary condition on u in the transverse or y- direction can be imposed. Thus,
one cannot impose both the no-slip condition on the surface and merging into the
free stream far from the surface. Given that choice, the only sensible decision is to
forego the no-slip condition leading to zero wall shear and the usual inviscid flow
analysis.
The matter rested in this seeming paradox until Prandtl's (1904) penetrating
analysis. Prandtl reasoned that, for flows of high Reynolds number, viscous effects
would be confined to a thin layer along a solid surface. Such a region must always
exist, since the velocity must vary quickly from a relatively high value out in the
flow down to zero on the body surface. This variation will produce large gradients
and, hence, significant shear forces, even for low-viscosity (high Re) flows, by
virtue of Eq. (1-2). Although the region in question may occupy only a small por-
tion of a total flow field, it cannot be neglected, since all momentum, heat, and mass
transfer to or from the surface must take place through it. Outside this boundary
layer, the flow does behave as if it were inviscid. Thus was born the brilliant new
idea of dividing the flow into two regions and using different simplified equations in
each. For the outer region, we neglect viscous effects and use the inviscid Euler
equations. For the inner, boundary layer region, we use a simplified version of the
Navier-Stokes equations that still, however, retains some viscous terms. Of course,
the solutions for the two regions must be suitably joined to produce a composite so-
lution for the whole flow field. This idea is so powerful that it has been used in many
other areas of science and mathematics besides fluid dynamics. The term boundary
layer analysis is, therefore, widely used in a general way.
The single most important part of the boundary layer assumption is that the
static pressure may be taken to be constant across the boundary layer. For many
uses, the following physical derivation is adequate. We presume a thin viscous layer
and a body or channel shape with modest surface curvature in the direction of flow.
The reason for the latter restriction will become clearer in the next section. Since
the layer is thin everywhere, the magnitude of the rate of growth of the layer,
dS/dx, must be small. Thus, streamlines in the boundary layer must all be roughly
parallel to the surface, and, by presumption,they must all have, at most, a modest
curvature. This is the same as saying that the radius of curvature of the streamlines
in the boundary layer R must be large. From elementary fluid mechanics, we have
the relation
_
a P - PV2 (1-13)
an R
which says that, for very large R, the variation in pressure normal to the streamlines
(including the body surface itself) must be negligible.
The fact that the static pressure is constant across the thin boundary layer is
important for two reasons. First, the Navier-Stokes equations have one equation ex-
pressing conservation of momentum for each coordinate direction. Thus, for a planar
(x,y) formulation, we would have an x- momentum equation and a y- momentum
equation. Under the boundary layer assumption, the y - momentum equation reduces
to
(1-14)
a considerable simplification.
The second important result of taking the static pressure to be constant across
the boundary layer concerns the joining of the outer, inviscid solution to the inner,
boundary layer solution to produce a complete, composite solution. If the static
pressure is constant across the layer, the static pressure predicted by the inviscid so-
lution at the outer edge of the boundary layer determines the static pressure all
across the boundary layer. One says that the inviscid solution impresses the static
pressure on the boundary layer. This analysis can be carried further. From the point
of view of the inviscid flow, the outer edge of the thin boundary layer is indistin-
guishable from the surface. Thus, an inviscid solution for the flow over the body or
through the channel of interest is found first, and the predicted inviscid pressure dis-
tribution on the surface, p ( x ) , is taken as the pressure in the boundary layer. Also,
Bernoulli’s equation applied to the inviscid solution gives the inviscid velocity on the
Sec. 1-5 The Navier-Stokes Equations 11
surface, which is taken to be the outer edge velocity for the boundary layer:
u due =
- _ -1- dP (1-15)
dx P dx
From the point of view of the boundary layer, the outer edge of the boundary layer
6 is far from the surface. Therefore, the boundary condition for the velocity in the
boundary layer at the outer edge of the layer is written, not as u(x,6) = Ue, but
rather, as
lim,,,u(x, y ) = Ue(x) (1-16)
From the preceding discussion, it can be seen that the coupling between the
outer, inviscid flow and the inner, boundary layer flow is all one way. The inviscid
solution for flow over the body or through the channel can be found first, indepen-
dently of the boundary layer. That solution determines p(x) and Ue(x) for the
boundary layer solution. The boundary layer equations are then solved under the
constraints given by p(x) and Ue (x).
The foregoing heuristic development is sufficient for understanding the essence
of boundary layer theory, as described in the rest of this book. For completeness and
for those interested in or curious about the mathematical details, the next two
sections, giving a complete derivation for the steady, constant-density , constant-
property case, is included. Those not interested can skip to Section. 1-7 without loss
of continuity.
1-5 THE NAVIER-STOKES EQUATIONS
In some situations, the full viscous equations, usually called the Navier-Stokes equa-
tions, must be employed. Although the solution of those equations for general flows
is beyond the scope of this book, it is worthwhile to include a derivation for lami-
nar, constant-property cases.
Consider the surface forces acting on the fluid element shown in Fig. 1-6. The
total surface forces acting on the faces perpendicular to the x-axis are denoted
(1-17)
aT
f 2 dx
ax
Figure 1-6 General surface forces act-
ing on the sides of a fluid element per-
dx X pendicular to the x-axis.
12 introduction to Viscous Flows Chap. 1
The net force from these is
aT.
dX
dx dy dz (1-18)
By analogy, the net forces on the other faces can be written
(1-19)
Now each of the force (per unit area, i.e., stress) vectors T , , T,, and T, can be de-
composed. We get
(1-20)
T, = iTzx + jr,, + kTz,
The subscript notation-for example, on r,,-indicates quantities acting on the face
perpendicular to the x-axis and in the y-direction. Taking moments of the forces
about an arbitrary axis and setting the result equal to zero for a fluid particle in equi-
librium leads directly to the result that
rxy= 7yx
71, = 72, (1-21)
rv: = Tz,
must hold in general.

A quantity with two subscripts (i.e., nine components) is called a tensor. Such
a quantity follows in a logical sequence from a scalar, such as temperature, with
only one component, to a vector, such as velocity, with three components, to a
stress tensor, with nine components. With Eq. (1-21), we see that the stress con-
sists of a symmetrical tensor. The diagonal components T, T,,, rzzare called normal
stresses, and they clearly bear a close relation to the pressure. The off-diagonal
components are viscous shear stresses.
The task now is to relate the viscous stresses to the dynamics of the flow. The
major physical arguments necessary for this endeavor have been presented in Section
1-3. There are also some mathematical and physical properties of the stress tensor
that will prove useful. One can begin with the simple situation shown in Fig. 1-7
(this is the same case as for the viscometer in Fig. 1-2) and attempt to generalize.
For this simple case, we have
au
T = p- (1-22)
dY
The quantity du/dy is twice the shear strain rate, which is defined as one-half the
rate of change of the angle between two lines in the fluid that are initially perpendic-
ular. Thus, Eq. (1-22) can be read to say that the shear stress is proportional to the
shear strain rate.
In the general case, the shear strain rate is a tensor, e i j , whose components can
Figure 1-7 Velocity distribution of a

-
a u dy dt viscous fluid in a narrow gap between a
av moving and a fixed surface.
be developed by considering Fig. 1-8 with ex,. as an example. Clearly,
(1-23)
and by analogy,
(1 -24)
As in solid mechanics, this tensor is symmetric. Thus, Eq. (1-22) is generalized to
Tv = p($ + g)
(1-25)
for the shear stresses. The key assumption is that the viscous stress tensor is a linear
function of the rate-of-strain tensor. This analysis leads directly to equations for a
Newtoniunjuid. It has also been assumed that the fluid is isotropic-that is, the pro-
cess is independent of direction.
3'
Time
dy + av
- dy dt t +dt
av
p dx dt
c--U dt __
Figure 1-8 Distortion of a fluid ele-

ment as it moves in a viscous shear flow.
The diagonal terms, which are the normal stresses, require special consider-
ation. First, the pressure p in a fluid is usually defined as the negative (i.e., acting
inward) of the mean value of the normal stresses on a sphere of unit radius, so the
pressure must appear in the diagonal terms of the tensor. Also, we wish the final re-
lation to be invariant under a simple rotation of the coordinate system. This requires
the introduction of additional items in the diagonal terms of the tensor and a second
viscosity coefficient, A. The formulation is similar to solid mechanics, where we re-
quire two coefficients of elasticity for an isotropic solid. The final forms of the diag-
onal terms become
(1-26)
But the average of the normal stresses must be equal to the negative of the pressure,
whether there is motion (and therefore viscous normal stresses) or not. Thus,
Obviously, the additional term on the right-hand side must be zero. For incompress-
ible fluids, the quantity in parentheses is zero by mass conservation expressed as the
continuity equation. For other fluids, it is common simply to assume that h =
-2p/3 (Stokes’s hypothesis), although that relationship is hard to justify rigorously,
except for monatomic gases. This completes the modeling of the stresses.
We turn to the fluid element in Fig. 1-9 to apply conservation of momentum.
Clearly, it will be necessary here to balance forces with momentum changes in all
three coordinate directions. It is convenient to use the x- direction as an example and
then write down the corresponding results in the y- and z- directions by extension.
The mass entering the left-hand side, pu dy dz, brings with it x-momentum in
the amount
u (P4dYdZ (1-28)
and the x- momentum leaving the right-hand side is
(u + $dx)(pu + -ax dx)dy dz

a(pu) (1-29)
The mass entering the bottom face, pv dx dz, brings with it an x- momentum of
u(pv)dxdz (1-30)
and the x- momentum leaving the top is
(u +zdy)(pv + -
a(pv)
dY dy ) dx dz (1-31)
Next Page
U,
___--- _ _ / - - - -
.- 4-
/--
Q dx au
ax u + -dx
*
dx
dx
ax
Figure 1-9 Differential volume for conservation of mass and momentum in the
viscous layer.
The same procedure can be followed for the front and back faces. The net change in
x- momentum in the volume is balanced by the resultant of the forces in the x- direc-
tion.
The primary fluid forces considered here are two surface forces: pressure and
viscous forces. Volume (or body) forces, such as those due to gravity, will be ne-
glected because they are small compared to inertia and the other forces for most
conditions of practical interest. The summation of pressure forces in the x- direction
is (see Fig. 1-9)
(1-32)
So the net pressure force is

d P dx dy dz
- (1-33)
ax
Generalizing to include the net of all the surface forces acting in the x- direction, we
obtain, after dividing by the volume (dx)(dy)(dz),
-aTxx
+
ax
- + -ay
aTxy aTxz
az
(1-34)
Using Eqs. (1-25) and (1-26) with A = - 2p/3, this becomes
--
dX
a2u
+ p ( a7
a2u
x +7
a2u)
ay + 7
az
+ -31p - axa (a,-
ax
+-
a0
ay
+-
aw)
az
(1-35)
CHAPTER
2
INTEGRAL EQUATIONS
AND SOLUTIONS
FOR
LAMINARFLOW
2-1 INTRODUCTION
Before undertaking the development of any analytical procedure, the analyst should
ask what the desired result of the analysis is to be. A practicing engineer or applied
scientist generally is not interested in the elegance of a solution, but rather needs the
answer to a specific problem. If an elegant solution provides more information than
is needed at an appreciable increase in the cost of obtaining the solution, compared
with a cruder method, the cruder method is better on a cost-benefit basis.
What, then, is the output usually needed from a boundary layer analysis? Gen-
erally, the primary information required is skin friction drag, C,(x) (= T,/
(1/2pU,Z)). A closely related item would be the point, if any, where T,,,= Cf= 0
occurs (i.e., the location of separation). If there is heating or cooling, the wall heat
transfer rate, q,(x), is correspondingly sought. When there are concentration gradi-
ents, the mass transfer rate at the wall, hi,,,,is desired. The next type of information
that might be useful is the transverse extent of the viscous region, 6 (x) [and perhaps
&(x) and/or S,(x)]. It may surprise the reader to learn that in the vast majority of
practical cases, that much output is sufficient. Only rarely in a design calculation
would one need to know as much detail as, for example, the streamwise velocity
u ( x , y ) at a given point in the boundary layer.
With the goal of predicting C,(x) and 6(x) [and perhaps q w ( x ) and hi&)], let
us develop the simplest analytical method of achieving those ends. In this chapter,
we consider only laminar flows. There are some cases of high Reynolds number flow
30
Sec. 2-2 The Integral Momentum Equation 31
where the Reynolds number in a substantial part of the flow is low enough for lami-
nar flow to exist. Also, an understanding of laminar analyses is essential to attaining
an understanding of the more widely applicable and more complicated turbulent
analyses. To keep the derivation simple, it is helpful initially to adopt the additional
restrictions of steady, incompressible (constant-density), and constant-property
flow.
In formulating the appropriate analytical approach, it is important to note that
all of the primary desired quantities [Cf(x), q,(x), rhiw(x),S(x), etc.] are functions
only of the streamwise coordinate x. Apparently, the dependence on the transverse
coordinate, y, is of lesser importance, and we may be able to take some liberties.
Indeed, we will treat all the flow within the boundary layers at a given station x as
one unit and apply conservation principles to it as a whole.
Before beginning, it is perhaps useful to digress a moment and say a few words
about the philosophy of the foregoing approach. The engineering or physical science
student generally takes this matter too lightly. By this point in his or her education,
the student has seen conservation of mass, momentum, energy, and so on, applied to
a variety of situations. It is taken for granted that there exist generally applicable
conservation principles that can be rigorously used to produce an equation or equa-
tions that can faithfully describe real phenomena. The fact is, however, that this
state of affairs exists only in the narrow branch of the spectrum of human endeavors
known, roughly, as the natural sciences. It does not exist in law, medicine, history,
sociology, or economics, to name just a few areas. Those subjects are purely empiri-
cal; there are no basic j r s t principles that have any real generality. That is why the
often-heard question, “If we can send men to the moon, why can’t we control our
economy?’ is in truth nonsensical. That is also why Isaac Newton is commonly
counted among the top 10 of the most important human beings who ever lived.
2-2 THE INTEGRAL MOMENTUM EQUATION

Consider the two-dimensional flow in Fig. 2- 1. The main flow is from left to right
and is bounded on the bottom by a rigid surface. From the discussion in Chapter 1,
it is known that the velocity at the surface (y = 0) will be taken to be zero [i.e.,
‘f u e
--
r- 1 v=H
I
I
I y=6
32 Integral Equations and Solutions for Laminar Flow Chap. 2
u ( x , 0 ) = 01. We expect the velocity to vary smoothly from zero at the surface and
to blend into the local boundary layer edge velocity U e ( x ) at y = 6 . We shall apply
our conservation principles to a control volume that is finite in the transverse direc-
tion, y = 0 to y = H [where H > S ( x ) ] , but differential in the streamwise direc-
tion dx. This approach is consistent with the notion of downplaying the importance
of variations in the y-direction. The streamwise direction x is measured along the
body surface in boundary layer analysis, and the transverse direction y is orthogonal
to x .
The mass flow entering the left-hand side of the control volume is
[PUdY (2-1)
and the mass flow leaving the right-hand side can be expressed, using the first term
of a Taylor's series, as
[PUdY + qdx[ P u d Y ] d x
If the bottom is solid and the flow is steady, the mass in the control volume must
remain constant, so the difference between the left- and right-hand side mass flows
must come in or go out through the top. If the wall is porous and there is flow
through it at vw, then the quantity pwvWmust be subtracted from the preceding dif-
ference to obtain the flow through the top, namely,
'dx
[[pudy]dx - p,v,dx (2-3)
The streamwise momentum flow in the left-hand side is
(2-4)
and that out of the right-hand side is
[pu2dy + dx [[pu2dy]dx (2-5)
Any mass flow in the top will bring with it streamwise momentum in an amount
proportional to U e ( x )
The net streamwise momentum flux out of the control volume then becomes
Sec. 2-2 The Integral Momentum Equation 33
The change in x-momentum is balanced with the summation of forces in

the x-direction on the fluid. Neglecting body forces such as gravity with respect to
the inertia of the flow, we are left with pressure forces and shear forces. Since the
boundary layer approximation is essentially dp/dy = 0 across the layer (see Chap-
ter l ) , p may be treated as p (x) alone. The pressure force on the left-hand side is pH,
and that on the right-hand side is
-(p + zdx)H
So the net streamwise pressure force on the volume is
-(zdx)H (2-8a)
There is a laminar shear force on the bottom surface (7, = p ( d u / d ~ ) , = ~acting

) in
the negative x- direction (i.e., retarding the motion of the fluid) and given by
But there is no such force on the top surface, since this surface is at, or above, the
edge of the viscous layer (i.e., (du/dy),=~= 0). Any small shear forces on the sides
of the volume have no component in the x- direction.
All of the preceding information can be combined into one equation expressing
conservation of momentum in the x-direction. In doing so, it is convenient to
rewrite the second part of Eq. (2-7), using the rule for the derivative of a product,
as
Setting Eq. (2-8a) plus Eq. (2-9) equal to Eq. (2-7), with Eq. (2-lo), results in
This equation can be further simplified by noting that, since the pressure is assumed
constant across the boundary layer, the pressure can be related to the velocity in the
inviscid flow just outside the boundary layer through Bernoulli’s equation,
(2-12)
Finally, we introduce new notation for the integrals in Eq. (2-ll), rewritten
slightly:
(2- 13)
(2- 14)
Note that the last integral in Eq. (2-11) was combined with the dp/dx term using
Eq. (2-12), to produce Eq. (2-14). Equations (2-13) and (2-14) represent more
than notational convenience, and we shall attach physical meaning to 0 and 6*
shortly. In the meantime, the equation becomes
d0 +
- --(a
1 dU, + a*) Cf
vw = -
-- (2-15)
dx U, dx Ue 2
since p = pw with the assumptions in this chapter. Some people prefer to derive this
same equation by integrating the boundary layer equations [Eqs. (1-57) through
(1-59)] across the boundary layer.
This is a good point to step back and consider what has been produced. The
equation looks tractable, since it is a relatively simple ordinary differential equation
with x as the only independent variable. Our major desired output C, appears directly
as a dependent variable. Here, as with any boundary layer problem, Ue(x)must be
known beforehand from a prior inviscid solution (see Chapter l ) , and vw, if not
zero, must be given as a boundary condition. But what about 8 and 6*?Inspection of
Eqs. (2-13) and (2-14) reveals that they involve 6, one of our other desired outputs,
but they also involve u ( y ) , which we do not know. Thus, we have one equation and
three unknowns! But fluid dynamicists are an imaginative lot; there is a way out of
this quandary.
First, however, look more closely at 0 and 6*. Equations (2-13) and (2-14)
show that they are lengths related to 6, but how? The length 6' is the simpler, so
begin with it. The integrand is proportional to (Ue - u), which is the difference be-
tween the actual viscous profile and that which would occur if the flow were invis-
cid; that is, u = U, for all y down to y = 0 (see Fig. 2-2). The difference (U, - u)
is called the velocity defect. (Remember the term, as it is important in turbulent
boundary layer analysis.) Clearly, there is less mass flow passing through the region
0 Iy 5 6 for the viscous profile than there would be if an inviscid profile existed.
The difference is proportional to the integral of (U, - u). We can now ask whether
it is possible to consider an adjusted inviscid profile that has the same mass flow near
the body as the real viscous profile. Such a profile would have the shape shown by
the dash/dot curve in Fig. 2-2, such that shaded area I is equal to shaded area 11.
That would satisfy the criteria, but how could such a profile occur? The answer is,
only if the solid surface were displaced upward a distance 6 * such that
s
pue6* = P (ue - U)~Y (2-14a)
The length 6* is, therefore, called the displacement thickness. A parallel argument
can be made concerning the flow of momentum through the region 0 Iy I6 ,
compared with that for an inviscid profile. It turns out that the surface must be
Sec. 2-3 Solution of the Integral Momentum Equation 35
y=s*
Figure 2-2 Schematic illustration of

0 the definition of the displacement thick-
0 u= u, ness 6 *.
shifted upward by an amount 8, called the momentum thickness. The two thick-
nesses are often also mentioned in reporting the results of experimental measure-
ments, since it is difficult to accurately determine 6, the point where u ( x , y ) blends
smoothly into U, because of scatter in the data. The integrals can be more accurately
found, as the scatter tends to cancel out. In recent times, the same practice has de-
veloped in reporting numerical results, for analogous reasons.
2-3 SOLUTION OF THE INTEGRAL MOMENTUM EQUATION
2-3-1 The Pohlhausen Method
At this point, it is necessary to face directly the problem posed by one equation [Eq.
(2-191 and three unknowns: Cf,6*, and 8. Observe that if u ( y ) were known, all
three quantities would be defined by Eqs. (2-9), (2-13), and (2-14). Of course, that
is foolish, because if we knew u(y), we would not be bothering with Eq. (2-15) at
all. Looking more closely, however, we see that only
$ = f($ (2- 16)
that is, only the nondimensional shape of the profile is needed, not u(y) explicitly. If
we are bold enough to guess the shape of the profile, the problem will reduce to one
equation with one unknown, S(x). One is emboldened by the fact that the profile
will be integrated for 6 * and 8, so any inaccuracies will tend to cancel. That is cor-
rect, but it is also necessary to differentiate the assumed profile to get T ~ and
, that
operation tends to amplify inaccuracies. In any event, it is instructive to try a simple

problem and see how all this works.
The simplest possible boundary layer problem is one where the inviscid solu-
tion is Ue = constant, which represents flow over a solid (v, = 0) flat plate aligned
with the flow. In that case, Eq. (2-15) becomes
(2-15a)
The crudest guess for a profile that meets an absolute minimum of physical criteria is
a straight line joining the conditions u (0) = 0 and u (6) = U,:
(2-17)
Using this equation in Eq. (2-13) gives 8 = 6/6 and using it in Eq. (2-9) gives
rw = p ( ( a ~ / d y ) ~==p~U , / 6 . So Eq. (2-15a) becomes
(2- 18)
which is one equation for the one unknown, 6, as promised. This is an easy equation
to solve, since Ue = constant for this problem. Also, for a flat plate, the boundary
layer thickness at the leading edge, x = 0, will be zero, so the single required initial
condition is just 6(0) = 0. The solution then is
(2-19)
which says that 6 grows as 6.

Rearranging terms, we can write Eq. (2-19) as
-=J,,-
7
6 12' - 3.46Re;'I' (2-19a)

X
where Re, = pU,x/p. The variation of C&) can be found by substituting Eq.
(2- 19) into the relation for T, = p (du/dy), = o to yield
(2-20)
or
(2-20a)
Now, how good is this crude solution? Experiment and elaborate exact analysis
of this problem (presented in Chapter 4) indicate that
and
C, = 0.664Re;’/2 (2-22)
Thus, the simple analysis presented has achieved the correct dependence on Re, and
fairly good numerical values for the coefficients. Often, having the correct depen-
dence on the flow parameters is sufficient for design.
Clearly, one could expect to do better quantitatively with a more realistic pro-
file shape. Pohlhausen (1921b) used the function
-U -- a
U,
+ b(:) +~):(c + d(:)’ + e(:)4 (2-23)
The coefficients a through e were determined by forcing satisfaction of a set of phys-

ically reasonable conditions on the profile. Pohlhausen used
y=o:u=o y=6:u=Ue
(2-24)
The second condition at y = 0 can be developed by considering a small volume of

fluid (dx : dy : 1) right on the wall, Since u = v = 0 on the wall, the momentum
flux in and out of such a volume is negligible compared to the forces on the volume.
Thus, equilibrium on the volume is achieved simply by a balance of the pressure
force and the shear force. The net pressure force is
(2-25)
and the net shear force is
(2-26)
So setting the sum of the forces to zero produces the stated condition. The result of
applying these conditions to Eq. (2-23) is
A A
c = --
a=0, b=2+-
6’ 2’
(2-27)
d=-2+-
A e = l - -A
2’ 6
where A = (S2/v)dUe/dxis the Pohlhausen pressure gradient parameter. Profiles
for various values of A are shown in Fig. 2-3. The profiles for favorable pressure
gradients (dp/dx < 0 and A > 0; i.e., no tendency toward separation) have a fuller
shape than the flat-plate case. For adverse pressure gradients (dpldx > 0 and

shape alone, as is the term on the left-hand side, which is commonly denoted S, the
shear correlation function. With Eq. (2-28), it is more convenient to use A =
(02/v)dUe/dx to parametize the profile shape, rather than A from before. Now, say-
ing that H and S are functions of the profile shape alone is the same as saying H (A)
and S(A). With these, Eq. (2-28) can be rewritten as
The Pohlhausen profile, or any other assumed profile shape, or the few avail-
able exact boundary layer solutions, or experimental data can be used to find the
right-hand side. A good fit to the bulk of the available information is
F ( A ) = 0.45 - 6.0A (2-29)
With this equation, Eq. (2-28a) can be integrated once and for all to yield
(2-30)
This simple expression represents an approximate answer to all low-speed, steady,

planar, laminar boundary layer problems! For a sharp-nosed body, O(0) = 0, and
for a blunt-nosed body, Ue(0)= 0, so the last term drops out. For a blunt-nosed
body at the forward stagnation point, we can write
(2-3 1)
The inviscid velocity gradient at the stagnation point can be taken to be

(dUJdx), = 2Um/R,, where R, is the radius of curvature at the stagnation point.
Note that x is a running variable along the surface and that the variable of integra-
tion, x ' , runs from 0 up to the point of interest denoted by x .
A given problem is specified by Ue(x) from the inviscid solution. The first step
is to solve Q . (2-30) for O(x). Using Ue(x), we then find A(x) = (O'/v)dU,/dx.
We now also require correlations for S(A) and perhaps H ( A ) . Thwaites (1949) gave
the results listed in the first three columns of Table 2-1. At each point x along the
surface, the appropriate S for A(x) is found, and then the definition of S is unwound
to yield
(2-32)
The values for S(A) and H(A) in the table can be represented by the following curve
fits:
05A I0.1
S = 0.22 + 1.5711 - 1.80A2

H = 2.61 - 3.7511 + 5.24A2
TABLE 2–1 SHEAR AND SHAPE FUNCTIONS,

THWAITES (1949)
L H(L) S(L) d/u

0.10 2.28 0.359 8.5
0.080 2.34 0.333 8.2
0.064 2.39 0.313 8.2
0.048 2.44 0.291 8.1
0.032 2.49 0.268 8.1
0.016 2.55 0.244 8.0
0.0 2.61 0.220 8.0
20.016 2.67 0.195 8.0
20.032 2.75 0.168 8.0
20.048 2.87 0.138 8.1
20.064 3.04 0.104 8.1
20.080 3.30 0.056 8.1
20.084 3.39 0.038 8.2
20.088 3.49 0.015 8.2
20.090 3.55 0 (sep.) 8.2
0:1 L 0
S ¼ 0:22 þ 1:402L þ 0:018L=(L þ 0:107)
H ¼ 2:088 þ 0:0731=(L þ 0:14)
Approximate values for d/u are also included as the last column in Table 2 – 1.
Since the solutions from this procedure are based on a wider range of profile shapes
as well as on experiment, they are better than those obtained with the Pohlhausen
procedure. The range of inaccuracy is generally less than 10% for favorable pressure gra-
dients, but about 20 to 30% for strong, adverse pressure gradients.
The Thwaites-Walz method has been extended by Rott and Crabtree (1952) to
the flow over an axisymmetric body described by the variation of the body radius
ro(x). The result equivalent to Eq. (2 – 30) is
ðx
0:45n
u2 (x) ¼ 2 r2 (x0 )Ue5 (x0 )dx0 (230a)
ro (x)Ue6 (x) 0 o
Rott and Crabtree show that the constants are the same as for the planar case. For a
blunt-nosed body,
0:0563n
u2 (0) ¼ (231a)
(dUe =dx)0
The inviscid velocity gradient at the stagnation point can be taken to be

(dUe/dx)o ¼ (3/2)U1/Ro.
A convenient JAVA applet named WALZ implementing the Thwaites-Walz method
is available under Boundary Layer Applets þ Convection at: http://www.engapplets.
vt.edu/. See Devenport and Schetz (1998 and 2001) for descriptions and examples.
Sec. 2--3 Solution of the Integral Momentum Equation 41
Example 2 – 1. Application of the Momentum Integral Method

We wish to analyze the viscous flow over the top surface of an NACA 4412 airfoil
moving at 10 m/s in air at STP at 1 deg. angle of attack. The chord is 0.5152 m.
Solution This problem can be readily solved using the WALZ applet mentioned just
above. As with any boundary layer problem, one first needs the inviscid flow solution.
The same website also has a convenient applet for inviscid flow, Vortex Panel Method,
(see Bertin and Cummings 2008 for background information) that is well-suited to this
problem. So, we can select the Detailed NACA4412 Paneling in the applet under
Examples and copy and paste it into the window in the applet. We also must set the
angle of attack to 1 deg. Click on the Compute button to obtain the solution shown in
Fig. 2– 4(A).
The numerical values for the surface velocity distribution on the upper surface: s,
U(upper) were selected for display. This will be copied for use as the edge velocity dis-
tribution for the boundary layer calculation.
Now, open the WALZ code to calculate the boundary layer flow. We must carefully
enter the required input in the lower panel in the WALZ window. Set: 1) Fluid Properties,
viscosity ¼ 1.57E-05 m2/s; 2) Reference Properties, freestream velocity ¼ 10 m/s and
reference length ¼ 0.5152 m; 3) for Surface Characteristics, click on Change at the top
and go to Surface Properties and paste the inviscid edge velocity distribution obtained
above into the window. Note that this 2D body has a rounded leading edge. (You
should get a sensible-looking velocity distribution in the top of the panel in the WALZ
window); and 4) Calculation Parameters, x/L ¼ 1.0 and number of x steps ¼ 101 (one
can vary this to study the effects of step size). Leave the last item as the Default value.
We will discuss this item in later chapters. Click on Run, and the solution appears as in
Fig. 2– 4(B).
Note that this flow separates at about x/L ¼ 0.53. Click on Show at the
top and select Numerical results and the window in Fig. 2 – 4(C) appears. One can
copy and paste any or all of these and use them in Microsoft Excel or any other con-
venient plotting software.
Figure 2–4(A) Inviscid solution from Vortex Panel Method applet for
Example 2–1.
Next Page
Figure 2–4(B) Boundary layer solution from WALZ applet for Example 2–1.
Figure 2–4(C) Numerical values for boundary layer solution from WALZ
applet for Example 2–1.
2 – 3 – 3 Flows with Suction or Injection
Flows with suction or injection through a porous wall are of practical interest for
cooling (with injection of a cool fluid), for delaying transition to turbulence by suc-
tion (see Chapter 6), and for preventing separation in an adverse pressure gradient
by suction. Generally speaking, the momentum integral method is not accurate for
these flows, especially those with injection, so a detailed discussion of such cases is
CHAPTER
3
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS
OF MOTION
FOR LAMINAR
FLOW
3-1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, attention is directed to the exact, laminar boundary layer form of the
equations of motion. These are derived by applying the conservation principles to a
differential volume of fluid, and coverage is restricted to planar or axisymmetric
flows of perfect fluids (gases obeying the perfect gas law and incompressible liq-
uids). The resulting system of equations, although mathematically complex, is capa-
ble of describing the fine details of the flow in the boundary layer. In light of the
discussions in Chapter 2, the reader may well ask why it is worthwhile to go to this
level of complexity. The answer is fourfold. First, there are some practical situations
in which fine details or great precision regarding gross quantities such as C, is re-
quired. The situation can be illustrated using a reentry vehicle as an example. Such a
device is designed at the limits of performance and survivability, so the skin friction
drag and wall heat transfer rate must be known quite accurately-indeed, to a preci-
sion of 1 to 2 percent. However, it is also important to know more detailed informa-
tion about the profile, such as the maximum static temperature in the boundary
layer, since that is crucial in predicting the communications blackout period. Sec-
ond, it is important to have essentially exact, so-called benchmark, solutions to
some problems, so that the adequacy of various approximate methods can be
57
58 Differential Equations of Motion for Laminar Flow Chap. 3
judged. Third, the widespread availability of large digital computers has put the so-
lution of the exact equations within the reach of most practicing engineers. It is a
matter of history in high technology that as soon as more accurate solutions become
achievable, all workers want to have them. In the field of technology, there is little
nostalgia for the old ways of doing things. Finally, the fourth and most important
reason for studying the differential equations for the boundary layer is that approxi-
mate methods for turbulent flows have been less successful than for laminar flows.
Thus, modern treatments of turbulent flows are based on differential formulations,
and the study of the corresponding laminar cases provides a good background for
undertaking the turbulent analyses.
The derivations will be presented in an apparently planar Cartesian coordinate
system denoted by ( x , y ) . However, the resulting boundary layer equations also apply
to a so-called body-Jitted coordinate system, in which x is measured along the body
surface and y is locally normal to the surface. The equations apply as long as the
boundary layer thickness is small compared to the local longitudinal radius of curva-
ture, which is usually the case. If it is not, extra terms due to curvature must be
added. These are neglected here.
3-2 CONSERVATION OF MASS: THE CONTINUITY EQUATION
The derivation of the continuity equation is relatively simple, and the student has
probably seen it before. Note that this equation is not affected by an assumption of
inviscid flow, compared to its form for a real, viscous fluid, since forces do not ap-
pear in the principle of conservation of mass.
Figure 3-1 shows the planar geometry of a differential volume of fluid in the
boundary layer. The mass entering the left-hand side of the differential volume
(dx : dy : l ) , assuming a unit depth in the z-direction out of the page, is
PU dY (3-1)
and the mass leaving the right-hand side can be written
(P +zdx)(u + 2dx)dy (3-2)
Similarly, the mass flowing in through the bottom is

pv dx (3-3)
and that out the top is
(p + $ d y ) ( v + $ dy)dx (3-4)
Any net difference between the inflows and outflows must appear as an unsteady
Sec. 3-2 Conservation of Mass: The Continuity Equation 59
Figure 3-1 Differential volume for applying conservation of mass and momentum
in the boundary layer.
change in the mass of fluid in the elemental volume which can be expressed as
Combining Eqs.(3-l) through (3-5) yields
For an axisymmetric flow, the distance from the axis r enters into the situa-
tion, and the corresponding equation becomes
1 a(pur)
ap + -- 1 a(pur)
- + -- =0 (3-7)
at r ax r ar
For constant-density flow, Eqs. (3-6) and (3-7) simplify to
(3-6a)
and
1 d(ur) + --
-- 1 d(ur) = 0
(3-7a)
r ax r ar
regardless of whether the flow is steady or unsteady.
It can easily be observed that the continuity equation is a partial differential
equation [two independent variables (x,y)] and that it is linear, at least in the con-
stant-density case, since the dependent variables do not appear as products of them-
selves or each other or derivatives of either. It is also clear that this equation must be
coupled with other equations in the system, since there are too many unknowns (at
least u and u ) for this one equation by itself. Finally, as noted before, any term de-
noting the fluid viscosity is absent in the exact form of the equation, whether the
fluid is assumed viscous or inviscid.
The form of the continuity equation in two dimensions-planar or axisymmet-
ric-leads directly to the definition of the stream function. Consider the planar, in-
+
compressible case described by Eq. (3-6a). A scalar function defined by
will always satisfy Eq. (3-6a), as can be seen by simple substitution. For the
axisymmetric geometry, we can have another scalar function 4'' defined by
aur -
_ aur - ur
- ur; -- - (3-9)
ar ax
If the flow is compressible, one must add the restriction of steady flow, but then we
can have
_
a+ -- Pu; a+-- pu
-- (3-10)
aY ax
or
(3- 11)
The concept of a stream function often proves useful in analysis, since it reduces the
number of unknowns by one [(u,~) +
+ or (u,v) + q],and the continuity equation
is automatically solved, so the system of equations is correspondingly reduced
by one.
3-3 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM: THE MOMENTUM

EQUATION
Since the boundary layer approximation is equivalent to the statement that d p / d y ==

0 across the layer, it is necessary to treat conservation of momentum only in the
Sec. 3-3 Conservation of Momentum: The Momentum Equation 61
streamwise, x , direction in detail. Conservation of momentum in the y - direction is

enforced by a p / a y = 0. Accordingly, consider again the elemental volume in Fig.
3-1, and note that the detailed derivation given here is only for the planar geome-
try. The mass entering the left-hand side, pu d y , brings with it x- momentum in the
amount
u (PU)dY (3-12)
and the x- momentum leaving the right-hand side is
au
(u +zdx)(pu +-
a(pu) d ) d y
ax
(3-13)
The mass entering the bottom face, pu dx brings with it x-momentum of

u (pu)dx (3-14)
and the x- momentum leaving the top is
( u + $ d y ) ( p v + - a (aY
p v ) dy)dx (3- 15)
The x- momentum in the volume, (pu)dx d y , can also change in an unsteady fash-
ion, and the change can be expressed simply as
a ( p u ) dx dy (3-16)
at
The net change in x-momentum in the volume is balanced by the resultant of the
forces in the x- direction.
There are, in general, two kinds of fluid forces: bodyforces and surfuceforces.
Body forces act on the bulk of the fluid in a volume as a whole. The most common
example is gravity, but under special circumstances, magnetic or electric fields can
also produce body forces. In most fluid flow problems, except those at very low
speed, the influence of body forces is negligible compared to that of inertia and the
other forces in the flow. We will carry along a generalized body force per unit vol-
ume,fi, in the derivations in this section, but no problems involving body forces will
be treated. The interested reader is referred to the chapter “Natural Convection” in
the heat transfer test by Eckert and Drake (1972), for specific material on that sub-
ject.
The primary fluid forces in many practical problems are two surface forces:
pressure and viscous forces. These forces influence the fluid in a volume by acting
on the surface of the volume. The summation of pressure forces in the x- direction is
(see Fig. 3-1)
( 2 )
pdy - p +-dx dy (3-17)
We have a partial derivative for the pressure, ap/dx, not a total derivative, dpldx,
in order to include the unsteady case, i.e., p ( x , t ) . The boundary layer assumption,
a p / d y = 0 , is retained. The only components of the viscous shear that produce

forces in the x-direction are those acting on the top and bottom of the volume. Con-
sidering the typical shape of a velocity profile (see Fig. 2-1),the shear acting on the
bottom surface tends to retard the flow, and it can be written
-T dx (3-18)
The viscous shear on the top surface tends to accelerate the flow:
(T + $ dy)dx (3-19)
Setting the net change in x- momentum equal to the summation of fluid forces
in the x-direction results in an equation that can be rearranged and simplified, after
dividing through by (dx)(dy),to give
+ p - + u - +dU~ - = - * + -a7
+h (3-20)
:[ ax ay ax ay
The group of terms in the first set of brackets should look familiar. It is the
left-hand side of the continuity equation [see Eq. (3-6)]; thus, it is identically equal
to zero. Looking at the terms in the second set of brackets, we see that they, and
they alone, still contain the differential lengths dx and d y . Since Eq. (3-20) is a dif-
ferential equation, it holds in the limit as dx and dy + 0, so those terms disappear.
The boundary layer momentum equation then becomes
(3-21)
This equation is valid for planar, unsteady, compressible boundary layer flow with
body forces. Note that in this chapter, we have not yet had to say that the flow is
laminar. Actually, Eq. (3-21) is equally valid for turbulent flow. The only distinc-
tion between the two cases will be in how the shear T is modeled.
3-3-1 Modeling of the Laminar Shear Stress
The modeling of T can be made clearer by first considering a restricted case-

steady, constant-density flow, without body forces. The conclusions reached, how-
ever, are general and not influenced by those restrictions. The problem is specified
by the appropriate form of the continuity equation
and of the momentum equation
(3-22)
Sec. 3-3 Conservation of Momentum: The Momentum Equation 63
and an equation of state, which, for this situation, is simply p = constant. Keeping
in mind that the pressure p ( x ) is imposed on the boundary layer by the inviscid solu-
tion, one can see that p ( x ) is not really a dependent variable in this system. The ac-
tual dependent variables are u, z), r , and p. But there are only three equations. Be-
cause one cannot hope to make the situation for p much simpler, and it is
unreasonable to try to find some direct relation between u and z), attention is natu-
rally directed to r .
To close the system mathematically, the variable r must be related to the other
variables in a way that has some general validity, or the whole mathematical struc-
ture will be severely restricted. The process of finding the appropriate relation is
called modeling. Fortunately, for laminar flow of a Newtonian fluid in a boundary
layer, the simple expression
dU
7 = p- (3-23)
ay
is valid. In that case, p = p ( T ) is a physical property of the fluid composition and
temperature alone and is not dependent on the fluid motion. For non-Newtonian
fluids, we have somewhat more complicated expressions, but the added complexity
for power law or Bingham plastic fluids, to cite just two examples, is not great. The
matter is vastly more complicated for turbulent flow, as we shall see in Chapter 7.
3-3-2 Forms of the Momentum Equation for Laminar Flow
Using Eq. (3-23) in Eq. (3-21) and dropping the body force terms yields
au
-
at
+ u-
au
ax
+ .-I
au
ay
= --
ax ay
(3-24)
Note that p must be kept inside the derivative on the right-hand side if the tempera-
ture is varying, because p = p ( T ) .
If the flow is axisymmetric, the distance from the axis enters into the situa-
tion, and the equation becomes
This equation is to be used with Eq. (3-7).

In most practical instances in the axisymmetric geometry, one is interested in
the boundary layer on an axisymmetric body, as shown in Fig. 3-2. If an appropri-
ate body system of coordinates is employed, the relevant forms of the momentum
and continuity equations become
(3-26)
and
(3-27)
Next Page
Figure 3-2 Schematic of the body-fitted coordinate system for the boundary layer
on a body of revolution.
where r,(x) is the local body radius. These equations are valid for 6 << r, and no
sharp corners; that is, d2r,/dx2 must be well behaved. Note that Eq. (3-26) has the
same form as the momentum equation for planar flow, Eq. (3-24). Thus, a conve-
nient, unified presentation can be given. Equations (3-26) and (3-27) hold for flow
over bodies in both the planar geometry ( j = 0 ) and the axisymmetric geometry
( j 3 1).
If the flow has constant density, the momentum equation shows no explicit
change in form; the coefficients involving p simply become constant. The continuity
equation then becomes
d(ur’,) +--a(2)rC) -0 (3-27a)
ax aY
for both steady and unsteady flow. If the assumption of constant properties is also
made, which is common with the constant-density assumption for gas flows, then
the momentum equation becomes
a u + u-au
- + au = 1 ap + v- a2u
2)-
(3-26a)
at ax ay p ax ay2
For steady flow, the first term on the left-hand side is dropped, and the pressure gra-
dient term becomes (- l/p)(dp/dx).
Another useful form of the momentum equation for planar or axisymmetric
flows is developed by the introduction of a stream function as the dependent vari-
able, in place of the two velocity components ( u , ~ ) For
. the case of a planar flow
with constant density and constant properties, a stream function defined by Eq.
(3-8) is substituted into Eq. (3-26a) to yield
(3-28)
This is one equation for the one unknown, +(x, y, t ) , with the equation of state,
p = constant, implied.
For a power law non-Newtonian fluid, the stress model given by Eq. (1-64)
CHAPTER
4
EXACTAND NUMERICAL
SOLUTIONS FOR LAMINAR,
CONSTANT-PROPERTY,
INCOMPRESSIBLEFLOWS
4-1 INTRODUCTION
The mathematical formulation of boundary layer problems, as developed in Chapter

3, is quite complex, so there is only a small group of cases that admit to an exact
analytical solution, even if the discussion is restricted to steady, incompressible,
constant-property flow. Only a fraction of this small class of problems has any prac-
tical application. We will treat a few representative cases in the next section and the
most widely applicable cases in Chapter 8, which deals with internal flows.
The next group of exact solutions that exists is for those restrictive classes of
flows for which helpful simplifications of the equations are possible and rigorous, but
whose solutions must usually be obtained numerically. Fortunately, relatively simple
methods can be used for this group. Sections 4-3 through 4-6 deal with some of
these flows. These solutions have some practical and scientific value, but they do not
apply, for example, to the flow over general bodies of engineering interest.
Until quite recently, books dealing with the subject would have a chapter con-
sisting of detailed coverage of the material just described, together with many other
exact solutions of even less practical value. However, the current widespread avail-
ability of the large digital computer has put numerically exact solutions of rather
general boundary layer problems within the reach of all engineers and applied scien-
tists. Thus, the main body of this chapter is devoted to numerical methods. Much of
that material will also carry over directly into the treatment of turbulent flows.
76
Sec. 4-2 Parallel Flows 77
4-2 PARALLEL FLOWS
Parallel flows are characterized by conditions that render u ( y) alone. The usual as-
sumption is flat surfaces that are effectively infinite in the +x direction. We shall
consider two such cases in detail in this section. For the moment, we explore the
consequences of taking u ( y ) alone in the equations of motion. This condition is
equivalent to du/dx = 0, which leads to du/dy = 0 from the continuity equation,
Q . (3-6a). Integrating, we get o = constant. If there is a solid surface, ow = 0,
and that leads to o = 0 everywhere. With &/ax = 0 and o = 0, the momentum
equation, Eq. (3-26a), becomes
This is a single equation for the single unknown u. More than that, a great mathe-
matical simplification has been achieved, since the equation is now linear.
4-2-1 Steady Flow between Parallel Plates
The physical problem of interest here is the flow between two very large, flat paral-
lel plates separated by a small distance 2W under steady conditions. The flow far
from the edges of the plate will not be affected by the faraway edges, so the distance
from the edge, x , will not enter. Equation (4-1) accordingly reduces to
0= 1-
-- dp + d2u
(4-2)
pdx Vp
Note that the equation has been reduced all the way to a linear ordinary differential
equation from the original nonlinear partial differential momentum equation. The
linear equation can easily be integrated twice to obtain u ( y ) . There are two common
cases. The first is where the lower plate at y = -W is at rest and the upper plate at
y = +W is moving in the x-direction at a velocity U,, and there is no pressure gra-
dient. This situation is called CouetteJlow, and the solution is simply
u
-=
u,
1
-(1
2
+ +) (4-3)
That is, the velocity varies linearly from u = 0 at y = -W to u = U, at y = +W.

This is the flow in the viscometer in Fig. 1-2.
The second case has both plates at rest, but there is a throughflow driven by a
pressure gradient dp/dx that is constant with x. The solution is
which is a parabolic velocity profile symmetric about y = 0.

Since the system is linear, the two solutions can be superimposed to give the
78 Exact and Numerical Solutions Chap. 4
following general solution for a moving upper plate with pressure gradient:
If the pressure is decreasing in the +x-direction, the flow is all in the +x-direction.
If the pressure is increasing in the +x-direction at a sufficient rate, reversed flow can
occur near the lower, stationary wall. The situation is illustrated in Fig. 4-1.
UW
A
V =
V=
-0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 06 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
-
U
UW
Figure 4-1 Couette flow between two parallel flat walls.
4-2-2 Unsteady Flow near an Infinite Plate
Here, we are concerned with the unsteady flow above a single infinite plate in the
+x-direction, with the fluid above the plate unbounded in the +y-direction and ini-
tially at rest. Such Rows are called StokesJlows. Equation (4-2)is reduced in those
cases to
Again, there are two common examples. The first has the plate suddenly moving in
the +x-direction with a velocity U , at time t = 0. Since Eq. (4-6) is a linear par-
tial differential equation, and since we have simple geometry and simple boundary
and initial conditions, the solution can be obtained by classical methods. Transform
techniques yield
U
-
UW = e r f cG( L t) (4-7)
F
- U
-
UV
d
Figure 4-2 Velocity distribution in the neighborhood of an oscillating wall.
mathematical problem is posed by Eq. (3-6a) and the steady, constant-property

form of Eq. (3-26a):
-au+ - =a0o (3-6a)

ax ay
(3-26a)
The difficulty is that these are nonlinear partial differential equations. For the class
of problems in the preceding section, the terms on the left-hand side of the momen-
tum equation disappear, and the system becomes linear. Those problems are
specifically chosen such that this happens, but that cannot be expected to occur in
general.
On the other hand, is it possible to find a class of problems such that the partial
differential equations reduce rigorously to ordinary differential equations, even if
nonlinear? The reader has likely seen a comparable maneuver before with the
method of separation of variables. There, one hopes to find cases where
u(x,Y ) = X(X) * Y(Y) (4-11)
giving two ordinary differential equations rather than one partial differential equa-
tion. Unfortunately, that procedure will not work for boundary layer problems. So
Sec. 4-3 Similar Solutions for the Velocity Field 81
what do we do then? Certainly, problems where the x- or y-dependence would dis-

appear altogether cannot be very general. The last possibility is the introduction of
one new independent variable-say, q-that is a function of ( x , y) such that
u ( x , Y ) = u [ q ( x ,Y)1 (4-12)
Of course, not only the equations, but the boundary conditions, must be compatible
with this representation. Surely, that will not be possible for all flow problems, but
perhaps there are some of this type.
The development of these solutions proceeded logically from two roots. First,
it had been known for some time from experiment that flat-plate boundary layer
profiles remained unchanged along the plate if plotted as u / U , versus y/6. We say
that each normalized profile is similar to every other. Further, experiment showed
that 6 - fi,so profiles plotted as u/U, versus y / f i would also be similar.
The second root was the solution of the case of a suddenly started plate, dis-
cussed in Section 4-2-2. A crude heuristic approximation to Eq. (3-26a) for
steady, constant-property flow over a flat plate (dpldx = 0) would be
(4-13)
The streamwise variable can be combined with U, to produce a pseudotime, x / U e .

Solutions to problems governed by this equation would then often involve y / f i ,
since solutions to Eq . (4-6) often involve y / 6 . This line of reasoning is not rigor-
ous, but it also strongly suggests that a promising trial form for q ( x , y) would be
77 - Y / G .
4-3-1 Exact Solution for Flow over a Flat Plate
The exact solution for flow over a flat plate was originally produced by Blasius
(1908), who was a doctoral student under Prandtl. It is convenient to use the stream
function formulation, since then only one equation for one unknown +(x, y ) is in-
volved. That equation is, from Eq. (3-28) for steady flow with dp/dx = 0,
a+ a2+ a+a2+ a’+ (4-14)
ay a y ax ax ay2 - I, ay3
We choose to write the assumption in Eq. (4-12) as
(4-15)
with q = By/<, where A and B are constants to be determined later to simplify

the final equation. Now, it cannot be expected that ~!,t = +(q) alone, since the value
of )I at any point y above the plate determines the total mass flow between y = 0
and the given y . We know that the boundary layer grows proportionally to fi,so it
can be conjectured that
*- fif(77) = Cfif(77) (4- 16)
where C is another convenience constant. The form of f ( q ) in Eqs. (4-15) and

(4-16) can be seen to be correct by reexamining the definition of the stream func-
tion, Eq. (3-8), and noting that q -( y / & ) . Substituting into Eq. (4-14) and
collecting terms, we find it convenient to select A , B , and C so that
(4-17)
giving the final equation

f ”’ + ff” =0 (4- 18)
This equation surely has a simple appearance, although it is important to note the re-
maining nonlinearity in the term ff”.
Thus far, this looks like good progress, but the boundary conditions must still
be examined. Indeed, it is the boundary conditions that determine which problems
admit to the foregoing solution and which do not. That is also the case with the
method of separation of variables in other contexts. We begin with the usual bound-
ary conditions written in terms of ( u , u) and ( x , y ) :
y=o,x LO: u ( x , 0) = u(x, 0) = *(x, 0) = 0
y + m, all x: u(x, Y ) + u e (4- 19)
x = 0,y > 0: u(0, y ) = u e
The last condition imposes a uniform approach stream with velocity U,.All the con-
ditions must be cast in terms of q - y/&, even though we will then be unable to
tell the difference between y + a and x + 0 with y > 0. This behavior is accom-
modated in Eq. (4-19), but it is worth observing that a uniform approachflow is re-
quired. Not all flat-plate boundary layer problems have similar solutions. Finally, the
boundary conditions of interest here can be written in terms of q as
(4-20)
Blasius solved Eq. (4-18) with boundary conditions given by Eq. (4-20) us-
ing inner and outer series expansions that are joined within the boundary layer. In
modern times, this type of problem is generally treated by a so-called shooting
method. The difficulty to be handled is that we have a two-point boundary value
problem. The third-order system in Eq. (4-18) has the required three boundary con-
ditions in Eq. (4-20), but they are not all given at the same value of the indepen-
dent variable, q. There are two values of the dependent variable specified at q = 0
and one at r j + 00. That is perfectly acceptable from a mathematical standpoint, and
it is required from a physical standpoint, but it puts the problem in a more compli-
cated form than the more common arrangement. The usual way to solve a third-
order problem numerically is to recast the single third-order equation into three first-
order equations and solve each, starting from an initial value. Following that proce-
dure, we rewrite Eq. (4-18), using gl = f , g2 = f ’ , and g3 = f ” ,as
81’ = g2, g; = g3, g; = -glg3 (4-21)
The boundary conditions then become
Usually, one would expect to have g3(0) = f”(O), which would be given. Thus, it is
convenient to recast the original problem and guess trial values of g3(0) = f”(0) and
then produce trial solutions and iterate until lirn,,~,,, g2 = 1 .O, within some toler-
ance. In this way, one is shooting at g2 = 1 .O for large r j . The simple system of first-
order equations can be solved by a number of well-known procedures, such as the
Runge-Kutta method, and convenient packaged routines are available in any com-
puter center. The overall iterative procedure can easily be accomplished with New-
ton’s method.
The solution is shown in Fig. 4-3 and Table 4-1. It is common to take the
0 1.o 2.0 2.6 3.0

( v / 2 )d qz
Figure 4-3 Comparison between Blasius solution and experiments of Nikuradse
for laminar flow over a flat plate. (From Nikuradse, 1942.)
TABLE 4-1 TABULATED

BLASIUS SOLUTION
FOR LAMINAR FLOW
ON A FLAT PLATE
0.0 0.0000 o.oOO0

0.1 0.0024 0.0470
0.2 0.0094 0.0939
0.3 0.021 1 0.1408
0.4 0.0376 0.1876
0.5 0.0586 0.2342
0.6 0.0844 0.2806
0.7 0.1147 0.3265
0.8 0.1497 0.3720
0.9 0.1891 0.4167
1 .o 0.2330 0.4606
1.2 0.3337 0.5453
1.4 0.4507 0.6244
1.6 0.5830 0.6967
1.8 0.7289 0.761 1
2.0 0.8868 0.8167
2.2 1.0550 0.8633
2.4 1.2315 0.901 1
2.6 1.4148 0.9306
2.8 1.6033 0.9529
3.0 1.7956 0.9691
3.2 1.9906 0.9804
3.4 2.1875 0.9880
3.5 2.2863 0.9907
4.0 2.7839 0.9978
4.5 3.2832 0.9994
outer edge of the boundary layer as corresponding to = 3.5 (i.e., u / U , = 0.99).

From Eq. (4-17), we then obtain
5 .Ox
S(x) = - (4-23)
Using the profiles from Table 4-1 in Eqs. (2-13) and (2-14) gives
1.721~
6” = - (4-24)
VEG
and
0.664~
(9=- (4-25)
V K
Finally, the solution yields
(4-26)
Flow over a flat plate with suction or injection through the wall (i.e., ow # 0)
can also be treated as a similar solution for a restricted variation u,(x). That solution
is discussed in Section 4-5-1, in conjunction with mass transfer.
4-3-2 Similar Solutions with Pressure Gradient
Earlier, it was stated that the similarity technique would not work for general body
shapes [i.e., essentially arbitrary U,(x)], and one should not expect it to, on purely
physical grounds. This statement can be made clear by considering boundary layer
development on an airfoil as an example. From the stagnation point to about the
maximum thickness, there will be a favorable pressure gradient (dp/dx < 0) with
full profiles (see Fig. 2-3 for A > 0). Around the maximum thickness (dp/dx =
0), the profiles will resemble those for A = 0. After that, there is an adverse pres-
sure gradient (dpldx > 0, A < 0), and the profiles tend to develop an inflection
point. Clearly, all these profiles will not be similar in shape. However, there are
some special cases with pressure gradients (i.e., U,(x)# constant) that do admit to
solutions of this type. By substituting a fairly general assumed form into the momen-
tum equation, collecting terms, and then insisting that all explicit dependence on x
alone disappear, it emerges that cases in which U,(x)= U l x mwill serve. These are
special cases corresponding to inviscid flow over a wedge with an opening angle
p7-r = 2m.rr/(m + 1). The momentum equation takes the form
(4-27)
with
(4-28)
This case was derived by Falkner and Skan (1930), and the solutions shown in
Fig. 4-4 were obtained by Hartree (1937). The case p = m = 0 is the flat-plate
problem. Values of /? < 0 represent adverse pressure gradients, and /3 = -0.1988
corresponds to separation (see Fig. 4-4). Cases with p > 0 represent favorable
gradients, and p = m = 1 is the case of planar flow at a stagnation point. Some of
the gross features of the solutions are tabulated in Table 4-2. It is clear that a favor-
able pressure gradient leads to higher skin friction, thinner layers, and fuller
profiles, compared to flow over a flat plate. Conversely, an adverse pressure gradient
leads to lower skin friction, thicker layers, and less full profiles. Only a rather mod-
est adverse pressure gradient ( p = -0.1988) is needed to induce separation.
The planar stagnation point solution ( p = m = 1) is useful in a general way,
since it provides the initial conditions for nonsimilar boundary layer calculations
over blunt-nosed bodies of general shapes. In that case, V,(x) = U I X and , using this
information in E q . (4-28) together with the results in Table 4-2 gives
(2.4)2/
Sec. 4-4 Similar Solutions to the Low-Speed Energy Equation 87
4-4 SIMILAR SOLUTIONS TO THE LOW-SPEED ENERGY

EQUATION
For steady, low-speed, constant-density , constant-property flows, the exact energy

equation becomes
dT dT v a2T
u- + 1)- =-- (4-30)
ax ay Pr d y 2
Comparing this equation with the momentum equation for steady flow over a flat
plate,
au
u-+u-=
dU a2U (4-3 1)
ax dy vayz
we can anticipate that there will be some situations where similar solutions also exist
for the energy equation.
For a flat plate with a constant wall temperature and a uniform temperature ap-
proach flow, the boundary conditions are
y=o,x LO: T = Tw = constant
y +. to, all x : T = T, = constant (4-32)
x=o,y >o: T = T, = constant
The temperature is more conveniently written in terms of a so-called excess temper-
ature
(4-33)
which ranges from zero to unity. Using this equation and the definitions in Eq.
(4-17), we transform Eq. (4-30) into
+ Pr fe' = 0
err (4-34)
This equation is linear becausef(q) is known from the previous solution of the mo-
mentum equation, and it is simply a variable coefficient here.
The solution to Eq. (4-34) can be written in integral form as
e=
[ e-l$Pr.fdr, d77
(4-35)
1 e-lJPr.f dr,
drl
The actual solution is obtained by numerical evaluation of the integrals, since
f ( q ) is available only as an array of numerical values. Some temperature profiles
plotted as
(4-36)
are given in Fig. 4-5. When compared with the velocity profile in Fig. 4-3 corre-
sponding to a flat plate ( p = 0), they show an important effect of the Prandtl num-
ber. For Pr = 1.0, the nondimensional profiles are the same. For Pr > 1, the tem-
perature profiles are fuller and & < 6. For Pr < 1, the reverse situation holds.
(Remember that Pr = 0.7 for air and most gases.) The result for the heat transfer
coefficient is
fix
Nu, = - = 0.332
k
PI-'/^% (4-37)
1.o
I
0.8
c=
-L'
I-'
0.6
km0.4
I
-c 0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
(y/2) dqz
Figure 4-5 Temperature profiles for laminar flow over a constant-temperature flat
plate. (From Eckert and Drewitz, 1940.)
1.a I I I I I I I I I 1
0.8
k\- Pr= 0.7
-f 0.6
-.
I-
1
f 0.4
t.
0.2
C
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 4
(Y/2) 4qiE
Figure 4-6 Temperature profiles for laminar flow over constant-temperature

wedges. (From Eckert, 1942.)
Figure 4-7 Temperature profiles for
laminar flow over variable-temperature
flat plates. (From Levy, 1952.)
There are also similar solutions to Eq. (4-30) corresponding to the wedge
flows U, - x m for the momentum equation. These were found by Fage and Falkner
- -
(1931) for U, x m and/or (L- T,) x". Some of these are presented in Figs.
4-6 and 4-7. The profiles in Fig. 4-6 show the effect of pressure gradient (rn # 0)
and Prandtl number for the case of a constant wall temperature (n = 0), and those in
Fig. 4-7 show the effect of variable wall temperature (n # 0) for a flat plate
(rn = 0) at Pr = 0.7. Comparing the two, one can note that the effect of a variable
wall temperature is larger than that of a pressure gradient. The special case with
n = -1/2 serves to emphasize that point. Figure 4-7 shows that such a case has
( d T / d y ) , = 0, and thus, q,,. = 0, even though T, f T,.
4-5 SIMILAR SOLUTIONS FOR FOREIGN FLUID INJECTION
Under the assumptions of constant density and constant properties taken for this
chapter, only rather restricted cases of injection of a foreign fluid can be treated.
More general cases are discussed in Chapter 5. Here, we must assume not only that
the properties are independent of temperature and pressure, but that the properties
of the two fluids are essentially equal. Taking this all together, we find that the com-
plete system of equations to be used in such a case for a steady flow over a flat
plate is
-au+ - =avo
ax ay
u-
au
+ 2)-
al.4
=
a2u
ax ay "aq'z
(4-38)
u-
dT + u-
dT = - -v d2T
ax ay Pr ay2
89
Actually, only one species equation-say, for cl-is needed, since we know that
CI +c2 = 1.0.
A problem governed by Eq. (4-38)with vw # 0 was treated by Hartnett and
-
Eckert (1957).In a case where vw x-”’, this system of equations admits to a
similar solution, and that property was used. The results are shown in Figs. 4-8,
4-9, and 4-10 for velocity, temperature, and concentration profiles in the boundary
layer and film coefficients for heat and mass transfer. The profiles can be seen
to be greatly influenced by either suction [v,/Ue)(Rex)’/2 < 01 or injection
[vw/Ue)(Rer)’/’ > 01. For injection, the wall friction and surface heat and mass
transfer are dramatically reduced. Indeed, for values of the injection parameter
greater than 0.62, the surface transfer rates all go to zero, and the boundary layer is
said to be blown off. With the constant-density, constant-property assumptions of
this chapter, the velocity profiles in Fig. 4-8 also apply if there is no temperature
difference-and thus, no heat transfer-and only a single species-and thus, no
mass transfer.
The transverse mass flux of the air (species 2) at any point is composed of a
part due to a diffusive velocity and a part due to the convective velocity v . Thus,
(4-39)
or
(4-40)
Since no air penetrates into the wall, v&, 0) = 0, and

012 dc2
(4-41)
c2w dy
0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.O 10.0 12.0

(Y/X)fiX
Figure 4-8 Velocity profiles for fluid injection from a flat plate. (From Hartnett
and Eckert, 1957.)
Sec. 4-5 Similar Solutions for Foreign Fluid Injection 91
1 .o
0.8
-
0
-
3
0.6
k3:I
I 2
-A
: z
+’
- 0
I_ 0.4
12
t
0.2
(
I 2 .o 4.0 6.0 8.O 10.0 1 .O
(V/X)v%
Figure 4-9 Temperature and mass fraction profiles for fluid injection from a flat
plate. (From Hartnett and Fxkert, 1957.)
0.35
\ -
Constant properties
Pr = 0.7, Sc = 0.7
0.30
y\ --- Pr=l,Sc=l
0.25
0.20
0.1 5
0.10
0.05
0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 7
Suction BIow ing
(v, I U J Re;’’
Figure 4-10 Nondimensional heat and mass transfer rates for fluid injection from
a flat plate. (From Hartnett and Eckert, 1957.)
Next Page
Using c1 + c2 = 1.0, we can rewrite this equation as

ow =
-12
10 C l w ay I
Therefore, one is not free to prescribe both vw and c l w .
(4-42)
4-6 SIMILAR SOLUTIONS FOR NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
Similar solutions are possible under restricted conditions for some non-Newtonian
fluids.
4-6-1 Power Law Fluid over a Flat Plate
The case of a power law, non-Newtonian fluid flowing over a flat plate has been
treated as a similar solution by Acrivos et al. (1960). The similarity variable used is
(4-43)
and the velocity is expressed as
(4-44)
Note the close relationship to the Blasius Newtonian case if p = 1 and ppL= p.
With all this the boundary layer equations for a power law fluid (see Eq. (3-29)
become
p(p + 1)f”’ + ( f y P f = 0 (4-45)
Some velocity profiles are plotted in Fig. 4-11 for typical values of p , including
p = 1, which is the Newtonian case. Clearly, the result of p < 1 is fuller profiles
and thinner boundary layers. Also, the wall shear turns out to be lower. These re-
sults are in qualitative agreement with the approximate solutions presented in Sec-
tion 2-9-1. The exact result for the skin friction is written as
Cf= 2c( p)ReF21‘P+’’ (4-46)
The variation of c ( p) with p is given in Table 4-3, along with the corresponding
results from the integral momentum solution in Eq. (2-82). Acrivos et al. (1960)
conclude that the integral momentum method is less accurate for power law fluids
than for Newtonian fluids.
4-6-2 Bingham Plastic Fluid over a Flat Plate
Since shear stress appears in the momentum equation only as a ~ / a y substituting
, the
shear model for a Bingham plastic (Eq. (1-62)) results in the same equation as for a
Newtonian fluid with pBp written in place of the usual p . Thus, the Blasius solution
given in Section 4-3-1 can be used for a Bingham plastic case. The important dif-
CHAPTER
5
COMPRESSIBLE
LAMINAR
BOUNDARY
LAYERS
5-1 INTRODUCTION
For a steady, compressible laminar flow over a planar or axisymmetric body, the
equations to be treated are the steady forms of Eqs. (3-26), (3-27), and (3-50) or
an energy equation in another form, such as in terms of h [and Eq. (3-60) if there is
more than one species]. Looking at this system and limiting the discussion to a sin-
gle species for the moment, one sees that the influence of compressibility is first
contained directly in the density terms in the continuity equation, Eq. (3-27), and
more passively as a variable coefficient in the momentum, Eq. (3-26), and energy,
Eq. (3-50) equations. The second influence of compressibility is to produce temper-
ature variations that are too large to permit the assumption of constant properties p
and k. Actually, the main concern here is with the viscosity, since we may use the
definition of the Prandtl number to write
The advantage of this equation will become clearer if the reader recalls that the
Prandtl number is nearly constant for most gases over a wide range of temperature
(see Fig. 1-4 and the tables in Appendix A). Further, it is common to use the en-
ergy equation written in terms of the enthalpy, Eq. (3-49), in compressible flow
127
128 Compressible Laminar Boundary Layers Chap. 5
problems. Then one writes
In the simplest cases, therefore, one may say that the added complexity with
compressible, laminar boundary layer problems is centered on variable p and p and
various, but essentially constant, values of Pr. We know that p = p ( T ) , and an
equation of state will give, in general, p = p ( T , p ) . However, the pressure is con-
stant across the layer, so we really have to contend only with density variations pro-
duced by temperature variations in the boundary layer for single-species gas flows.
5-2 THE ADIABATIC WALL TEMPERATURE
By Eq. (2-56), the wall temperature for adiabatic conditions (no heat transfer)
would appear to be just Tw = T,. That equation (2-56) is, however, suitable only to
low-speeds cases. At high speeds, where compressibility becomes important, a new
phenomenon occurs. By definition, a high-speed flow has appreciable kinetic en-
ergy, and that kinetic energy can be dissipated into heat by friction within the
boundary layer. This process is represented by the term p ( ( a ~ / d yin) ~the energy
equation [e.g., Eq. (3-50)]. The kinetic energy in the flow is simply the difference
between the total (stagnation) and static temperatures:
If the wall is adiabatic, the temperature that the wall attains at steady equi-
librium will depend on how much of the kinetic energy is recovered on the wall.
This quantity is expressed as a recoveryfactor r , defined as
Taw= T, + r-Uf (5-4)

2CP
The value of r is generally less than, but near, unity for gases. More will be said
about r later. In any event, a film coefficient for high-speed flow must be based on
q w = R(Tw - Taw) (5-5)
and not on Eq. (2-56).
5-3 THE REFERENCE TEMPERATURE METHOD
In view of the discussion in Section 5-1, it is reasonable to ask whether there might
be some value of the temperature-say, between T, and T,-at which the density
and physical properties of the fluid could be evaluated and used in the available con-
stant-density, constant-property solutions to provide an adequate approximation to
the actual, variable-density, variable-property flow. The answer, at least for gases,
Sec. 5-4 The Special Case of Prandtl Number Unity 129
is yes, and that value of the temperature is called the reference temperature T * .
Here we quote the relation due to Eckert (1956):
T * = Te + 0.5(Tw- T,) + 0.22(Taw- T,) 6-61
No equivalent relation with the same high degree of accuracy of results has been de-
veloped for liquids. Also, for lower speed flows that may still involve large tempera-
ture differences, the last term in Eq. (5-6)disappears.
With this concept, all the solutions in Chapters 2 and 4 can be carried over to
compressible flow problems. For example, we may rewrite Eq. (2-60a) as
St* = 0.332(Pr *) -2/3( Re*) (5 -7)
where the superscript * denotes that all physical properties and the density are to be
evaluated at T = T *. This formula can then be used to give the film coefficient R
that can be used with Eq. (5-5) for high-speed flow over a flat plate.
5-4 THE SPECIAL CASE OF PRANDTL NUMBER UNITY
We saw in Section 4-4-1 that the case Pr = 1 was a special case giving identical
nondimensional profiles for velocity and temperature in low-speed flow. The matter
can be pursued further for high-speed flows. Although this is a special situation not
generally found in the real world, many gases have Pr = 0.7 (see Appendix A),
which is not far from unity, and the results of studying the case Pr = 1 are quite in-
formative.
For our purposes here, we take the energy equation in terms of the stagnation
enthalpy (h + u 2 / 2 )as in Eq. (3-47), with the heat transfer term written as in Eq.
(5-2) and the shear as p ( d u / d y ) . Also, we restrict the discussion to planar, steady
flow. After some rearranging, we arrive at
Clearly, if Pr = 1, a solution to this equation is
h +-
U2
2
= constant (5-9)
The constant can be evaluated from a boundary condition, say, at the wall, where
u = 0. A suitable, simple case will be an insulated wall with no heat flow, and the
result is
Uf
h +-
U2
2
= haw = constant = he + -
2
(5-10)
or
Uf
T +-
U2
= Taw= constant = Te + - (5- 1 Oa)
2CP 2CP
for cases where c, can be assumed constant. This result is known as the Busemann
(1931) energy integral.
The foregoing analysis was generalized by Crocco (1932). We start here with
the steady form of the energy equation in terms of the static enthalpy h as in Eq.
(3-49), with the heat transfer term as in Eq. (5-2) and the laminar shear as usual,
to give
(5-1 1)
Next, we substitute the general assumption h = h(u) into this equation to yield
= -(---)
+ +*) 2
a p dh au + u -dP + p ( g ) (5-lla)
dy dy Prdu dy dx
where we have used
(5-12)
The first term on the right-hand side of Eq. (5-lla) can be expanded with the
product rule to yield
dh
-- p -
d - du + -p- -d 2 h du
(5-13)
dudy(Pr dy) Prdu2(dy)
The last term in Eq. (5-13) comes from continuing the logic shown in Eq. (5-12).
Now using Eq. (5-13), we take Eq. (5-lla) and combine it with the steady form of
the momentum equation, Eq. (3-24), multiplied by dhldu, which results in
-@[&
dx du + u] + g[$(p$) - $($:)I = :(gT[$ + Pr]
(5-14)
There are two cases that admit to simple solutions by inspection. Both must have
Pr = 1 .
The first case arises for
dh
-+u=o (5-15)
du
With this expression, Eq. (5-14) reduces to
d2h
-+1=0 (5-16)
du
Sec. 5-4 The Special Case of Prandtl Number Unity 131
which, when integrated, results in
h = --
2
U2
+ constant (5-9a)
equivalent to the earlier result, Eq. (5-9). By differentiating and evaluating at the
wall, where u = 0, we obtain
(5-17)
This condition implies no heat transfer, because
(5-18)
It is important to observe, however, that this solution holds for arbitrary dpldx.
The second case emerges under the restriction of dpldx = 0 , which again
leads to Eq. (5-16) from Eq. (5-14), but without Eq. (5-15). Simple integration in
this case yields
h=
U2
--
2
+ c,u+ c
2 (5-19)
The constants, C1and C 2 ,can be found from the boundary conditions at the bound-
ary layer edge and on the wall, i.e.,
h(UJ = h,
(5-20)
h ( 0 ) = h,
The final result is
(5-21)
or, if cp can be assumed constant,
(5 -2 1 a)
Differentiating Eq. (5-21) and evaluating at the wall gives
(5-22)
which is not zero. This case thus allows heat transfer into and out of the wall under
the restriction of a zero pressure gradient.
The relation in Eq. (5-21a) can be used to show an important point about
very high-speed boundary layer flows. Consider the case of flow over a constant-
pressure region of a body moving at M, = 8 in the atmosphere at sea level, with
T, = 300°K. Using isentropic relations, we find that T,/T,,, = 0.0725. Thus, T,,e=
4,140°K, if it is assumed for the purposes of this illustrative example only that air
behaves as a perfect gas under these conditions. The maximum tolerable surface
temperature for most practical applications is about 1,000"K. We now seek the maxi-
mum value of the static temperature in the boundary layer. The working of Problem
5.3 at the end of the chapter will show that the maximum static temperature occurs
where
(5-23)
For the hypothetical case under discussion, we find that T,,, = 1,64O"K, which is
much higher than either T, or T,. That is, there is a static temperature peak in the
boundary layer for flows with a high Mach number. This information is very impor-
tant for reentry vehicles, since it leads to dissociation and ionization of the air in the
boundary layer, producing the communications blackout familiar to all avid observ-
ers of the space program.
Finally, we note from Eq. (5-10a) that the adiabatic wall temperature Tawfor
Pr = 1 equals T,,,. Consequently, for Pr = 1, the recovery factor r is also unity, as
can be seen by comparing Eq. (5-10a) with Eq. (5-4).
5-5 THE RECOVERY FACTOR FOR NONUNITY

PRANDTL NUMBER
A useful, rather general result can be found by analyzing a simple, seemingly restric-
tive problem-the plate thermometer. This is the case of an adiabatic, flat plate sus-
pended in a high-speed fluid stream. The temperature measured by a thermometer
(e.g., a thermocouple) embedded in the plate will be, by definition, the adiabatic
wall temperature Taw.Knowing this, Pr, and T,,,, we can find r = r(Pr).
Pohlhausen (1921a) treated this problem under the constant-property assump-
tion, but including, of course, the frictional heating term, p (du/dy)2, in the energy
equation, or there would be no important recovery process. We use the steady form
of Fq. (3-51) with dp/dx = 0, written as
(5-24)
The boundary conditions are
y = 0,x 2 0: -aT= o
aY (5-25)
y +. 00, all x: T (x, y ) + T,
It is helpful to introduce a dimensionless excess temperature
1.o
Figure 5-1 Sketches of total tempera-

ture profiles in a high-speed boundary
0 1 .O layer for Prandtl number greater than,
v16 equal to, and less than unity.
13-LO)
The similarity variable q and the representation of the velocity field in terms off (q)
from Sections 4-3-1 and 4-4-1 can also be used here because of the constant-
property assumption. With both of these, and using Eq. (5-26), we see that Eq.
(5-24) becomes
8:’ + Pr - fe:+ Pr2

-(fff)2 =0 (5-27)

eqo) = o
(5-28)
The solution of Eq. (5-27) subject to Eq. (5-28) can be found directly by the
method of variation of parameters. Our primary interest here is in the value of the
temperature at the wall, from which the recovery factor may be found. The result is
= 6 for0.5 IPr 55.0

The key result, r = 6, for laminar flow has been found to hold under much
more general conditions than those assumed for this simple flow problem. Indeed, it
is reputed to have been a classified secret on both sides during World War 11.
Sketches of typical total temperature profiles across a boundary layer on an
adiabatic wall for Pr > 1, Pr = 1 , and Pr < 1 are shown in Fig. 5-1. In Section
133
5-4, it was seen that T, = constant = T , efor Pr = 1 [see Eq. (5-lOa)]. For
Pr < 1 , the recovery factor r is less than unity [see Eq. (5-29)]. Consequently,
Taw= T(x, 0) = T ( x , 0) < T,.,. Since the flow is adiabatic, the total thermal en-
ergy in the boundary layer must remain constant. Thus, if one region of the flow has
Tr < T,.,, some other region must have T, > T r , e , as shown in Fig. 5-1. This pic-
ture is reversed for Pr > 1, where Taw> T,,e.All of the foregoing is a result of the
fact that the Prandtl number is the ratio of the diffusion coefficients for momentum
and thermal energy. This redistribution of the energy within a viscous region can
produce remarkable results when the viscous effects are very strong, such as in a
vortex or a separation bubble.
5-6 COMPRESSIBILITY TRANSFORMATIONS
With the increased complexity of the equations of motion for compressible (vari-
able-density), variable-property flows, it was natural to seek ways of rigorously ex-
tending the material at hand for constant-density, constant-property flows to those
cases. Ways were sought to transform a compressible boundary layer problem into
an equivalent incompressible problem. The existing solutions could then be trans-
formed back to give a solution for the original compressible problem. This quest
ended in success, with some restrictions, and we will discuss two early examples
and then the latest of the various transformations.
5-6-1 Howarth-Dorodnitzin Transformation
The first compressibility transformation seems to have been developed independently

by Howarth (1948) and Dorodnitsyn (1942). The basic idea is to introduce a distor-
tion of the transverse coordinate y using the density as a weighting factor:
Y (5-30)
Pe
The streamwise coordinate x is left undistorted. The velocity components are now
written in terms of a compressible stream function [see EQ. (3-lo)] as
(5-31)
Substitution into the steady form of the momentum equation [Eq. (3-24)] for flow
over a flat plate, dp/dx = 0, results in
(5-32)
Sec. 5-6 Compressibility Transformations 135
This equation in the (x, Y)-plane is very similar to that for constant-density, con-
stant-property flow in the (x, y)-plane [Eq. (4-14)]. The equivalence becomes com-
plete if one takes p p = constant = pepe.Since, for a given pressure, p 0~ 1/T, it
follows that p T, which is a stronger variation with temperature than is actually
observed for air and other common gases (see, for example, Eq. (1-12) and Fig.
1-4). Nonetheless, this approach does provide a method for treating compressible
boundary layer flows. One can, for example, take the Blasius solution (Section
4-3-1) to be applicable in the (x, Y)-plane. The inversion of the transformation re-
quires evaluating
y = [%Y'P (5-33)
which, in turn, requires knowledge of p ( x , Y). In general, this information must

come from a solution of the energy equation in the (x, Y)-plane to obtain T (x, Y). It
is not necessary, but one can also make the additional assumptions that permit the
use of a Crocco integral, Eq. (5-10a), for an adiabatic wall, or Eq. (5-21a), both
for Pr = 1. This procedure gives T ( x , Y) directly in terms of the known u ( x , Y).
The results for adiabatic wall cases are shown in Fig. 5-2. Note that the attendant
high temperature and thus low density near the wall (small y) stretch out the inner,
nearly linear portion of the Blasius profile at high Mach numbers. Since the velocity
at the wall must be zero, there is clearly some region near the wall where the flow is
subsonic, even though the edge Mach number outside the boundary layer is super-
sonic. For an adiabatic case, this region can be large, since the temperature and thus
the speed of sound near the wall are high. For example, for the case of Me = 4 in
Fig. 5-2, the flow is subsonic up the point where u/U, = 0.4, which is at y / 6 =
0.4. This matter is important for shock-boundary layer interactions, discussed later
in the chapter.
Figure 5-2 Velocity profiles on an in-

sulated flat plate for laminar flow with
0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0
Prandtl number unity and viscosity pro-
portional to temperature. (From Crocco,
1946.)
Levy-Lees Transformation
Sec. 5-7 Integral Method for Compressible Flow 137
Here, ro is the local body radius (see Fig. 3-2). This transformation clearly contains
elements of the Howarth-Dorodnitsyn transformation, the Blasius similarity vari-
able, and the Mangler transformation. Thus, it will be useful for compressible, simi-
lar flows. It is also useful for compressible, nonsimilar flows that are treated by nu-
merical methods, since it keeps the growth of the computational region in the
transverse direction under control (see Section 4-7-4). Indeed, in recent times, the
latter utility is by far the greatest advantage of the Levy-Lees transformation. In nu-
merical solutions one does not make the assumption p p = constant.
The results of the Levy-Lees transformation on the two main operators in the
boundary layer equations are
and (5-39)
where u(S, 7 ) = Ue(S)

f '(F,7 ) .
5-7 INTEGRAL METHOD FOR COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
The Thwaites-Walz integral method (see Section 2-3-2) has been extended to com-
pressible flows by Cohen and Reshotko (1956a) under restrictions that permit the
use of the compressibility transformations to obtain a direct correspondence with in-
compressible cases. Cohen and Reshotko assumed p p = constant, Pr = 1, and
treated both an adiabatic wall and cases with heat transfer. These are restrictive as-
sumptions, but the resulting method provides such a simple, powerful tool for treat-
ing high-speed laminar cases that it should be a part of every analyst's arsenal.
The inviscid solution over the body of interest must provide Ue(x) and thus
p , (x) which can also be used to obtain Me (x) and T, ( x ) . The result corresponding to
Eq. (2-30) is
(5-40)
with A = 0.45 and B depending on the heat transfer rate through S, = T,/T,,, - 1 .
For no heat transfer (T, = To, = T,,ewith Pr = l.O), S , = 0 and B = 6. For other
values of S,, they provide a curve for B. In this equation, the quantities with a sub-
script correspond to the transformed, incompressible variables. Those and the trans-
formed x coordinate are defined as
i
Sec. 5-8 Exact Solutions for Compressible Flow over a Flat Plate 139
0.4 I I I I I I I I I I I
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Me
Figure 5-3 Mean skin friction coefficient for laminar flow over a flat plate with
Pr = 0.75 and the Sutherland viscosity law. (From Van Driest, 1952.)
number and the important difference between adiabatic and heat transfer cases. Ve-
locity profiles for adiabatic cases are shown in Fig. 5-4. They are generally similar
to those given in Fig. 5-2, where Pr = 1. Again, there is an extended linear por-
tion of the profile near the wall, and the dimensionless boundary layer thickness
grows rapidly with edge Mach number. Temperature profiles for the same adiabatic
cases are plotted in Fig. 5-5.
1.o
0.8
0.6
?
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 8 16 24 :32 40 48 56 64 72 80
V a i G
Figure 5-4' Velocity profiles on an insulated flat plate for laminar flow with
0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72
V d W G
Figure 5-5 Temperature profiles on an insulated flat plate for laminar flow with
1 .o
0.8
0.6
.
5
a
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 4 a 12 16 20 24 28 32
V m
Figure 5-6 Velocity profiles on a flat plate for laminar flow with TWIT,= 1.0,
Pr = 0.75, and the Sutherland viscosity law. (From Van Driest, 1952.)
140
20
M- = 20
a 12 16 20 24 32 36
M, = 0 V&VG
Figure 5-7 Temperature profiles on a flat plate for laminar flow with T,/T, =
1.0, Pr = 0.75, and the Sutherland viscosity law. (From Van Driest, 1952.)
5 3
I
V d W G
Figure 5-8 Temperature profiles on a flat plate for laminar flow at Me = 4 with
various T,/T,, Pr = 0.75, and the Sutherland viscosity law. (From Van Driest,
1952.)
141
Velocity and temperature profiles for a case of heat transfer (to the wall) with
Tn,/Te= 1.0 are given in Figs. 5-6 and 5-7. The velocity profiles have more curva-
ture near the wall than those for the adiabatic cases shown in Fig. 5-4. The static
temperature profiles in Fig. 5-7 show the peaks within the layer discussed earlier.
Clearly, very high temperatures can be reached in the layer at high Mach numbers.
Figure 5-8 shows static temperature profiles as a function of Tw/Tefor Me = 4.0.
For very hot walls, Tn, 2 Taw,and the peaks disappear, but such conditions are un-
likely in flight.
5-9 EXACT STAGNATION POINT SOLUTIONS
There is great practical interest in stagnation point solutions in the high-speed

regime as a result of the need to design vehicles for reentry into the atmosphere that
can withstand the very high heat transfer rates that accompany rapid deceleration of
blunt bodies by drag. It is fortunate that the flow at the stagnation point and in its
immediate vicinity can be treated as a similar solution, so the mathematics and nu-
merical calculations are relatively simpler. This is also the region of highest heat
transfer and, therefore, greatest practical importance. In this section, the perfect gas
assumption is retained.
Using the Levy-Lees transformation [Eq. (5-38)], Cohen and Reshotko
(1956b) treated the problem described by
f”’ + ff” + p ( G - (f ’)2) = 0 (5-46)
G” + Pr f G ’ = 0 (5-47)
with
(5-48)
The pressure gradient parameter, p, is a constant if Me = KF”, which is the case for
a stagnation point. Actually, Cohen and Reshotko solved the problem for a whole
range of the pressure gradient parameter, not just for the stagnation point. The re-
sults for the enthalpy gradient at the wall, which is proportional to the heat transfer,
are shown in Fig. 5-9, where
(5-49)
and g = G/(1 - Gw).The dependence of the heat transfer on the wall on the free
stream stagnation enthalpy ratio is much stronger than on the pressure gradient
parameter, especially for strongly cooled walls.
Eckert and Tewfik (1960) took a mean value for (g’),,,, introduced a depen-
dence on Prwto agree with low-speed solutions, replaced the free stream stagnation
enthalpy with the recovery enthalpy, and suggested evaluating the properties at the
Next Page
Sec. 5-9, Exact Stagnation Point Solutions 143
I I I
I I
Pr = 1, C = 1
-
Hw = 1.0
0.40 I I I 1
Figure 5-9 Heat transfer parameter as a function of the pressure gradient parame-
ter for high-speed laminar flow. (From Cohen and Reshotko, 1956b.)
reference temperature T *, resulting in

0.35 Uep*p*r$
4w = pr”2/3 (h, - haw) (5-50)
v3
Introducing a film coefficient based on enthalpy, Ri,leads to a Stanton number
relation
0.35p*r.’o
St* = (5-51)
v5
For a two-dimensional stagnation point, this equation becomes
(5-52)
For an axisymmetric stagnation point, the expression has the same form, but the
constant becomes 0.7. To apply Eq. (5-52) to an actual body, one must relate the C ,
in U, = Conto the body nose radius. This can be done in a simple fashion using
Newtonian impact theory, which gives the following very good approximation for
blunt, axisymmetric bodies:
(5-53)
The resulting predictions for heat transfer at the nose are in good agreement with ex-
periment. Note that the heat transfer is a strong function of the nose radius of the
body, qw cc l/-. A large nose radius, such as on most reentry bodies, thus re-
duces the heat transfer.
CHAPTER
6
TRANSITION
TO TURBULENT
FLOW
6-1 INTRODUCTION
The material in Chapters 1 to 5 completed the study of two-dimensional external

laminar boundary layer flows at the level intended for this book. Internal flows will
be covered in Chapter 8, and three-dimensional external laminar flows are discussed
in Chapter 11. Chapters 7, 10, and, 11 are concerned with external turbulent
boundary layer flows. In this chapter, one of the most important and probably the
most difficult subject in boundary layer work is addressed: the prediction of transi-
tion from laminar to turbulent flow. In Chapter 1, some features of turbulent flows
were introduced, and it has been stressed that most flows of engineering interest are
turbulent. But how is the fluid dynamicist to be certain that a flow will be laminar or
turbulent under a given set of conditions? This question is of more than casual inter-
est, because the levels of skin friction and heat transfer, for example, are quite dif-
ferent in the two cases (see Chapters 4 and 7, for example). This difference is largely
because of the greatly increased mixing due to the random motion of the turbulent
eddies. If the skin friction is strongly influenced, one can guess that separation is
strongly influenced, and that is, indeed, the case. Thus, the items of principal inter-
est to the analyst or designer depend critically on whether a given flow is laminar or
turbulent. Common experience tells us that flows with high Reynolds numbers are
more likely to be turbulent, but such a crude statement is hardly satisfactory for
176
Sec. 6- 1 Introduction 177
careful design. The designer needs accurate methods for predicting transition, but
unfortunately, these are hard to achieve. In Sections 6-2 to 6-4, attempts at the an-
alytical prediction of transition and their limitations are discussed. The remainder of
the chapter is concerned with selected empirical information on the subject. This
coverage is an accurate reflection of the current state of the art in the area, where
much more trust is placed in empiricism than in analysis.
Before examining some of the analytical prediction techniques, it is informa-
tive to study briefly the earliest organized experimental investigations of transition-
Reynolds’s ( 1 883) classical pipe flow experiments. These can be supplemented by
the reader’s own observations of transition phenomena, in a water faucet efflux as the
valve is opened (increasing the Reynolds number) or in the smoke plume from a
cigarette resting in an ashtray, to cite two common examples. Reynolds’s experi-
ments were conducted in an apparatus shown schematically in Fig. 6-1. As the flow
(A)-(C) Reynolds’s sketches of flow observation:

( A ) low speed (low Re,); (B) higher speed
(higher Re,); (C) spark illumination
Figure 6-1 The classic pipe flow exper-

~~~~ ~~ ~~~
(D) Reynolds’s experimental apparatus iments of Reynolds (1883).

178 Transition to Turbulent Flow Chap. 6
rate through the glass pipe was increased, the behavior of the dye stream changed
from that shown in Fig. 6-1(A) to that in Fig. 6-1(B), indicating a transition from
laminar to turbulent flow. By increasing the velocity in a pipe of fixed size D with
the same fluid (constant p and p), Reynolds was increasing the dimensionless group-
ing pVD/p _= Reo, named after him. He found that the value for transition, called
the critical Reynolds number, was approximately 2,300. Later studies have shown
that this critical value is very sensitive to the inlet conditions. By careful tailoring of
the inlet flow, it has been possible to maintain laminar flow up to ReD = 20,000. A
value of about 2,300 is commonly used in engineering practice, where the inlet con-
ditions are seldom “clean” in the laboratory sense, but this extreme sensitivity to the
conditions of the experiments persists throughout all transition work. It contributes
to the apparent scatter in the empirical information, but actually one is seeing the
effects of small but important differences in seemingly identical experiments. Some
appreciation of this matter can be gained by studying Fig. 6-2, which shows the re-
sults of transition measurements in wind tunnels, ballistic ranges, and flight. Back-
ground disturbances in most wind tunnels are much larger than in ballistic ranges or
flight, especially at supersonic speeds. Note that the effect is roughly an order of
magnitude variation in the transition Re.
0
0
8
0
0
0 0
0 0
8’
0
0
0 oo
Types of Data
0 Wind tunnel
0 Ballistic range
0 A Free flight
0
O O 0
80 0 0
80
0
0.8 I I I I I 1 I
0 2 4 6 a 10 12 14 16
&
Figure 6-2 Transition measurements as a function of Reynolds number in wind
tunnels, ballistic ranges, and flight. (From Owen, 1990.)
Sec. 6--3 Hydrodynamic Stability Theory 179
6 – 2 A SIMPLE METHOD BASED ON Reu
A crude, simple method for predicting transition was presented by Michel (1952). He cor-
related transition for low-speed flows with the Reynolds number based on momentum
thickness, Reu ; rUeu/m.
Reu,trans 2:9 Re0:4

x,trans (6–1)
u(x) can be calculated by the Thwaites-Walz method, and u(x) can be expressed as Reu vs.
Rex and inserted into Eq. (6 – 1). When the relation is satisfied, transition at that Rex is
indicated.
Consider the simple case of a flat plate. From Eq. (4 – 25),
Reu ¼ 0:664 Re0:5

x
Inserting this equation into Eq. (6-1) yields
0:664 Re0:5 0:4

x,trans 2:9 Rex,trans (6–1a)
Which can be solved to give Rex,trans 2.5 106. The constant 2.9 can be adjusted to
predict flat plate transition at other Rex; using 2.5 predicts transition at Rex 500,000.
The Michel method is included in WALZ, WALZHT, and ILBLI. The user selects
Flat-plate Re(trans) ¼ a value suitable for the flow under study.
6 – 3 HYDRODYNAMIC STABILITY THEORY
Visual observations of turbulence clearly indicate that the transition process is the end
result of the growth of initially small, probably random disturbances in the flow,
unless there are large background disturbances that bypass this process. For an ex-
ample view the film Characteristics of Laminar and Turbulent Flow produced by
the University of Iowa. Small disturbances due, for example, to noise or slight
vibrations of solid surfaces are always present in the background of any flow. Appar-
ently, under some conditions in the flow, these disturbances are damped out, whereas
under other conditions, they are amplified. From Reynolds’s experiments, one can
expect that the value of a suitable Reynolds number will describe the boundary
between the two cases. Recall from Chapter 1 that the Reynolds number expresses
the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces in a flow. Thus, increasing the Reynolds
number means decreasing the relative importance of viscous forces and viscous
damping. This situation bears a close resemblance to the vibration of mechanical
systems, which had been analyzed rather thoroughly by the early 1900s. Thus, it
should not be surprising that attempts were made to apply the same general
methods to the question of the stability of a flow to small disturbances. These attempts
were quite successful and yet unsuccessful at the same time. (This will become clear
shortly.) Also, the mathematics of the analyses proved very complex and interesting
(to mathematicians). For these reasons, we give only an overview of the theory here.
For the interested reader, there are whole books devoted to the subject, and Malik’s
(1990) review is informative.
In general, one wishes to analyze the unsteady three-dimensional behavior of a
small disturbance in a background laminar boundary layer flow. This is obviously a
difficult undertaking in the general case, and some simplifying assumptions are re-
quired. First, there is a helpful assist from a theorem by Squire (1933), which
proved that, in low-speed flow, two-dimensional disturbances are always less stable
than three-dimensional disturbances. Thus, one need only consider the two-dimen-
sional case to find the minimum instability conditions. The principal simplifying as-
sumptions are that (1) the disturbance quantities remain small compared to the base-
line flow (if u = uo + li, then 2 *
U O , etc.), (2) the baseline flow is a function only
of the transverse coordinate [i.e., uo = uo(y) alone, etc.], and (3) the disturbance
can be written in terms of a stream function in the form
+(x, Y , t ) = 4 ( y ) exp[ia(x - ct)l (6-2)
Here, i = m, 4 ( y) is a complex amplitude function, a is the wave number of
the disturbance (= 2n/wavelength), and c is the complex phase velocity (= C, +
ici). Looking at Eq. (6-2), one can see that stability with respect to time depends on
the value of a c i . For aci < 0, there is damping (i.e., the disturbance decreases with
time); aci = 0, a neutral condition is achieved, and for aci > 0, amplification of
the disturbance and thus instability results. Perhaps it is helpful to note that the form
assumed in Eq. (6-2) implies that
(6-3)
G a+
= - - = -ia$( y) exp[ia (x - ct)]
ax
With this information, the unsteady Navier-Stokes equations of motion for a
laminar, incompressible, constant-property flow can be simplified to
-1
(uo - c)(# - a24) - u64 = -(4(’”)
a Re
- 2a2# + a“) (6-4)
This is the famous Orr-Sommerfeld equation, and it proved difficult to solve for gen-
eral profile shapes u0( y) before the advent of the large digital computer. For that
reason, much of the earliest work concentrated on cases with a linear profile (uo -
y, i.e., ub’ = 0) and/or inviscid flow (Re + m).
Various calculations for the general case have been presented. Lin (1945) and
others used asymptotic theory, and in more recent times, direct numerical solutions
have been obtained, such as those of Wazzan et al. (1968). Some of these results are
shown in Figs. 6-3 and 6-4. The results of the theory have been confirmed by ex-
periment, as far as the onset of instability is concerned. Schubauer and Skramstad
(1947) placed a thin magnetic ribbon in a laminar, flat-plate boundary layer and then
excited the ribbon externally to vibrate, producing disturbances at various known
wavelengths. Theory and experiment agreed rather well, as shown in the figures.
0'5 0
0.4
--- --- ---
-
Damped
0.3 ~
-
rg
Amplified Wazzan e t al.

0.2 ~
0.1 - 1.:.
Damped
01 I I I I I I 1 I I I
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 4000
Re,.
Figure 6-3 Comparison of the predictions of the hydrodynamic stability theory

by Lin (1945) and Wazzan et al. (1968) for the wavelength of neutral disturbances
for flow over a flat plate with the measurements of Schubauer and Skramstad
( 1947).
400 I I I I I I I I
I No amdification observed
I beyond this point
360
0
320
280
240
0
X
4 200
1
'
0
- 160
Damped
120
80
40
Damped
0 - I 1 ~~~
1
I -
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 4000
Re,.
Figure 6-4 Comparison of the prediction of the hydrodynamic stability theory

by Lin (1945) for the frequency of neutral disturbances for flow over a flat plate
with the measurements of Schubauer and Skramstad (1947).
181
It can be seen that the maximum Reynolds number (based here on S*) at
which a disturbance is stable depends on the wave number a of the disturbance, but
that number is generally unknown for background noise. Therefore, the only rational
choice is to focus on the worst case, which gives, for this problem, (Res*)crit= 520
for as * = 0.30. It is informative to observe that the wavelengths of typical unstable
disturbances are large compared to the boundary layer thickness. The smallest un-
stable wavelength corresponds to as* = 0.30, which implies a minimum wave-
length of 27~S*/0.30= 216" = 76. These waves are called Tollmein-Schlichting
waves, after two German researchers who made substantial contributions to the
theory.
If the onset of instability is predicted well, does that mean that transition is
also predicted well? Unfortunately, the answer is no. Experiment indicates that tran-
sition on a flat plate in a relatively clean external flow (a low free stream turbulence
level of about 0.1%) occurs at about (ReJtmnS= 2.5 X lo6. Using the Blasius solu-
tion (Eq. (4-24)),we can see that this translates to (Rea*)tmns = 2,700, which is
much higher than the instability condition, at 520. The difficulty is simply that insta-
bility and transition are not the same thing. Instability is merely the very early pre-
cursor of ultimate transition to turbulent flow, and knowing the conditions for insta-
bility alone is not of much use in predicting the subsequent conditions for
transition. Of course, we have discussed here only the simple flat-plate boundary
layer case, but the pessimistic conclusions reached on the basis of that single example
are general.
Hydrodynamic stability theory is, however, useful in indicating which condi-
tions will tend to hasten or delay transition in a relative sense. For example, profiles
that have an inflection point are very unstable. This is because an inflection point
produces a change in sign in u6 in Eq. (6-4). Since an adverse pressure gradient
leads toward profiles with an inflection point, an adverse pressure gradient will has-
ten the onset of instability and transition. These qualitative predictions are
confirmed by experiment.
Distributed, transverse injection, as through a porous surface, will also produce
profiles with an inflection point, as can surface heating. This can be seen by examin-
ing the momentum equation for a flat-plate flow (dp/dx = 0) evaluated at the surface
(u = o = 0), which then becomes
The curvature of the profile at the surface may then be written
For a heated surface, the temperature decreases with y. For gases, the viscosity in-
creases with temperature, and a p / a y < 0, leading to (d'u/dy'),,, > 0. Near the
outer edge of the layer, the curvature is always negative, so surface heating in a gas
> <
6-4 THE e’” METHOD
For many years, hydrodynamic stability theory rested largely unused by working
fluid dynamicists, because it could not be used to predict the location of transition
for a given flow problem. More recently, a clever heuristic method for extending the
theory to produce approximate predictions of actual transition has been developed
by Jaffe et al. (1970). The basic idea is physically appealing and rational, but not rig-
orous. At the neutral stability point, the amplification rate is zero, and beyond that
point, the amplification rate grows rapidly. Eventually, there is enough accumulated
amplification of the initial small two-dimensional disturbances to lead to large three-
dimensional disturbances and then turbulence. The method seeks to track the am-
plification rate of a disturbance from the point of neutral stability downstream along
the surface, until the integrated value of the amplification rate with surface distance
reaches a certain, hopefully universal, value indicating transition. The method is not
rigorous, since it deals directly only with small two-dimensional disturbances.
There are three steps in the development of the method. First, one must deal
with the spatial behavior of small disturbances, not the temporal or timewise behav-
ior treated before. The two are identical only at the neutral stability point. The
derivation of the spatial analysis is not difficult. In Eq. (6-2), a becomes a complex
number, the imaginary part aiof which becomes the amplification rate. Equation
(6-4) with suitable boundary conditions has again to be solved. Results for flow
over a flat plate are shown in Fig. 6-6(A). The curve labeled “0” is the neutral sta-
bility curve, and the contours inside that curve show constant values of the am-
plification.
The second step is the generation of accurate laminar velocity profiles at vari-
ous stations along the body surface of interest. These are to be used as the baseline
profiles uo( y ) for stability calculations at a number of streamwise stations, from the
leading edge (or front stagnation point) to a point well past the streamwise location,
where transition may be expected on the basis of some cruder estimation technique
or data correlations. Obviously, accurate profiles are required, or else the stability
calculations based on them will be in error. Also, since calculations at a number of
stations must be made, efficiency is important. A modern, implicit finite difference
procedure is recommended for this purpose.
The third step is to implement the method and see whether comparisons with
experiment yield any universal value for the integrated amplification rate that can be
used as a predictor of transition in later calculations. If AOis the amplitude of a fixed
frequency at the neutral stability point, and if A is the amplitude at some greater x,
then
where
Sec. 6-4 The eN Method 185
10-8 c
1o2 103
Re,.
104 105
( A ) Neutral stability curve and amplification contours
Re, x 6
(61 Streamwise development of amplification
Figure 6-6 Calculations of the stability of flat-plate boundary layer flow. (From
Jaffe et al., 1970.)
] ]
Next Page
Sec. 6-4 The eN Method 187
100 I I 1 I 1 I I I I
80 0 Flat plate
60 0 Flat plate
0 NACA0012
A NACA 35-21 5 top
40
V NACA 35-215 bottom
Q NACA 65,,5)-114 top
7 20
NACA 65,,,-114 bottom
0 Body of rev. F. R. = 9:l
$i @ Body of rev. F. R. = 1O:l
-E
Y
/
z 10
X
2 8
2
6
d
4
I Percent deviation I
2
I 8.27 Two-dimensional
16.5 hi-symmetric I
1 I 1 I I I I I I 1
1 2 4 6 810 20 40 6 0 80 100
Re,,,,,,, X (calculated, a,,, = elo)
Figure 6-7 Comparison of prediction of transition by the el0 method with experi-
ment. (From Jaffe et al., 1970.)
0 A : 0 deg flap; 0 V : 3.5 deg flap
20
00 Flight test results

A V Wind tunnel measurements Figure 6-8 Calculated N factor at
transition on a wing section for flight
0 2 4 6 8 and wind tunnel experiments (From
ReT x Horstmann et al., 1989.)
CHAPTER
7
WALL-BOUNDED,
INCOMPRESSIBLE
EXTERNAL
TURBULENT
FLOWS
7-1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we begin the study of the most important part of boundary layer the-
ory from a practical point of view-turbulent flows. The general subject is vast and
complex, so it is prudent to start with a portion that one can grasp and then build
on. First, we restrict the chapter to constant-density, constant-property (laminar
thermophysical properties) flows. Second, only wall-bounded, external turbulent
j b w s are considered. These are flows with a rigid (not necessarily impermeable) sur-
face boundary on one side of the turbulent, viscous region. Those flows with rigid
boundaries all around the flow are discussed in a later chapter, on internal flows.
Flows without any such boundaries are calledfree turbulentJlows, and they are also
the subject of a separate chapter. The reason for the latter important distinction will
become clear shortly.
7-2 ENGINEERING REQUIREMENTS OF TURBULENT ANALYSES
In Chapter 1, we indicated that turbulent flow is necessarily unsteady and three di-
mensional. Moreover, the frequencies of the unsteadiness and the size of the scales
of the motion have been found to span several orders of magnitude. Reflection on
these facts will yield a perspective on the magnitude of the problem of attempting to
202
9
9
1–14
Sec. 7-3 Empirical Information on the Mean Flow as a Basis for Analysis 205
1.o
0.8
0.6
.
3-
a
0.4
0.2
0.0 Figure 7-1 Comparison of the shapes

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 l.o of typical laminar and turbulent
Yf6 boundary layer velocity profiles.
shear at the interface must be continuous, we can write
(7-1)
ay interface
So the gradient of the velocity profile must change sharply at the interface in the ra-
tio p 2 / p l .This little development is more than of just casual interest. We shall see
later that it contains the germ of one of the most important ideas in wall-bounded
turbulent boundary layers.
There is another important difference between laminar and turbulent boundary
layer profiles on a flat plate. For laminar flow, all flat-plate profiles are the same on
a plot of U / U e versus y / 6 , no matter what the fluid, the Reynolds number, the
roughness size, and so on. By contrast, for turbulent flows, one finds the situation
shown in Fig. 7-2. Changes in the Reynolds number and/or the roughness change
C', and that influences the shape of the profile in terms of U / U e versus y / 6 .
One consequence of the behavior shown in Fig. 7-2 is directly important in
analysis: For laminar flow, the ratio 6 * / O = H, called the shape parameter, may be
taken to describe the shapes of the profiles that occur under different flows. For ex-
ample, a laminar flat-plate profile always has H = 2.6. This behavior was used in
Section 6-3 and also in the integral analyses of Chapter 2. For turbulent flows, the
concept is simply not valid, although it has often been used. From the figure, it can
be seen that, for a turbulent flat-plate boundary layer, H depends on C,. Thus, H
cannot be used to indicate unequivocally the shape of the profiles to be found for tur-
bulent boundary layer flows for a given body (implying a specific d P / d x ) .
It is very important to develop the most powerful and comprehensive correlat-
ing variables possible, so that the available empirical information can be presented
206 Wall-Bounded, Incompressible External Turbulent Flows Chap. 7
1.o
0.8 -
0.6 -
.
3.
3
Klebanoff and Diehl
0.4
-.-.- smooth wall -
Hama -smooth wall
-.-
---- Hama 28 mesh screen
Hama 1 mesh Screen
0.2 -
I
I
0.0 c I I I I 1
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.o
Vf6
Figure 7-2 Turbulent boundary layer velocity profiles on smooth and rough flat
plates. (From Clauser, 1956.)
and studied in as compact a form as possible. The problem is complex, and there is
a lot of data, so it is obviously helpful to consider the data in the simplest form, in-
volving the fewest groupings of variables and parameters, in order to understand as
much as possible about the problem. Clearly, U / U , and y / 6 are not sufficient to col-
lapse all the data, even for simple turbulent flat-plate flow, and we will have to look
deeper. Many workers contributed to the final results that we will develop, but the
presentation by Clauser (1956) is the clearest and most comprehensive, and the gen-
eral outline of his approach is followed here.
The curves in Fig. 7-2 cannot be collapsed into a single curve by multiplying
by any single scaling factor. However, if the velocity defect, defined as (1 - U/U,),
is considered, a factor proportional to l / e f will be seen to correlate all the curves.
The velocity defect is the local decrease in velocity below the boundary layer edge
velocity. Looking at the figure, one can see that a greater Cfleads to a greater veloc-
ity defect. This makes good physical sense, because a greater C, means there is a
greater relative retarding force acting on the fluid in the boundary layer, implying a
greater loss in velocity (and, therefore, momentum). Since the profiles are expressed
in terms of velocities, it is convenient to introduce a derived velocity called thefric-
tion velocity u * as a normalizing quantity to express the influence of Cf.The wall
shear divided by the density has the units of velocity squared, so one can write
r
which leads to
(7-2a)
Thus, the proper choice for the ordinate of turbulent, flat-plate boundary layer
profiles can be taken to be ( U / U , - 1 ) / m = (U - U J / u *. It suffices to re-
tain y / 6 as the other axis, because y is the relevant independent variable and 6 is a
suitable reference scale. The success of this choice of coordinates is shown in Fig.
7-3, a plot commonly called a defect law plot; the statement (U - Ue)/u* =
f ( y / 6 ) is called the defecr law.
vl6
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
0 I I I
*@ 9
&%@O
.
=
X Freeman
2- -1c
I 0 Klebanoff and Diehl
-2 0 Schultz-Grunow
8 Hama
- rough wall
= 0 J.H.U.
0 Moore - very rough wall
8
-2c I I I I
Figure 7-3 Defect law plot of turbulent velocity profiles in the outer region of the
boundary layer for flow over smooth and rough flat plates. (From Clauser, 1956.)
The great success at correlation indicated in Fig. 7-3 does not extend down to
very small values of y / 6 in the so-called near-wall region. As seen earlier, the ve-
locity changes rapidly in this region, down to zero at the wall, and the variation
from case to case is obscured on a plot such as Fig. 7-3. Physical reasoning can tell
us that the previous correlating variables should not work near the wall. We saw that
in the outer part of the boundary layer, it was the local value of the mean velocity
relative to the edge velocity (U - U,) that was important. The value U of the local
mean velocity relative to the wall value of zero did not enter into the situation di-
rectly. In the innermost part of the layer near the wall, however, that measure will
surely become important. It seems plausible to retain the friction velocity as a scal-
ing quantity for velocity, especially in the wall region, so the trial grouping
( U / u * = u+) can be selected. For the outer part of the boundary layer, location in
the layer y was reckoned with respect to 6 as y / 6 . In the inner, wall-dominated re-
gion, it can be reasoned that the value of 6 will be less important. The inner region
occupies only a small portion (=lo%) of the total height 6, and changes at far-
removed points near y = 6 will only be weakly felt in the inner region. It remains
then to render the length y dimensionless in some other way that is more appropriate
to the near-wall region. Earlier, we saw how to make a length dimensionless by in-
troducing a Reynolds number. A little thought applied to the present situation leads
to a Reynolds number of the form
+ = YU*
Y -1, (7-3)
The success of these variables for correlating profiles in the inner region is demon-
strated in Fig. 7-4. Note that only smooth solid wall data are included in this plot;
the influence of roughness will be discussed shortly. Also, the rationale for the use
of the logarithmic plot and the origin of the labeled curves will be presented in the
next section. A plot such as this is called a wall law plot, and the statement
U / u * = g ( y u * / v ) is called the law ufthe wall.
At this point, it may be of interest to note that, since u * = plays such
a key role in understanding velocity profiles, the accurate determination of the wall
shear T,,, is essential. The whole matter really became codified only with the advent
of successful skin friction balances in the early 1950s (see Dhawan, 1953). A device
of this type has a small portion of the surface of interest that is separated from the
rest of the surface (a narrow gap surrounds this measurement surface) and connected
to a sensitive force-measuring system. Thus, the frictional force on a known area of
the surface is measured directly. Previous workers attempted to use the slope of the
velocity profile at the wall to evaluate T ~ but , that cannot lead to accurate results be-
cause of the shape of the profile for small y / 6 (see Fig. 7-1).
Let us now return to Fig. 7-4 and study the wall region further. Near a
smooth, solid surface, the velocity fluctuations must be strongly damped, since right
at the wall, u = 0 = w = 0. Thus, there will likely be some small layer of lami-
nar flow on the wall within the turbulent boundary layer. We term this region of
laminar flow the laminar sublayer. The point can be argued another way. If yu */v is
a suitable Reynolds number for describing the flow in this region, there should be
some lower critical value below which laminar, and not turbulent, flow prevails.
This implies a lower critical value of y for a given flow. If such a laminar sublayer
exists, it will surely be very thin, i.e., it will span a small y . One can therefore sup-
pose that T = T,,,in this region, since &/dy = 0 at the wall, where U = V = 0 for
a flat plate, as indicated by Eq. (3-22) [see Fig. 7-5 for an illustration of ~ ( y ) ] .
This assumption leads to
(7-4)
40
0
oooo
O O
0 0
0 0
30
+
3
.
II.
3
20 U
o Ludwieg and Tillrnann
0 Klebanoff and Diehl
Freeman
0 Schultz-Grunow
10 0 Laufer -pipe
0 I I I I I I I I I I I
yu.llJ= y+
Figure 7-4 Universal wall law plot for turbulent boundary layers on smooth, solid surfaces.
(From Clauser, 1956.)
6 I
which can be integrated to give with U (0) = 0
Recast in terms of wall law variables (u+, y + ) , Eq. (7-5) becomes simply
-U
- y-
u*
(7-5a)
u* v
or
u+ = y + (7-5b)
One can see in Fig. 7-4 that the data follow this relation out to about y + = 5-7.
This behavior confirms the existence of the laminar sublayer and shows that it is, in-
deed, very thin (much less than 1% of 6). We should be careful in studying the
figure (or any log or semilog plot), since it is hard to adjust to the distortion of the
scale. Very crudely, the edge of a boundary layer is of the order of 5,000, i.e.,
6+ = O(5,OOO). Figure 7-4 is not a good place to look for 6, because Fig. 7-4
is an inner region plot; nonetheless, we can see that y + = 5-7 is on the order of
1/1,000th of 6'.
We now have two successful correlation laws, one for the inner region and one
for the outer region. Physical reasoning indicates that the boundary between the re-
gions should not be abrupt, and in fact, one sees no sudden change upon examining
the inner and outer region plots in Figs. 7-3 and 7-4. But then, this implies that
there is likely some region of overlap where both forms apply. In such an overlap
region, we may say that both
(7-6)
and
U =g(?)
-
(7-7)
U*
hold. These equations can be rewritten, respectively, as
(7-6a)
and
u* = g [ (;)(%)I (7-7a)
In the overlap region, the two must be equal for all y . Since y is the independent
variable, it may vary arbitrarily within the overlap region, and the dependent vari-
able, U / u * , must track exactly with both Eqs. (7-6a) and (7-7a). For a given
boundary layer profile, Ue/u* and 6u */v are constants, (i.e., they do not vary with
y ) . Thus, a constant multiplicative factor on the argument inside the function g must
have the same effect as a different constant additive factor outside the function f .
The logarithm is the only function that displays such a property, because the loga-
rithm of a product can be written as the sum of two logarithms. Thus, we may pro-
pose, for the overlap region only, that
u - u, - A log(:)
-- +B (7-6b)
U*
and
-_ (7-7b)
U*
The wall law plot was already plotted on a log scale in Fig. 7-4, and the defect law
plor from Fig. 7-3 can be replotted as in Fig. 7-6. Clearly, there is an overlap re-
gion, since the log laws follow the data, and that region is not small (it spans
roughly 30 = y + = 300).
Examining the data so plotted, Clauser (1956) proposed that A = 5.6, B =
-2.5, and C = 4.9. Other workers have contemplated different lines drawn through
the data, leading to slightly different values of the constants, but we will use
Clauser’s values throughout. Also, some write the equations with a natural loga-
rithm and use a constant K , which is related to A as K = ln(lO)/A, so that
(7-7c)
For A = 5.6, K = 0.41.

-2
-4
-6
3-
I A Freeman
2 -8
ss@u
4
0
Klebanoff and Diehl
0 Schultz-Grunow
-
-10
6 .bee"" 0
0
Hama
J.H.U. - rough wall
-
-12 L
4.
.:;Po
0 Hama - rough wall
A Moore -very rough wall-
-14 I I I I I
0.01 0.02 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.50 1.o
VD
Figure 7-6 Logarithmic plot of the defect law for flat-plate turbulent boundary
layers. (From Clauser, 1956.)
Coles (1956) introduced the notion of a law of the wake to describe the veloc-
ity profiles in the outer region. He used the fact that the deviation of the velocity
above the logarithmic law, when normalized with the maximum value of that devia-
tion at the outer edge of the layer, y = F , is a function of y / 6 alone. He correlated
that function as a wake function W ( y / 6 ) , which is selected to have W (0) = 0 and
W (1) = 2 . Coles's wake function is given by
U/u* - (1K In(yu*/v) + c)

= -w(:)
2 (7-8)
ue/u*- (1 ln(Fu*/v) + c)
K
shown schematically in Fig. 7-7. Coles (1956) then proposed that
(7-8a)
Finally, the law of the wake can be written as
(7-9)
giving a composite profile that is valid for both the overlap layer and the outer re-
gion. Here, n = - K B / ~is a wake parameter. For B = -2.5, II = 0.51 [Coles
(1956) recommended 0.551.
log v +
Figure 7-7 Schematic of Coles's wake function.
The whole turbulent boundary layer can now be viewed as consisting of four
main layers, each with its own length and velocity scales after Kovaszny (1967).
The innermost layer is the laminar sublayer, which has a length scale v / u * (see Eq .
(7-3)) and a velocity scale u * . The inner region has a length scale y and a velocity
scale u * . The outer region's length scale is 6, and its velocity scale is U,. Corrsin
and Kistler (1955) introduced a fourth layer, called the superlayer, which is a thin,
corrugated interfacial region between turbulent and nonturbulent fluid at the outer
edge. The velocity scale in this region can be taken to be the entrainment velocity,
which is proportional to the rate at which free stream fluid is drawn into the viscous
region. This velocity is also the relative speed of advance of the turbulent interface
with respect to the external, nonturbulent fluid. Kovaszny (1967) proposed that the
entrainment velocity be defined as
d
V" ZE u, -(6 - 6*) (7- 10)
dx
He then used this equation to form a characteristic length scale for the superlayer as
lOY/V".
A skin friction law can be found by eliminating U and y from Eqs. (7-6b) and
(7-7b) by subtraction to give
(7-1 1)
which can be rewritten as
(7-12)
Other simpler, explicit formulas have also been derived, either by approximating
Eq. (7-12) or by fitting empirical data directly. One of the simplest is due to Bla-
sius, as confirmed by Schultz-Grunow (1940):

C, = 0.0456(Re8)-1/4 (7- 13)
This equation is valid up to approximately Re, = 10’. Many people use the famous
Schoenherr (1932) formula:
(7- 14)
For the total frictional resistance coefficient CDfor turbulent flow over a flat plate of
length L, these same two researchers proposed
0.427
CD = (7-13a)
(log(ReL) - 0.407)*.@
and
= 4.13 log(ReL CD) (7-14a)

6
7-3-2 Roughness Effects
Surface roughness has an important direct effect on the flow in the inner, wall-domi-
nated region. It has only an indirect effect on the outer flow, increasing C,, and that
effect is included in the outer region scaling with u * . The precise description of sur-
face roughness patterns and their effects on turbulent flows cannot be based on any
single parameter, such as an average roughness size k. Research is still being per-
formed, and a detailed discussion of the matter is not within the scope of this book.
For our purposes, we will proceed as if k alone were sufficient, except for a few
comments. In the wall region, one would suppose that k enters into the situation di-
mensionlessly, as ku */v = k+. For a roughness size k+ well within the laminar sub-
layer, the influence of k+ can be expected to be small, so one might say that surfaces
with k+ < 5 (approximately) are smooth, except for unusual roughness patterns. For
surfaces with k+ > 10- 12 (approximately), the laminar sublayer begins to disap-
pear. Experiment shows that the influence of roughness on the wall law plot is to
shift the logarithmic portion of the smooth wall curve down and to the right, corre-
sponding to an increase in C,. An increase in C, increases u *, which increases y+
and decreases u + . The slope of the logarithmic region, however, does not change.
The factor A (and hence, K ) in the logarithmic law is not influenced by processes in
the sublayer, so it will also not be influenced by modest roughness. This result can
be represented as a downward shift A U / u * at a fixed yu */v. This shift is a function
of k + , as shown in Fig. 7-8. The law ofthe wall is then written as
(7-15)
For large k+(k+ 2 70), where the laminar sublayer disappears, the flow is said
Next Page
7–16
CHAPTER
8
INTERNAL
FLOWS
8-1 INTRODUCTION
In the preceding chapters in this book, and also in later chapters, the emphasis is on
externaljbws-that is flows confined by at most one rigid lateral boundary. In this
chapter, the flows of interest are confined by rigid boundaries on all sides, and those
boundaries are close enough to the viscous zone to constrain the flow in important
ways. Ackeret (1967) describes four special features of these internal jows:
1. The continuity equation plays a predominant role. The flow in a duct of any
cross-sectional shape is modified by the growing boundary layer displacement
thickness on the walls, which effectively narrows the channel and alters the
pressure distribution and any inviscid flow in the central core. This interaction
between the inviscid and viscous flows leads to an integral equation that must
be solved. In long ducts, there is no clear distinction between the boundary
layer and the central core flow. All of these effects are more important for
compressible flows.
2. Internal flows routinely have large dejections, such as in pipe bends, whereas
large changes in angle are generally avoided in external flows. Thus, strong
secondaryjbws, centrifugal forces, and even other forces due to turning can
be encountered much more frequently in internal than in external flows. Sec-
310
Sec. 8-1 Introduction 311
ondary flows are the flow components in a cross plane of a duct, such as in a
pipe bend or the corner of a rectangular straight duct.
3. In internal flows, separation is usually followed quickly by reattachment, since
the duct walls prevent the continued expansion of the free separation stream-
lines and wakes, unless the cross section of the duct is changing very rapidly.
An analytical treatment of these phenomena is beyond the scope of this vol-
ume, but the practicing engineer must be aware of these effects.
4. Three-dimensional boundary layers occur in internal flows, as well as in exter-
nal flows (see Chapter 11 for a detailed discussion), but in internal flows, they
often occur on rotating surfaces, such as disks and blade rotors.
One could add at least two other important characteristics of internal flows:
First, great complexity in the flow patterns is routine; second, the occurrence of in-
ternal flows in practice is pervasive. For instance, every home in the industrialized
world contains a myriad of examples of internal flows, while it may or may not have
examples of important external flow devices. This makes the subject of internal
flows a very old one. The sketch in Fig. 8-1 from Leonardo da Vinci is a quite ac-
curate representation of the high-Reynolds-number flow in a simple duct tee, show-
ing separation at the corner, reattachment in the lower branch, and confinement of
the eddies by the walls in the right-hand branch.
The coverage of this broad and complex subject area in this book follows that
adopted for other subject areas-laminar flow, transition, and then turbulent flow,
with the discussion in each moving from simple to more complex cases. However,
since the emphasis here is on boundary layer analysis, some subjects that have prac-
tical importance in the general field of internal flow but that defy current methods of
analysis, such as the flow in valves and fittings, will be omitted. The engineer must
rely on purely empirical information about the flow in such devices. Finally, some
coverage of the internal flow of non-Newtonian fluids is included.
Figure 8-1 Sketch of a common but complex internal flow from Leonardo da
Vinci in about 1500. (The flow is from left to right.)
312 Internal Flows Chap. 8
8-2 LAMINAR INTERNAL FLOWS
8-2-1 Fully Developed Flows
As stated, we begin with a simple, but useful, situation. The flow of a viscous fluid
in a round tube or pipe is obviously of great engineering interest. The item of pri-
mary practical concern is the loss in pressure head, or pressure drop, along the pipe,
since that must be made up by pumping. It happens that this flow problem is a mem-
ber of the group of flows known as parallel flows (see Section 4-2), for which an
exact solution of the equations of motion is rather easy to obtain.
Most applications of pipe flows involve cases in which the length of the pipe is
measured in many, many diameters. In that instance, the details of the flow near the
beginning of the pipe are not important. If the entrance to the pipe had sharp lips, a
boundary layer similar to that on a flat plate would initially form. However, as the
boundary layer grew along the wall, it would interact with the inner inviscid flow
and then with that on the opposite wall until, finally, the flow would be fully vis-
cous. After the bounday layer fills the pipe, it can no longer grow, and an equi-
librium state is reached in which changes in the boundary layer profile along the pipe
cease. This condition is called fully developed flow.
The flow problem is shown schematically in Fig. 8-2, and we will analyze the
velocity field first. The appropriate equations are the continuity equation, Eq.
(3-7a), and the momentum equation, Eq. (3-25), less the unsteady term and as-
suming constant properties. The fully developed flow condition is stated mathemati-
cally as u = u ( r ) # f (x). Substituting du/dx = 0 into the continuity equation and
integrating, one sees that v = 0 satisfies the equation and the boundary condition,
v ( x , R ) = 0. Using v = 0 and the previously stated condition on u ( r ) in the mo-
mentum equation produces
o = - - -1+d-p- v d
pdx r dr(r$)
r = R, u = 0,T = T
--_
~-
Entrance region Fully developed region

(x/R) >> 1
Figure 8-2 Schematic of the flow in a pipe.
Sec. 8-2 Laminar Internal Flows 313
or
- constant
This result can be seen from the fact that u # f (x) and p # g ( r ) . Thus, the equa-
tions have been rigorously reduced to a single linear ordinary differential equation
for u ( r ) . This equation can easily be integrated twice to give
1 dP (R' - r')
u ( r ) = ---
4 p dx (8-3)
where the boundary conditions are no slip on the wall and symmetry on the axis,
that is,
du
U(X, R) = 0 , - (x,
dr 0) = 0 (8-4)
The solution is written with the minus sign in front because there will be a pressure
loss along the tube (i.e., dp/dx < 0). The velocity profile described by Eq. (8-3) is
a paraboloid, and the geometry of that shape leads to a value of the average velocity
across the pipe of
where uc is the centerline velocity.

The pressure drop is caused by the viscous shear on the pipe wall, and that re-
lation can be developed using Eq. (8-3). We obtain
The pressure drop per unit length along the pipe is usually expressed in terms of a
resistance coefjcient A , defined as
Substituting for dp/dx from Eq. (8-5) yields
The success of this relation is demonstrated on the far left-hand side of Fig. 8-3 by
comparison with data. This result is sometimes presented in terms of a friction fuc-
tor f = A / 4 = 16/ReD.
10.0 - 1 I I l l 1 I I I 1 I I I I I I I 1
9.0 -
8.0 -
7.0 - o Nikuradse
A Saph and Schoder
6.0 T 0 Nuaelt
a
V Ombeck
5.0
-\a 0 Jakob and Erk
0
A A Stanton and Pannel
4.0 - \
?*
8
'
0-
A>@
m P . 0
m Schiller and Hermann
v Hagen
O O A 3.0 - 'Jy
A
'"4B#A
2.5 -
VAA0
2.0 - ..v-%
1.5 -
B * W S
--
-;A m A p
'100
-\ v
1.2 -
1.0 -
\::-".o .P...t
\ 4)
0.9 -
0.8 -
0.7 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
103 2 4 6 8104 2 4 6 8 lo5 2 6 8 lo6 2 4 6
It is interesting to note that Eq. (8-1) is actually the correct, reduced form of
the full equations of motion for this problem, and the boundary layer assumption
was not necessary in order to obtain the solution given by EQ.(8-8).
Many devices (e.g., heat exchangers), employ pipes or tubes to promote heat
transfer and other cases of pipe flow simply involve heat transfer because a tempera-
ture difference exists between the wall and the fluid. If the temperature difference is
not too large, the problem can still be analyzed while retaining the incompressible,
constant-property assumptions. The appropriate energy equation is the low-speed,
steady form of Eq. (3-54).' Using the fully developed flow conditions, that equation
rigorously reduces to
pc,u-aT = -k- (ar $ )
03-91
ax r ar
where u ( r ) is known from Eq. (8-3).
The boundary conditions on T ( r ) are
(8-10)
T ( x , R ) = T,(x) or
r=R
That is, either the wall temperature or the wall heat transfer rate may be specified. A
simple case occurs with the use of a specified constant q,. Consider an energy bal-
ance for a fluid flowing through two adjacent stations along the tube under that con-
dition. It is clear that the average value of the temperature must increase linearly
with distance x along the tube. Forfully developed flow, this must also be true for
any value of the radius r , so we can say that aT/dx = constant. Equation (8-9) can
easily be integrated for aT/dx = constant to give
after the boundary conditions are applied. It is common at this point to introduce the
average or bulk temperature
[ puc, T 27rr dr
Tb
[
E
pucP27rr dr
(8-12)
= T, - -
1-
1(j-) dT
uaveR2
48 k/PC,
I Note that there is no difference between c, and co for the special case of a constant-density,con-
stant-property fluid.
Basing a film coefficient R on the difference between the wall and bulk tempera-
tures, that is,
w Tb)
qw = ~ ( T- (8-13)
we get
(8-14)
For cases with constant T,, the value of NuD is 3.66. In that situation, both qw
and (T, - Tb) tend to zero with increasing distance down the pipe as the bulk tem-
perature is heated (or cooled) to approach the wall temperature. In the situation of
constant qw, both Tb and T, increase continuously.
It is a simple matter to envision a fully developed flow with mass transfer in a
tube or a pipe. The wall might, for example, be covered with a material that is solu-
ble in the fluid flowing in the pipe. That case is analogous to a constant-temperature
wall. On the other hand, the walls might be porous with a foreign fluid forced in at a
set rate. That case is analogous to a constant wall heat flux. In Chapter 2, we ob-
served a close interrelationship among momentum, heat, and mass transfer. Thus,
the preceding results for heat transfer in a pipe can be used for mass transfer by re-
placing the Nusselt number with the Nusselt number for diffusion and the Prandtl
number with the Schmidt number if the transverse velocity at the wall is small and
its influence can be neglected. A better procedure would be to begin with results for
heat transfer in the presence of injection or suction (with the flow still restricted to
one species) and then apply the analogy between heat and mass transfer. However,
that is seldom done for pipe flows, and the simple procedure is the most common.
One is sometimes interested in the flow in noncircular ducts that are long
enough to have fully developed flow. In such cases, the momentum and energy equa-
tions can be written as
(8-15)
(8-16)
These equations are clearly close relatives of Eqs. (8-1) and (8-9), except that now
there are two coordinates ( y , z ) in the cross-sectional plane of the duct to describe
the nonaxisymmetric flow field. The pressure across the duct is still presumed con-
stant, and the secondary flow components (0,w ) are assumed negligible in laminar
flow. (In turbulent flows, that assumption is not viable.) Solutions for a number of
geometries have been obtained by Shah and London (1978), and some results for the
resistance coefficient and Nusselt number are listed in Table 8-1 in terms of a
Reynolds number ReD, based on an equivalent or hydruulic diameter defined as
Dh = 4A/P, where A is the cross-sectional area and P is the perimeter of the duct.
(For a circular duct, Dh = D . ) Heat transfer results in terms of a Nusselt number for
TABLE 8-1 LAMINAR FRICTION AND HEAT TRANSFER

RESULTS IN NONCIRCULAR DUCTS
Shape of duct h ReDh Nw,=c NuqW=c
Ellipse, 1 : 1 64.00 3.66 4.36

Ellipse, 2 : 1 61.29 3.14 4.56
Ellipse, 4 : 1 72.96 3.19 4.88
Rectangle, I : 1 56.91 2.98 3.61
Rectangle, 2 : 1 62.19 3.39 4.12
Rectangle, 4 : 1 72.93 4.44 5.33
Triangle, 1 : 1 :1 53.35 2.47 3.11
Hexagon 60.22 3.34 4.00
constant wall temperature are in the third column of the table, and those for constant
heat transfer rate are in the last column. The results show that the shape of the duct
can have a large effect on heat transfer and pressure drop. The heat transfer results
can be extended to cases of mass transfer using the analogy between heat and mass
transfer described before.
8-2-2 Entrance Region Flows
The flow near the entrance of a duct before the flow field is fully developed is also of
interest. Analysis of this flow is much more complicated than that for the fully de-
veloped flow region, so we begin with some simplified treatments to develop a basic
understanding.
First, consider a force and momentum balance between a station at the en-
trance of a pipe where the velocity can be taken to be uniform at uaveand another
station where the velocity profile is fully developed and is given by Eq. (8-3). Fig-
ure 8-2 shows such a situation. The entrance velocity must be uniform at uaVe,since
the mass flow through any cross section of the pipe is the same in steady flow. Let
the inlet pressure be piand the wall shear and velocity distribution in the fully devel-
oped region be TFDand u F D , respectively. Then a force and momentum balance from
the entrance ( x = 0) to a station in the fully developed region ( x = xFD)can be
written
~ T F D ~ T R X F D+
(pi - P F D ) T R=
I' p(U& - Uzve)27rrdr + r (7 - T F D ) ~ ~ TdxR
(8-17)
The pressure drop in the entrance region is higher than in the fully developed region,
because the wall friction is higher and the inviscid core is accelerating. This fact can
be expressed by an additional term in the equation for the pressure drop in the fully
developed region [Eq. (8-7)]. We obtain
-- XFD
A' -A-+K (8-18)
1 " D
where
2
K=-+
3
r’R
0
4(T - TFD) dx
pukeR
(8-19)
Experiment indicates that K = 1.25, as suggested by Shah and London (1978).

The length of the entrance region has been correlated with ReD by Shah and
London (1978), who propose that
_-
+ 0.035 Reo + 0.056 ReD
LFD (8-20)
D 1
This region is thus quite long. For a typical laminar ReD = l,OOO, Eq. (8-20) indi-
cates that LFD= 560.
An entrance region type of problem that can be solved analytically is the case
where the velocity field in a pipe is already fully developed, but the heat transfer
problem begins abruptly at some station xo by a sudden change in the wall tempera-
ture, which was equal to the fluid bulk temperature before that point. The energy
equation for this case is again Eq. (8-9), with u ( x , r ) from Eq. (8-3), but the
boundary and initial conditions are not those in Eq. (8-lo), but rather
T ( x o , r ) = TO= constant
(8-21)
T ( x , R ) = T, = constant
This problem was solved by Nusselt (1910) using separation of variables, and the re-
sults are illustrated in Fig. 8-4. After about (x/O)/(ReD Pr) = 0.05, the tempera-
ture field is also fully developed.
The general entrance region problem where the velocity and temperature fields
develop from the pipe entrance requires a numerical solution. The presentation here
follows the work of Cebeci and co-workers [Cebeci and Smith (1974), Cebeci and
Chang (1978), Cebeci and Bradshaw (1977), and Cebeci and Bradshaw (1984)l. As
with external flows, the equations of motion for internal flows can be treated numer-
ically in either physical coordinates or transformed coordinates. The transformed co-
ordinates have some important advantages, especially in controlling the transverse
extent of the computational region as the boundary layer grows. In internal flows,
however, that advantage is overridden as the boundary layer nears the duct axis. We
will consider only the untransformed equations here for clarity, but the equations
will be made dimensionless. The continuity and momentum equations can be com-
bined by the introduction of a dimensionless stream function defined as
(8-22)
This leads to a third-order equation
(8-23)
Figure 8-4 Temperature distribution for laminar flow in the entrance region of a
pipe with constant wall temperature and fully developed velocity field. (From Nus-
selt, 1910.)
where p * = p/puiVeand t is a term representing the effects of transverse curvature.

The boundary conditions on a solid pipe wall are F = F ’ = 0. The usual symmetry
condition on the pipe axis is evaluated by examining Eq. (8-23) on the axis, which
gives
(8-24)
This formulation resembles that for external flows, except for the important
difference that in internal flows the pressure gradient term is unknown and is not
specified by an inviscid solution, as it is in external flows. This additional unknown
requires an additional equation, which is obtained by requiring a constant flow rate
through any section of the pipe for steady flow, i.e.,
pu,,.rrR2 =
l pu2rrrdr
Since a stream function is directly related to the mass flow rate, Eq. (8-25) can be
(8-25)
expressed in terms of the dimensionless stream function as
(8-26)
An iterative procedure is needed to determine dp */dx to satisfy this condition.

First, the flow is solved for an axial step dx with a guessed value of dp *. Then, Eq.
(8-26) is checked to see whether it is satisfied. If it is not, a corrected value of dp*
is determined using, for example, Newton’s method. The process is repeated until
convergence, and then another axial step is made.
Some typical results are given in Figs. 8-5 through 8-7. The profiles in Fig.
8-5 show how the velocity field develops towards the paraboloid profile in the fully
developed region. Figure 8-6 shows that the centerline velocity reaches the fully
developed region’s value of 2u,, [see Eq. (8-5)] at about (x/R)/ReD = 0.15. The
variation in the pressure drop in the entrance region is given in Fig. 8-7. Heat trans-
fer results by the same authors are illustrated in Fig. 8-8. Note that the value of the
Nusselt number for the fully developed region (Nu = 3.66) is reached at about
2 (x/R)/ReD
01 I I I I
1.o 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 I
r
-
R
Figure 8 5 Calculated velocity profiles in the entrance region of a pipe. (From

Cebeci and Bradshaw, 1977.)
2.0 I I
0 Pfenninger
(1951)
j 1.5
1.0
0.0
1 I
0.05
I
0.1 0.15
I I
0.2
I
0.25 ( 3
2xIR
-
Re0
Figure 8-6 Calculated and experimental variation in centerline velocity in the en-
trance region of a pipe. (From Cebeci and Bradshaw, 1977.)
o Langhaar
A Campbell and Slattery
10-2 I / I I I 1
2- -
1- I I I 1 I ,,,,I I I , , I I , , , I I I , , I
I , , , , , , , , , , I , , 1 , , , , , , ,,,
o.Ooo1 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
-x -1
R ReD
Figure 8-8 Variation in Nusselt number for laminar flow in the entrance region of
a pipe with constant wall temperature. (From Cebeci and Bradshaw, 1984.)
(x/R)/ReD = 0.25 for Pr = 1. This length is extended greatly for high Prandtl
numbers.
There has been much less work on mass transfer in the entrance region than on
momentum and heat transfer. The same methods could be applied to the mass trans-
fer problem, or one can again utilize the familiar analogy between heat and mass
transfer.
8-2-3 General Channel Flows
Problems more general than those discussed in Sections 8-2-1 and 8-2-2 become
quite complex. The generality that one seeks involves changes in area along the duct
and in the curvature of the duct as a whole. Complete generality cannot be achieved
within the boundary layer approximation, but a wide variety of flows can be treated
with what are called the slender channel equations [Williams (1963)]. These are
equivalent to the usual boundary layer equations, including terms for longitudinal
curvature. For the two-dimensional flow of a laminar, constant-property, constant-
density ffuid, the slender channel equations, in streamline coordinates, are
au a
- + -((uh,) = 0 (8-27)
as an
for the continuity equation,
u -al4- + ( u - a- ( ~ h , ) = - - - ap
an as p as h, an
+-- 'a [
h,2(:: - - - 31 (8-28)
for the streamwise momentum equation, and

(8-29)
for the transverse momentum equation. The term K is the reciprocal of the radius of
curvature of the channel, and h, is the metric coefficient which is equal to 1 K I Z . +
Blottner ( 1977) developed numerical procedures for treating these equations in
the entrance region of straight and curved two-dimensional channels. A representa-
tive result for the case of a curved channel of constant height is shown in Fig. 8-9.
It is easy to envision much more complicated problems in this general class of
flows, such as problems with three-dimensional duct cross sections and /or separa-
tion, but the analysis of such flows is beyond the scope of this book.
0.8 -
0.6 -
0.4 -
0.2 - I
c 0.0 -
i
-0.2 -
SIW = 0
j
0Fully developed flow
KW = 113
-0.4 -
-0.6 -
-0.8 -
U
-
Uave
Figure 8-9 Calculated velocity profiles in the entrance region of a curved channel
with constant height. (From Blottner, 1977.)
8-2-4 Non-Newtonian Fluids
The effects of non-Newtonian fluid behavior will be shown by the example of fully
developed flow in a pipe with power law and Bingham plastic fluids (see Section 1-7
for definitions of these terms). We begin with
(8-30)
which is Eq. (8-1) rewritten in a more general form without specifying fluid behav-
ior. This equation can be integrated once to give
r-
T(r)= -- dP (8-31)
2 dx
or
r
T ( r ) = rw- (8-32)
R
Thus, the shear varies linearly across the pipe, regardless of the type of fluid in it.
(This is also true for turbulent flows.)
For a power law fluid, the shear is related to the velocity gradient by Eq.
(1-64), which, in the axisymmetric geometry, is
(8-33)
Substituting this into Eq. (8-32), we get an equation for u ( r ) :
(8-34)
This equation can be integrated, after taking the pth root of both sides, to give
(8-35)
with the no-slip condition enforced on the wall. For a Newtonian fluid ( p = l ) , this
reduces back to the usual result in Eq. (8-3), noting Eq. (8-5). Results for a range
of values of p are shown in Fig. 8-10. The resistance coefficient becomes
(8-36)
For a Bingham plastic fluid, the shear and the velocity gradient are related as
in Eq. (1-62), which is written in the axisymmetric geometry as
(8-37)
0.0 1 I I I I
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 .O
r
-
R
Figure 8-10 Calculated velocity profiles for fully developed flow of power law
non-Newtonian fluids in a pipe.
Since the linear variation in the shear expressed in Eq. (8-32) holds in general, the
behavior in Eq. (8-37) indicates that there must be a plug of radius r, of uniform-
velocity fluid near the axis of the pipe. This is the region where T 5 T ~ After
. sub-
stituting the shear relation, integrating, and applying boundary conditions, the ve-
locity profile emerges as
(8-38)
for r, 5 r 5 R. For 0 Ir Ir,, U, is given by Eq. (8-38), evaluated at r = r, =

) . results for the friction factorfare presented by Hedstrom (1952)
2 ~ ~ / ( - d p / d xThe
in the chart given as Fig. 8-11. Here, N H e = ~ T o O D ~ /and ~ ~ NPI
P = TOD/PBPUave.
For T~ = 0, these results collapse back to the usual Newtonian result.
The flow of a power law fluid in the entrance region of a plane channel has
been studied numerically by Crochet et al. (1984). The development of the velocity
profiles and the length of the entrance region as a function of the power law index
are shown in Fig. 8-12. The profiles are fuller for lower values of p.
Next Page
0.1
0.01
0.001
102 103 104 105 106
Figure 8-11 Friction factor for laminar flow of Bingham plastic non-Newtonian
fluids in a pipe. (From Hedstrom, 1952.)
0 1 5
0 1 5
XIW
(A) Velocity profiles
Figure 8-12 Calculations of the laminar flow of a power law non-Newtonian fluid
in the entrance region of a planar channel. (From Crochet et a]., 1984.)
CHAPTER
9
FREE
SHEAR
FLOWS
9-1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we shall be concerned with those flows where there is no rigid sur-
face present in the region of interest. The three general representatives of this class
of free shear flows are wakes, jets, and simple shear layers, as illustrated schemati-
cally in Fig. 9-1. Attention is focused on the flow downstream of the body produc-
ing the wake or the walls that initially bound the jet or shear layer. The major sim-
plifying feature of such flows for turbulent cases is that the treatment of an inner,
wall-dominated region is eliminated. Thus, one is concerned only with the equiva-
lent of the outer region of a wall-bounded turbulent layer.
Both wake and jet flows can be viewed as consisting of two or more regions.
The near wake, right behind the body, and the potential core, near the injection sta-
tion of the jet, are relatively complex, and they depend on the details of the body
shape or the jet nozzle. The near-wake region is complicated and often involves sep-
arated flow, so it is outside the scope of this volume. In the idealized case of small
boundary layers on the outside and the inside of the jet injector, there is a substan-
tial initial region before the developing shear layers from the edges of the jet merge
on the axis. This region is called the potential core, since the flow of the jet fluid in
it is uniform and inviscid. If the flow coming out of the injector is fully developed,
or nearly so, there is little or no potential core. Far behind the body or the jet noz-
359
360 Free Shear Flows Chap. 9
U ue
n
Near wake
Far wake
(A) Typical wake flow
x=o
(6) Typical jet flow
13:-
V
-- - ---_
"2
--
-z
c-
u2
--- -
(Cl Simple shear layer
Figure 9-1 Schematic illustrations of free shear flows.

Sec. 9-2 Laminar Free Shear Flows 361
zle, the flows assume a more universal behavior, and analysis is simpler. A transi-
tional region between the near and far fields is often also envisioned. We will con-
centrate on the far wake and the main mixing region of jets and simple shear layers.
Most free shear flows of engineering interest are turbulent. This is because the
velocity profiles generally involve inflection points (see Fig. 9-1), so the flows are
quite unstable. Thus, the discussion here will emphasize turbulent flows. The treat-
ment of laminar free shear flows will serve largely as an introduction to the analysis
of the turbulent cases.
9-2 LAMINAR FREE SHEAR FLOWS
9-2-1 The Simple Shear Layer
The simplest case of a free mixing flow is that formed by two parallel streams with
different velocities that are initially separated by a thin splitter plate. Downstream of
the plate, the two streams interact due to viscous shear, and a growing mixing zone
develops (see Fig. 9-1(C)). This flow is sometimes called a mixing layer, and it can
be either laminar or turbulent. The turbulent case will be discussed later.
An exact solution can be developed for the incompressible case when the
boundary layers on both sides of the splitter plate can be neglected. The initial
profile for the mixing layer at the end of the plate ( x = 0) is then simply a discontin-
uous jump at y = 0 from the velocity above the plate, U , , to that below the plate,
Ut . The boundary layer equations admit to a similarity solution for this case, with
where b(x) is a length that scales the width of the viscous region. Substituting into
the boundary layer equations gives
Uib db
f”’ + - -ff“ = 0
v dx
(9-2)
For a similarity solution to hold, the coefficient of the second term must be a con-
stant, which can be conveniently taken to be equal to 1/2. This leads to
and
f”’+ 1/2ff” = 0 (9-4)
This equation is essentially the same as that for the Blasius solution in Section
4-3- 1, but the boundary conditions are different here, namely,
f (0) = 0
lim,,,f ’(77) = Ul (9-5)
lirn,+--f’(q) = U,
A numerical solution is again required, and some typical results from Lock (1951)
are shown in Fig. 9-2. It can be seen that the width of the mixing zone grows
as x”’.
Y
Figure 9-2 Velocity profiles for the

laminar simple shear layer. (From Lock,
1951.)
The case of an initial boundary layer on the splitter plate for UZ= 0 has been
treated by Kubota and Dewey (1964), with an approximate analysis based on the in-
tegral momentum equation approach described in Chapter 2 for wall boundary lay-
ers. The variation in the velocity along the dividing streamline from the end of the
plate is shown in Fig. 9-3. The exact solution given by Eq. (9-4) for the case with
no initial boundary layer gives 0.587U1for all axial stations. In this case, that condi-
Figure 9-3 Velocity along the dividing
10-4 10-2 1 102 streamline for the laminar simple shear
V x h 1 e$ layer. (From Kubota and Dewey, 1964.)
Mi =O Mi = 3
1 .o
0.0
;s.-
I
-1.0
-2.0
-3.0 L
(A) M I = O (B) M i =3, (C)M i = 3 , (D) M i = 8 , (E) M1 = 8 ,
T2 = Tt1 T:, = T i T2 = Tri T2 = T i
Figure 9-4 Velocity profiles for the laminar simple shear layer with an initial
boundary layer. (From Kubota and Jkway, 1964.)
tion is achieved only as x/Oo + m, where Oo is the initial momentum thickness. The
profiles develop downstream, as shown in Fig. 9-4(A).
High-speed flows have been considered by a number of different authors. The
analysis of Kubota and Dewey (1964) was extended to cases of variable density by
the use of compressibility transformations. Some profile results at Mach 3.0 and 8.0
are shown in Figs. 9-4(B)-(E). Note that the vertical coordinate is based on the
transformed values.
9-2-2 Jets
The simplest jet flows are laminar, constant-density cases where the surrounding
fluid is at rest. These flows also allow similarity solutions. One imagines the jet to
363
be from a point or line source, so actual similarity is achieved only for x / D 9 1 in

real cases. The planar, two-dimensional geometry will be treated here as an exam-
ple. Since the surrounding flow is at rest and at constant static pressure, we may as-
sume that the static pressure is constant in the mixing region. To the lowest order,
the total axial momentum flux must remain constant, since there is no net shear
force acting on the flow. That is,
./ = [ pu2dy = constant (9-6)
The similarity condition for velocity profiles is
where u, is the centerline velocity and b (x) is a suitably defined width scale. Assume
that b(x) varies as does x, to some power, and thus take
The exponents, p and q, can be determined by satisfying two conditions: (1) The
flux of streamwise momentum remains constant, as stated, and (2) the inertial and
viscous terms in the equations of motion are of the same order of magnitude. These
conditions result in p = 1/3 and q = 2/3. Using
7 7 = 3 Y1 ’ / zY- p $=v
112 113
x f(77)
u=-
1
3x ,/3 f ’(77)
(9-9)
2, = - -v1/2x-2/3(
1
3 f - 277f’)
We see that the equations of motion reduce to the nonlinear equation
f ”’ + ff” + ( f r y =0 (9-10)
lirn,,,f’(q) = f ( 0 ) = f”(0) = 0 (9- 11)
and Schlichting (1933) developed the closed form solution
= 2
-a2x-1/3
(1 - tanh2(aq)) (9-12)
3
to this equation, where
(9-13)
Sec. 9-2 Laminar Free Shear Flows 365
1 .o
0.8
0.6
.
3
3
0.4
0.2
0.0 Figure 9-5 Velocity profiles in axisym-

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 metric and two-dimensional laminar jets.
ao (From Schlichting, 1933.)
Velocity profiles for this and the corresponding axisymmetric case are shown in Fig.
9-5. Also, b -x2I3and ur - x-'I3 for the planar jet, and b -
x and uc -
x-' for
the axisymmetric jet.
In recent times, careful analysis (Schneider, 1985) has shown that the momen-
tum flux does not remain constant if there are any walls in the flow field. Thus, if
the jet issues from a hole in a wall, the axial momentum flux in the jet actually de-
creases slowly with distance from the orifice. A detailed discussion of these matters
is beyond the scope of this book.
9-2-3 Wakes
The analysis of wakes is simple only in the far wake, where the velocity difference
across the wake has decayed to a small value, permitting a linearization of the equa-
tions of motion. We will consider the planar, constant-density, constant-property
case as an example.
If Au = U, - uc < 1 , the boundary layer momentum equation can be approx-
imated as
(9-14)
This is a simple, linear partial differential equation, and its solution can be found by
standard methods. With the boundary condition of limy-,mu ( x , y) = U, and sym-
metry on the axis, the solution is
u ( x , y ) = U, - (9- 15)
The remaining constant C is determined to match the momentum defect in the wake
with the drag of the body. If the body is a general two-dimensional (planar) cylin-
der, we may write the drag 9for a body length L perpendicular to the plane of the
flow as
9= p L
L u(Um - 4 dY
Noting the definition of AM and the fact that u = Urn(since Au
(9-16)
+ Urn),we can ap-

proximate Eq. (9-16) as
Prn
9 = pUmLj - j A u ) dy (9- 16a)
With this equation and the definition of a drag coefficient as CD = 9/(1/2pU%D),

where D is a characteristic thickness of the cylinder (e.g., the diameter of a circular
cylinder), we can set the drag, as expressed by Eq. (9-16a) and the definition of C D
equal to each other and then obtain
where Re = U d / v . In this way, C may be determined.

Note that the axisymmetric result obtained by a parallel analysis is included
here for j = 1 ; the planar result corresponds t o j = 0.
9-3 MEAN FLOW AND TURBULENCE DATA

FOR A ROUND JET IN A MOVING STREAM
9-3-1 Introduction
As in earlier chapters, we follow the practice here of beginning the discussion of tur-
bulent cases with a presentation of data for representative flows. These flows then
form the basis for the critical discussion of turbulence modeling. To limit the scope
of this chapter to a manageable level, the case of a round jet in a coflowing external
stream has been chosen as a representative flow to illustrate the nature of this class
of flows. Some data for simple shear layers will also be included to illustrate one im-
portant matter. A more general treatment of the subject can be found in the mono-
graph by Schetz (1980). Finally, the presentation will concentrate on the main mix-
ing region beyond the potential core, since the behavior of the main mixing region is
much more universal than that in the potential core. Harsha (1971) has given the
following data correlation for the length of the potential core for air-air, axisymmet-
ric jets:
XC
- = 2.13(Re~)"~' (9-18)
D
This equation can be used for purposes of estimation.
9-3-2 Constant-Density Flows
Figure 9-6 shows the variation of the centerline velocity, in terms of

Ue/[Uc(x/D) - Ue]and a characteristic width rl/2 defined by the relation
Sec. 9-3 Mean Flow and Turbulence Data for a Jet 367
25 't
/
20 4
-
7 15 3
.
z 0
3-10 2 $'
L
5 1
0 1 0
100 200
x/D
Figure 9-6 Variation of centerline velocity and half-radius for an axisymmetric

jet: 0,A,hot wire; + Pitot tube. (From Antonia and Bilger, 1973.)
(9-19)
with the axial distance. This latter quantity is frequently called the half-radius, and
it can be determined accurately more easily than can some ill-defined total width
where the mixing zone merges asymptotically into the external stream. First, it can
be seen that the influence of the parameter m( = Ue/Uj)on the flow field is quite
profound. Second, the total distance to the final decay, where U, + U,, is very long
when measured in terms of jet diameters. Nondimensional radial velocity profiles
are given in Fig. 9-7 for various x / D . These data indicate that the profiles are ap-
parently similar for n / D 2 40, meaning that the profiles, expressed in terms of co-
ordinates such as those in the figure, remain unchanged with x / D . This fact will
prove useful for analysis later.
Some data of Antonia and Bilger (1973) for the axial turbulence intensity are
given in Figs. 9-8 and 9-9. For free turbulent flows, the intensity of the turbulence
is usually normalized with the mean flow velocity difference across the layer AU, =
U, - U,, rather than with U, or U . Note that the average fluctuations are a substan-
tial fraction of the mean flow velocity difference. The streamwise behavior of the
centerline values and the characteristic shape of the transverse profiles can easily be
seen. The maximum generally occurs somewhat off the centerline, since the mean
velocity gradient and, hence, the production of turbulence, is greater there [see Fig.
9-7 and Eq. (7-94)]. Observe that the profiles of this variable have not attained a
similarity condition by x / D = 200. The data of Gibson (1963) for U, = 0 showed
that the relative magnitudes of the axial, transverse, and peripheral turbulence inten-
sities were about the same as for wall-bounded flows.
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
r/r112
Figure 9-7 Nondimensional radial profiles across an axisymmetric jet: rn =

0.222; x / D = 38 (+), 76 (A),152 (a),
248 (0). (From Antonia and Bilger,
1973.)
0.6 I n
0
" n
r: rn = 0.333
- L)
- n
71 = 0.222
I I
0 100 200
XID
Figure 9-8 Streamwise variation of centerline axial turbulence intensity in

axisymmetric jets. (From Antonia and Bilger, 1973.)
- 0.5
- 0.4
0
a+ +
++ + ++++%a
Lt
0
+0 -
0.3
6
l
B
0 - 0.2
a
+
+a
0
0
+ a - 0.1
0
+&
+a a
+ 4 0
I I I I 1 I 0.0
r/r1/2
Figure 9-9 Radial profiles of axial turbulence intensity in axisymmetric jets:

x / D = 38 (+), 76 (A), 152 266 (0); (n),
m = 0.333. (From Antonia and
Bilger, 1973.)
0.0 '
0.0 0.2
I I
0.4
I
0.6
I
0.8
I
1.0 1.2
I
1.4
I I
1.6
I
1.8
I
2.0
r/r1/2
Figure 9-10 Radial profile of turbulent kinetic energy for an axisymmetric jet
with m = 0.
The variation in the turbulent kinetic energy across the layer, again for U, =
0, is shown in Fig. 9-10 from Rodi (1972) and Wygnanski and Fiedler (1969). In-
formation on the Reynolds turbulent shear stress for U, # 0 is shown in Fig. 9- 1 1 .
Note the antisymmetry of this quantity in a symmetrical flow. About a line (or
plane) of symmetry, -U'U' = 0 when dU/dy = 0.
0
0
oono
on 0
+
+
0
43
I 0.06
0.04
0.02
!
N"
3
O Q
0 iG* +
.A
8
& a
-0.02
0 0
-0.04
0,
0
0
00
1 -Om
Figure 9-11 Radial profiles of
Reynolds stress for an axisymmetric jet
with m = 0.333; x / D = 38 (+), 76
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
(A), 152 (n), 266 (0). (From Antonia
rfr112 and Bilger, 1973.)
lo-' I 0
0 0 0 0
A
0 o n n
vx o v
x (cm) :
o 40
0
A 0
*
A 60 V
M
0 100
&
v 120 X
t
lo-'
X
rn =
100
140
0.333
10' 102
k l Ur1,2/AUc
Figure 9-12 Spectra of the axial component for an axisymmetric jet. (From An-
tonia and Bilger, 1973.)
Spectra of the axial turbulence intensity are shown in Fig. 9-12. Again, as in
wall boundary layers, motion of several decades in wave number kl can be observed.
Finally, Fig. 9-13 shows the energy balance across the flow, where the magnitude
of the individual terms in Eq. (7-94) can be seen and studied. The most complete
and reliable information available is the basic data of Wygnanski and Fiedler (1969)
for U, = 0, as modified by Rodi (1975). This balance is much different than that for
a boundary layer (cf. Fig. 7-24). In free shear flows, the energy production by the
normal stresses
(9-20)
in addition to production by shear stress, was included for completeness. It can be

seen that the contribution from normal stresses is the smaller of the two, except near
the axis.
2.0 -
-0.5 -
-1.5
-2.0 I
t
0
I
0.2
I
0.4
I
0.6
I
0.8
DissiDation
I
1.0
1
1.2
I
1.4
I
1.6
I
1.8 2.0
I
r/r1,2
Figure 9-13 Turbulent energy balance for an axisymmetric jet with rn = 0. All
terms X r l / 2 / U g .(From Wygnanski and Fiedler, 1969, as modified by Rodi,
1975.)
9-3-3 Density Variations from Temperature Variations
The simplest cases with density variations are produced with fluid injection at a tem-
perature different from that of the main flow. Experiments of that type in the
axisymmetric geometry were reported by Landis and Shapiro (1951). Mean flow re-
sults, in terms of the axial variation of the centerline velocity and temperature, are
1
shown in Fig. 9-14 for a case with T,/T = 0.77 and Ue/Uj 3 m = 0.50. The den-
sity ratio p , / p j = n for such cases is related to the temperature ratio as T e / q =
p j / p , = l / n . It can be seen that the power decay law exponent Pi(i.e., in AT -
xPT, AU - xP",etc.) is slightly greater for this case than that for the nearly con-
stant-density case presented by Forstall and Shapiro (1950).
ml / n = 0 . 9 2
61:
0.7
1-
= 0.46,
\A '
0.6 -
0.5 -
Slope P, = -1.21
'' '\
IFVG-
0.4 - Fontall empirical
relation (P = -1.0)
-
0.3
5- Slope P, = -1.14
o.2
0.1
t' I I I I l l 1 I I
1
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 20 30 40
Axial distance, x/D
Figure 9-14 Streamwise variation of centerline velocity and temperature in a

heated, axisymmetric jet. (From Landis and Shapiro, 1951.)
The axial variations in the half-widths for the velocity and temperature profiles
are shown in Fig. 9-15 for the same case as in Fig. 9-14. From these data, we can
see the important result that nondimensionalized temperature profiles are always
wider, or fuller, than the corresponding velocity profiles (see Fig. 9- 16), which in-
dicates that the transverse transport of thermal energy by turbulence is more rapid
than that for momentum. But then, a turbulent thermal conductivity kT defined by
(9-21)
when combined with vT = / 1 T / p , to give a turbulent Prandtl number
(9-22)
will correspond to values of PrT < 1 . For the axisymmetric case of Corrsin and
Uberoi (1949), this quantity was determined to be approximately 0.7, while planar
jet data indicate a value of PrT = 0.5. No satisfactory explanation has been found of
why geometry should affect PrT.
For turbulence data on heated jets, we can examine the work of Chevray and
Tutu (1978) with Ue = 0. Velocity and temperature fluctuations at x / D = 15 are
4 - m=0.46, l / n = 0.92 -
A ‘T.112
-
5c - 0 rv, 1/2 Forstall
empirical
G
.-
a
c
2-
Squire and Trouncer
------*----- 0 A
d.
, n o -
0 0 0
0.8 - 1 1 1
1.o
0.9
0.8
.
3
3
0.7
0.6
I
t
It-
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4
d r x , vlb,
Figure 9-16 Transverse velocity and temperature profiles for planar and axisym-
metric jets with rn = 0. (From Ginevskii, 1966.)
374 Mean Flow and Turbulence Data for a Jet Chap. 9
KID = 15
Figure 9-17 Radial profiles of velocity and temperature fluctuations for an

axisymmetric jet with rn = 0. (From Chevray and Tutu, 1978.)
Figure 9-18 Radial profiles of turbulent shear and heat flux for an axisymmetric
jet with rn = 0. (From Chevray and Tutu, 1978.)
given in Fig. 9-17. Radial variations in turbulent shear and heat transfer are shown
in Fig. 9-18. These profiles have similar shapes, and their peaks occur at roughly
the same radial station, which is not, however, at the location of the maximum value
of either W / a y or d T / d y . These facts suggest that the transport mechanisms for
momentum and heat are quite similar and that gradient transport models are suspect,
even for this simple flow problem.
Finally, high-speed, free turbulent flows, such as the wake behind a supersonic
body, produce substantial variations in temperature. The new effects that can occur
under those circumstances will be illustrated with a discussion of the simple shear
layer in supersonic flow later in this chapter.
9-3-4 Density Variations from Composition Variations
Many important practical applications involve injection of one fluid into the sur-
roundings of a different fluid. In this book, the discussion is restricted to cases of
one phase, either gas or liquid, and binary mixtures. A discussion of more general
cases can be found in Schetz (1980).
An experimental correlation for the length of the potential core, in terms of
the concentration of the injected species, was developed by Chriss (19681, who
found the relation to be
(9-23)
For data on the influence of variations in composition on the axial decay of

centerline flow variables, the tests of Chriss (1968) can be used again. Figure 9-19
shows the obviously strong influence of density and velocity ratios on the centerline
velocity decay. The axial variation in the centerline composition of the injectant is
presented in Fig. 9-20.
When the axial decay of the centerline values is plotted on logarithmic paper,
a power-law decay rate again appears. Many workers have attempted to determine
the values of the relevant exponents for each type of variable: velocity, temperature,
and composition. Schetz (1969) looked at a large group of data from various investi-
gators to develop a correlation for P, in terms of the single parameter pj UJp, U,,
and the result is shown in Fig. 9-21.
As with density changes produced by temperature variations alone, the half-
width of concentration profiles is larger than that for velocity profiles and the con-
centration profiles themselves are consequentlyfuller, as shown in Fig. 9-22. In-
deed, nondimensional temperature and concentration profiles have been found to be
virtually identical.
Introducing a turbulent mass diffusion coefficient DT through the equation
(9-24)
1.2
1
~
Symbol J i I U , PJP. PiUilPeU,

-
1 .o 6.3
4.4 0.09 0.39
3.8
3.0 0.08 0.24
0.8 2.4 0.08 0.19
4.6 0.14 0.62
3.2
2.5 0.12 0.30
0.6
3"3-
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 2 4 6 a 10 12 14 16
XID
Figure 9-19 Streamwise variation in centerline velocity for axisymmetric HIjets

into air. (From Chriss, 1968.)
1.o
ISymbol Ji/U,
6.3
PjIP.
-
0.09
IiUilPeU,
0.56
4.4 0.09 0.39
3.8 0.08 0.32
3.0 0.08 0.24
0.8 2.4 0.08 0.19
4.6 0.14 0.62
3.2 0.13 0.41
2.5 0.12 0.30
u" 0.6 -
0.4
0.2
0.0
XID
Figure 9-20 Streamwise decay of centerline concentration for an axisymmetric

Hz jet into air. (From Chriss, 1968.)
376
0
v H, -air 0
-
H, - a i r 0
0 H, - a i r
D
- 0 A -air
0 CO, -air
$*** 4
b
m
0 He - a i r
- He - air
A He, CO, N, - a i r
0.01 0.02 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.50 1.0 2.0 5.0 10.0
Pj UiIP, u,
Figure 9-21 Experimental determination of asymptotic concentration decay ex-

ponent. (From Schetz, 1969.)
rIR
Figure 9-22 Radial profiles of velocity and concentration for an axisymmetric Hz

jet into air. (From Chriss, 1968.)
Next Page
1.2
1.o
I - Recker et al 11967)
C
.-
5c 0.8
0
'
C
0
-0
0.6
.--
N
?
zz
0.4
=
'\
:
0.1
m
0.t
1 2 3
rJr, /2
Figure 9-23 Radial profiles of concentration fluctuation for an axisymmetric

methane jet into stationary air: x / D = 20 (D),30 (A),40 (*). (From Birch et al.,
1978.)
we may express that coefficient in relation to turbulent momentum or heat transfer

through a turbulent Schmidt number
(9-25)
or a turbulent Lewis number
(9-26)
Most workers agree that for the axisymmetric case, PrT = ScT = 0.7, which leads
to LeT 1.0. For planar flows, PrT = SCT = 0.5, and again, LeT = 1.0.
The accurate measurement of quantities involving concentration fluctuations is
generally conceded to be a difficult task, and various methods have been tried. The
experiments of Becker et al. (1967) were for the axisymmetric geometry with
U, = 0, and the variable composition was provided by oil-generated smoke mixed
CHAPTER
10
WALL-BOUNDED
TURBULENT FLOWSWITH
VARIABLE DENSITY
AND
HEATAND MASS TRANSFER
10-1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter is concerned with cases in which there are differences between the wall
and free stream temperatures or injection of a foreign fluid, so as to produce heat
and/or mass transfer. We also allow substantial variations in fluid density and lami-
nar, thermophysical properties, such as those encountered in high-speed flight. The
laminar thermophysical properties remain important in wall-bounded turbulent flows
because of the laminar sublayer. The organization of the chapter will follow that
used in earlier sections dealing with turbulent flows: Experimental data for mean
and fluctuating flow quantities will be presented first, followed by transport model-
ing at various levels, and then comparisons of predictions with experiment.
10-2 EXPERIMENTAL INFORMATION
10-2-1 Mean Flow Data
For mean flow profiles, one obviously has to deal with at least one new variable, the
mean temperature T. With the injection of a foreign fluid, it is also necessary to
414
Sec. 10-2 Experimental Information 415
treat the mean concentration C. A few of these cases will still permit the assumption
of constant density and laminar properties. In those cases, it is reasonable to ask if
there exist inner and outer region scaling laws for mean temperature profiles, such as
were found for the mean velocity profiles in Section 7-3-1. For the inner, wall-
dominated regions, an effort of that type has been pursued for low-speed, constant-
property flows by a number of researchers, with the most comprehensive treatment
being that by Kader (1981). The key idea is that of a heat transfer temperature
(10-1)
which corresponds to the friction velocity u * . This concept leads to a dimensionless

temperature
(10-2)
which corresponds to u+. This equation in turn will permit the development of a
temperature law of the wall,
T + = gT(y+, Pr) (10-3)
where Pr is the laminar Prandtl number. For the flow in the laminar sublayer, the
same kind of development as used for the velocity field gives
T+ = y+Pr (10-4)
One assumes laminar flow and a thin layer, so that the heat flux can be taken to be
constant at its wall value. There is also a logarithmic region described by
1
T" = -ln(y+)
KT
+ CT(Pr) (10-5)
with
CT(Pr) = (3.85Pr1l3- 1.3)2 + 2.12 ln(Pr) (10-6)
This region is analogous to the logarithmic region for the velocity profile. Kader
(1981) further developed functions to join these two regions smoothly and also for
the outer region corresponding to the velocity defect law. His final, complete equa-
tion is
( 10-7)
where
r r O.Ol(y+ *
1 + 5y+ - Pr3
(10-8)
416 Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows with Variable Density Chap. 10
The success of this representation for fluids with a wide range of laminar Prandtl
numbers is shown in Fig. 10 – 1. In addition, Kader (1981) gives a corresponding
law for pipe and channel flows.
A useful result can be deduced with the aid of the logarithmic laws for both
temperature and velocity [Eqs. (10 –5) and (7 – 7c)], extended out to the edge of the
boundary layers. We have
1
Teþ ¼ ln(dþ
T ) þ CT (Pr) (10–9)
kT
and
1
uþ þ
e ¼ ln(d ) þ C (10–10)
k
for Pr ¼ 0(1), dT d, and kT k, so we can substract Eq. (10– 10) from Eq.
(10 – 9) to eliminate the logarithmic terms and get
Teþ uþ
e ¼ CT (Pr) C (10–11)
Using the definitions of T þ and u þ, we see that this becomes
rc p u (Tw Te ) Ue
¼ CT (Pr) C (10–12)
qw u
Noting that h ¼ qw/(Tw 2 Te), St ¼ h/(rUecp), and Cf ¼ 2(u /Ue)2, we obtain

sffiffiffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 1 C f
þ CT (Pr) C ¼ St (10–12a)
Cf 2
This result is not tidy, so many people use the equivalent approximation of von Kar-
man (1939), i.e.,
Cf
St ¼ (10–13)
2Pr (Tw =Te )0:4
0:4
which is good for 0.7 Pr 10.0. The close relation to Reynolds Analogy [see Eq.
(2 – 61)] is clear. Comparison of predictions and data is shown in Fig. 10 – 2.
Cases with varying wall temperature can be treated by approximate integral
methods. Ambrok (1979) developed such a procedure that has been implemented as
a JAVA applet named MOSESHT under Boundary Layer Applets þ Convection at:
http://www.engapplets.vt.edu/. See Appendix B, Example B– 1.
Most of the analyses for flows with convective mass transfer rely on the
analogy between heat and mass transfer introduced earlier for laminar flows.
One presumes a correspondence between a film coefficient for heat, h, and for dif-
fusion, hD , usually in dimensionless form as Nu or St and NuDiff or StDiff. Sub-
scripts D and Diff denote diffusion (i.e., mass transfer). The correspondence
between mass transfer data and a transformed heat transfer relation for flow over
a solid surface (St ! StDiff with Pr ! Sc), is only obtained for very low surface
I I I
20 - (A)
18 -
16 -
14 -
12 - -
+
!-
lo - -
8- -
o Zhukauskas
6- and Shlanchauskas (1973) -
X Fulachier (1972)
-
4- + Belov (1976)
-
+-/
0 I I I l l I I I l l I I I l l
loo 2 4 6 810' 2 4 6 810' 2 4 6 8103
I l l _I d
I I I
-
I I l l
-I I -1 I
200 - (a 0 0 0
0 -
180 - Pr = 60 -
& 160 - -
140 - -
120 - -
100' I I l l I I I l l ~
Figure 10-1 Comparison of Eq. (10-7) with data for the temperature law of the
wall. (From Kader, 1981.)
417
0.008
0.006
0.004 -
0.003 -
t Analysis
Pr = 0.7
6
0.002 -
0.0015 -
0.001 -
0.0008 -
0.0006
I I I I I I I I I I I
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 lo6 2.0 3.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
Rex
Figure 10-2 Dimensionless heat transfer coefficient for turbulent flow over a
constant-temperatureflat plate in low-speed flow. (From Reynolds et al., 1958.)
10.0
0
I1
3 1.0
5
0.1
-9 -8 -7 -6 -4 -2 0 1 2 3 4 56789 19 29
P ~ V , G , ( T-~ TW)h,
Figure 10-3 Influence of injection or suction on the film coefficient for flow over
a flat plate. (From Mickley et al., 1954.)
:
free stream velocities, the law ofthe wall for velocity developed for low-speed, con-
stant-density, constant-property flows no longer holds, as shown in Fig. 10-5 from
Lee et al. (1969). In this plot, the simple choices
(10-15)
were made, since density and properties vary with y. There have been a number of
attempts to develop a law suitable for high-speed cases, and those usually referred to
as Van Driest Z and ZZ from Van Driest (1951) and (1956b), respectively, are gener-
ally viewed as the most successful.
For Van Driest I, one takes the mixing length formulation, Eq. (7-37), but
now with the fluid density as a variable:
(10- 16)
The assumption 4, = KY is retained. To obtain a simple relation for the mean den-
sity iT, one needs a relation for T , since P is constant across the boundary layer. Van
Driest assumed the applicability of a Crocco energy integral, Eq. (5-21a), for turbu-
lent flow, which is strictly valid only for Pr = PrT = 1. However, for air and most
gases, Pr = 0.7, and Prr is also near unity in a boundary layer, except at the edge
and near the laminar sublayer, as shown in Fig. 10-6. Rearranging the Crocco rela-
tion gives
Substituting Eq. (10-17) into Eq. (10-16), making the usual assumption that T +
Tr = T~ in the inner region and neglecting the laminar sublayer, Van Driest solved
Eq. (10-16) for d U / d y and then integrated to obtain
(10- 18)
with
(10-19)
and Eq. (10-15). The whole left-hand side of Eq. (10-18) can be viewed as an ef-
fective velocity U d . If U,R is used instead of the actual velocity U , Eq. (10-18)
takes on the same form as the low-speed, constant-density, constant-property law of
0 P, = 1 atm Re, = 6,580

0 =5atrn =28,040
0 = lOatm =49,430
1 10 100 1000
Y+
(A) Adiabatic
1 10 100 1000
V+
(B) Heat transfer
Figure 10-5 Law-of-the-wall plot of high-speed data and low-speed equations.

(From Lee et al., 1969.)
1.5
0
OO
1.o
rn
t
0
0
0
0.5
@ @
0
OO
0
1 10 102 103 104
V+
(A) From Blorn (1970)
1.2 0 1.70 C, 2.45

V 1.95 0 2.70
o 2.20 a 2.90
0.8
0.4
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.o
vl6 Figure 10-6 Variation of the turbulent
(6) From Meier and Rotta (1971) F'randtl number in the boundary layer.
the wull [see Eq. (7-7c)l. Using this velocity profile in the momentum integral
equation for a flat plate,
we obtain the skin friction law
B i W
[sin-l( 2B: - B2
rn
) + sin-l(
VB3
B2
+ 4B:
)I
(1 0-20)
= 0.41 + log(Re,Cf) -
- -------- Van Driest I (heat transfer)

Van Driest I1 (heat transfer) -
Wilson (no heat trander)(l950)
I I I I I I I I I
where o enters from the assumption that p -

T". This result is compared with data
as C,/(C&,, versus M, in Fig. 10-7.
Since the profile in Eq. (10-18) is based on t , = KY, it does not have a wake
component in the sense of Coles's law ofthe wake (see Section 7-3-1). Maise and
McDonald (1968) considered whether the Van Driest profile could be extended to
have a wake component by simple analogy with the constant-density case [see Eq.
(7-9)], using Ues for U. The result is shown in Fig. 10-8, in comparison with some
supersonic profile measurements over an adiabatic wall. Generally, good agreement
was found for this case, but results for heat transfer cases were not good.
For Van Driest ZZ, the Von Karman (1931) mixing length model
(10-21)
was used instead of t , = KY. That use is a bit surprising, since the Von Karman
model has never gained wide acceptance. In addition, the temperature relationship is
a modijied Crocco integral, to account for cases in which the recovery factor r is not
unity. Using those assumptions again with the integral momentum equation, a dif-
ferent skin friction law is developed, viz.,
1.47 4.56 103 Seddon
2.669 7.02 105 Moore and Harkness
2.91 5.4 104 Moore and Harkness
4.93 5.53 103 Lobb et al.
1.85 3.09 103 Michel
2.10 2.78 103 Michel
2.57 3.24 103 Michel
2.96 2.64 103 Michel
1.966 2.98 103 Coles
4.512 3.47 103 Coles
16
.A
14 A
I I I I I
I 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 .o
Distance from wall, y/6
Figure 10-8 Generalized velocity profiles for compressible, adiabatic flat-plate

boundary layers. (From Make and McDonald, 1968.)
/ m \ (10-22)
where
= 0.41 + log(RexCf) - w log GJ
-
(10-23)
M :-
1 + - (Y r 1)
2
Bi = - 1
Tw/Te
The improved agreement of this prediction with experiment can be seen in Fig.
10-7.
424
10 /' 0 0.3 5200 -

7 0 0.5 8860
-
---- Clauser wall law
0. I I I I Illll I I IIIIII I I I I I Ill
I
I
I
---- Low-speed defect law
I
I
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 Figure 10-9 Comparison of correlation

of velocity profiles by Van Driest I1 with
YfS
Mach 7 data. (From Hopkins et al.,
(6) Defect law plot 1972.)
high Mach numbers, with experiments in helium wind tunnels up to Mach 47, and
the success of the correlation is illustrated in Fig. 10-10.
For heat transfer calculations in high-speed flow, one needs to calculate the
adiabatic wall temperature, and that requires information on the recovery factor r . A
sampling of data are given in Fig. 10-1 1. The approximation r = Pr'I3 for turbu-
lent flow is often used. This information is restricted to attached flows.
10-2-2 Turbulence Data
There is much less turbulence data in the literature for high-speed, variable-density,
variable-property cases than for the low-speed cases. Some data for the intensity of
the axial velocity turbulence at various Mach numbers from Kistler (1959) are plot-
ted in Fig. 10-12. One can see that the intensity level tends to decrease as the Mach
number increases. There is a lot of uncertainty in such data obtained in different fa-
cilities by different workers, as documented by Fernholz and Finley (1981).
Some measure of the effect of an adverse pressure gradient can be seen in Fig.
10-13 from Waltrup and Schetz (1973). Note the change in the shape of the profile
near the wall.
Next, some data for total temperature fluctuations from Kistler (1959) are
shown in Fig. 10-14. Here, the intensity increases with increasing
-- Mach number.
The situation with regard to data for Reynolds stress, - p u 'z) ' is less satisfac-
tory. A collection of data on compressible flows from Fernholz and Finley (1981) is
shown in Fig. 10-15, along with information on incompressible flows. The large
scatter is apparent. Also, none of the compressible, supersonic data tends towards T~
as y goes to zero, as one would expect.
Finally, the definition of the Reynolds stress in a compressible fluid is more
Figure 10-10 A log law representation of hypersonic boundary layer profiles.

(From Marvin and Coakley, 1989.)
I Wind tunnel Typeofcone I I Wind tunnel I Type of cone
Ames 1 X 3 f t No. 1 1.97 10" hollow; steel 0 Akrdeen 10' wood

Lewis 8 X 6ft 1.98 10" hollow;steel X GALCIT 5 X 5 in. 20" ceramic
Lewis 18 X 18 in. 1.94 lo" hol1ow;steel 0 Ames 1 X 3 f t No. 1 20" hollow; steel
Ames 6 X 6ft 1.9 10" hollow; steel A JPL 18 X 20 in. 4.50 5' f iberg1ass
Ames 10 X 14in. 4.48 10" hol1ow;steel 0 JPL 18 X 20 in. 13" Lucite
Ames 2X 2 f t 1.21 10" hollow; steel + JPL 18 X 20 in. 4.50 13" Lucite
Lewis 2 X 2ft 3.93 lo" hollow; steel a JPL 12 X 12 in. 1.63 13" Lucite
Ames 1 X 3 f t No. 2 3.00 lo" hollow; steel * JPL 12 X 12 in. 2.54 13" Lucite
I I I I I I I I
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Re,
Figure 10-11 Recovery factors on cones from Mach 1.2 to Mach 6.0. (From Mack, 1954.)
2.0 I I I 1 I
1
Me = 0 From Klebanoff (1955)
1.6 - -
1.2 - -
0.8 -
0.4 -
Figure 10-12 Data for axial turbulent

0.0 intensity distribution in the boundary
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 .o 1.2 layer at various Mach numbers. (From
2.4
2.0 -
I
8
..
I
8
I I
8
8
1.6 - 0 -
0
0
0
8
$ 1.2
-
0
0
8
-
0
0.8 - 0 Before pressure gradient 8 -
8 After pressure gradient
0.4 - -
0
41 Figure 10-13 Effect of pressure gradi-

ent on the distribution of axial turbu-
0.0 I I I I lence intensity in the boundary layer at
Next Page
0 M e = 1.72
0 M,=3.56
A Me = 4.67
0.02
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.o
VlS
Figure 10-14 Distribution of total temperature fluctuations in supersonic

boundary layers. (From Kistler, 1959.)
1.0-
0 0 /
0
K':bnacnoOmffpressible
flow data
0.8 -
0
"2
3
P
12
'Q
0.6
0.4
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-
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X
v
v
Ax
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CHAPTER
I1
THREE-DIMENSIONAL
BOUNDARY
EXTERNAL
LAYERFLOWS
11-1 INTRODUCTION
The basic ideas of boundary layer theory as discussed to this point for two-dimen-
sional flows carry over directly to the three-dimensional situation. However, the in-
creased role of surface geometry and the curving of the external inviscid flow make
the physical and mathematical description of the three-dimensional cases more com-
plex. In this section, the differences between the two situations will be emphasized
and some new concepts introduced.
A two-dimensional (2D) boundary layer can be formally defined as that which
forms on a plane surface of infinite lateral extent when the projections of the exter-
nal, inviscid streamlines on that surface are straight and perpendicular to the leading
edge. Any other case is three dimensional (3D). By this definition, the axisymmetric
flow over a cone, where the external streamlines are straight but the surface has lat-
eral curvature is strictly 3D, even though it can be mathematically described by two
coordinates, x and r . The flow is 3D from a physical viewpoint, because the bound-
ary layer is stretched and thinned as it flows along the surface of the cone, which has
a growing radius and thus increasing surface area. Individual streamlines thus must
diverge.
The most important feature of general 3D boundary layer flows is the existence
of so-called secondary Jows, in addition to the primary j b w . The primary flow in
462
the boundary layer is usually taken to be in the direction of the external, inviscid
flow, and the secondary flow is then in the direction orthogonal to that and parallel
to the surface. There are at least two general classes of secondary flows, but one is
found only in turbulent cases, so it will be discussed later in the appropriate section.
The most significant type of secondary flow is referred to as pressure-driven second-
ary Jlow. This general phenomenon can be understood by considering the special
case of circular external streamlines above a flat surface. In that case, the pressure
gradient is balanced by the centrifugal force corresponding to the velocity and cur-
vature of the streamline. By the boundary layer approximation, the external flow
pressure field is imposed on the viscous flow in the boundary layer beneath it. But
the velocity in the boundary layer is decreased below the inviscid edge value by vis-
cosity, down to zero at the surface. Thus, the pressure gradient cannot be balanced
by a centrifugal force corresponding to the reduced local velocity and the same
streamline curvature as in the external flow. Indeed, the streamline curvature in the
boundary layer must be considerably greater, leading to a streamline pattern on any
surface in the boundary layer that is quite different than that in the external flow.
This streamline skewing is a key feature of 3D viscous flows. One therefore com-
monly talks of a streamwise velocity component, aligned with the local edge stream-
line, and a cross-Jlow velocity component, orthogonal to the streamwise velocity
component and parallel to the surface. The cross-flow component comprises the
secondary flow.
Another difference between 2D and 3D boundary layer flows is their response
to an adverse pressure gradient. In a 2D flow, the flow is constrained to climb the
pressure gradient hill if it is physically possible to do so. If it is not, the flow sepa-
rates from the surface. In the 3D case, the flow can take the path of least resistance
by moving in the lateral direction. Thus, a strong adverse pressure gradient does not
always lead to separation in the 3D case. The result can be a large change in direc-
tion of the flow. Separation in 3D is also more complex, and we shall return to that
matter shortly.
In 2D flows, we find it convenient to introduce some integral quantities, such
as the displacement and momentum thicknesses, that have simple physical interpre-
tations. That simplicity is lost in the 3D case. Since the direction of the total veloc-
ity vector varies through the boundary layer, we must have two velocity components
to describe the velocity profile. That leads to two displacement thicknesses and four
momentum thicknesses. (These are discussed more fully in Section 11-2- 1.)
Three-dimensional boundary layer flows can be divided into two general
classes. The first are thin 3D layers over surfaces. These correspond closely to 2D
boundary layers and are sometimes called boundary sheets. If x is the main stream-
wise direction, e.g., along the centerline of an aircraft fuselage, y is locally normal
to the surface, and z is in the transverse direction, then the direct 3D analog of the
2D boundary layer will have v small compared with u and w and the pressure con-
stant in the y-direction. This implies that changes in both the x- and z-directions are
slow, compared with changes in the y-direction. Such a flow occurs, for example,
on finite wings and propeller blades, excluding the regions near the root and tip. The
464 Three-Dimensional External Boundary Layer Flows Chap. 11
flow in those regions is called slender 3 D j o w , and changes in the y- and z-direction
are rapid, compared with changes in the x-direction. Some slender 3D flows develop
discrete longitudinal vortices in the boundary layer. An example is the horseshoe
vortex that forms in a wing-body junction. Most of the analytical and numerical
work in the literature has dealt with boundary sheet flows.
The boundary layer approximation in 3D flow also implies some new mathe-
matical properties of the equation system. The 3D Navier-Stokes equations are ellip-
tic, which means that information from a given point in the flow can be propagated
by convection, viscous diffusion, or pressure perturbations. In a 3D boundary layer,
propagation by the pressure has been eliminated by taking d p / d y = 0. Also, vis-
cous diffusion has been eliminated in the x- and z-directions. Thus, information is
propagated in the cross-flow plane only by convection at an angle tan-' ( w / u ) in the
plan view. Taken all together, these properties imply that the influence of the solu-
tion at one point is transferred to other points first by viscous diffusion along a line
across the boundary sheet through that point in the y-direction and then by convec-
tion downstream along all streamlines through that vertical line. This forms a zone
ofinjuence bounded by the body surface at the bottom, the boundary sheet edge at
the top, and the two characteristic surfaces normal to the surface containing the ex-
ternal, inviscid and wall streamlines. This configuration is illustrated in Fig. 11 - 1 .
On the other hand, the solution at a given point depends only on the solution in an-
other zone called the zone ofdependence. This zone is upstream of the point in ques-
tion and is formed by the body surface, the boundary sheet edge, and the two char-
acteristic surfaces passing through the point. It is closed on the upstream end by an
initial-value surface that cannot coincide with a characteristic surface. The latter will
sound familiar to those who have studied the method of characteristics for inviscid,
supersonic flow. The zone of dependence is also shown in Fig. 11-1. These matters
are very important in developing appropriate integral and differential methods for
solving 3D boundary layer flows. Before we begin a discussion of those techniques,
one more important difference between 2D and 3D boundary layer flows needs to be
addressed, at least briefly.
Zone of influence
Zone of deDendence I
I
Figure 11-1 Schematic of the regions of influence and dependence in a 3D

boundary layer.
11-1-1 Separation of Three-Dimensional Boundary Layers
It was mentioned earlier that a 3D flow in an adverse pressure gradient can turn lat-
erally and avoid separation. This possibility leads to significant changes and com-
plexity in separation patterns. In 2D flows, one simply looks for the location of any
points where (duldy), = 0, and the flow pattern is as shown in Fig. 1-10. In 3D
flows, the mathematical condition can be generalized to say that separation corre-
sponds to (dq/dy), = 0, where q is the component of velocity perpendicular to the
separation line. This is much less clear from a physical point of view. Maskell
(1955) distinguishes two broad types of 3D separations, as illustrated in Fig. 11-2.
The case in Fig. 1 1 -2(A) is said to form a separation bubble that encloses fluid that
is not part of the main stream, but rather is carried along with the body. Formation
of the bubble entails one singular saddle point, denoted by S on Fig. 11-2(A). The
behavior of the flow at this point, and this point alone, resembles that in a 2D sepa-
Viscous rego
i n,
in external
stream
in the surface
.I,, , ,, of the body
Surface of'solid body
(A) Separation from a singular point
Surface of
in the surface
of the body
Surface of solid body
Figure 11-2 Separation in a three-
dimensional boundary layer. (After
( 6 ) Separation from a line (LL') Maskell, 1955.)
ration. In the second case, shown in Fig. 11-2(B), the space on either side of the
surface of separation is filled with fluid from the main stream. Maskell suggested
that a separation surface be viewed as consisting of the separating limiting stream-
lines coming from upstream and downstream (reversed-flow) regions. He argued that
separation occurs when two such streamlines meet. They then merge and leave the
surface as a single separation streamline. This is shown schematically in Fig. 11-3.
In the ordinary case, the separation streamline first is tangent to the body surface
and then lifts off, as drawn in Fig. 11-3(B). For a singular separation, such as that at
the point S in Fig. 11-2(A), the separation streamline inclines to the body surface
immediately.
Separation streamline
/?’
( A ) Limiting streamlines
Separation surface
Body surface
(B) Separation surface
Figure 11-3 Separation streamlines in a 3D boundary layer. (After Maskell,

1955.)
Sec. 11-2 Laminar Three-Dimensional Boundary Layers 467
11-2 LAMINAR THREE-DIMENSIONAL BOUNDARY LAYERS
11-2-1 Boundary Layer Equations in Three Dimensions
To maintain a reasonable level of generality, we adopt an orthogonal coordinate sys-

tem (xI, y, x3) on the surface over which the boundary layer flows, where y is nor-
mal to the surface and y = 0 on the surface. Lines of constant xl and x3 form an or-
thogonal system of coordinates on the surface. It is common to take xl to be the
direction of the external inviscid flow. The square of an element of arc length d t on
the surface may be written
dt2 = hfdx: + hzdx: (11-1)
where hl and h3 are metric coefjcients. With the boundary layer approximation, the
boundary layer is thin, and the metric coefficient in the y-direction can be taken to
be unity. Thus, the square of a general element of arc length ds within the boundary
layer becomes
ds2 = h:dxf + dy2 + h:dx: (11-2)
It is assumed here that the radii of curvature of the surface are large compared to the
boundary layer thickness.
From Eq. ( 1 1-2), the steady form of the convective derivative in the given co-
ordinate system is
(11-3)
where (u, 0,w ) are the velocity components in the directions of the (xl , y, x3) axes.
Assuming a perfect gas, a single species, and constant c, and Pr, we can write the
boundary layer equations. We have
(11-4)
for the continuity equation,

Du 1 ap l a
-
Dt
+ U W K-~ w2K3 = (11-5)
for the XI-momentum equation,

Dw 1 ap i a
--
Dt
u2K1 + U W K=~ (11-6)
for the x3-momentum equation, and finally,

for the energy equation. Of course, the y-momentum equation is simply dp/dy = 0,
as in the 2D case. The pressure gradient terms in the two momentum equations are
partial derivatives because, in 3D flows, p = ( x l , x3) from the inviscid flow. We
have also introduced the geodesic curvatures o f the surface coordinate lines,
namely,
1 ah1
K 1 = -- f o r x 3 = constant (1 1-8a)
hih3 ax3
K3 = --1 ah3
for x1 = constant (1 1-8b)
hih3 ax1
The system is completed with an equation of state, e.g., for a perfect gas,
p = pRT (11-9)
and p ( T ) .
The boundary and initial conditions also need to be discussed. For flow over
an impermeable surface, the velocity boundary conditions on the surface, y = 0, are
just u = 2) = w = 0. For a spinning, axisymmetric body, one would have a
specified w # 0 on the surface. O f course, with suction or injection, 2) # 0 on the
surface. The other surface boundary condition will be a specified wall temperature or
heat transfer rate.
The boundary sheet “edge” boundary conditions are direct extensions of those
used for 2D flows, namely,
limy-= u = U e ( x l x3)
,
( 11- 10)
The edge conditions themselves are found from the inviscid equations on the surface,
which can be written
(11-1 1)
(11-12)
With the pressure available from a separate inviscid solution, as in 2D flows, Eqs.
(11-11) to (11-13) can be used to find U e , We, and T,.
The last conditions required are the upstream initial conditions. We need
sufficient conditions on an upstream plane perpendicular to the surface. Then, the
boundary layer equations can be solved in a region downstream of that plane if the
zones of influence and dependence introduced in Section 1 1 - 1 are properly taken
into account.
In the case where the surface that the boundary layer flows over is developable,
the metric and geodesic terms can be made to disappear from the boundary layer
equations. A developable surface is a surface that can be rolled out into a plane with-
out being stretched, but allowing suitable cuts. The equations can then be written in
a Cartesian ( x , y , z ) form as follows:
(11-14)
(11-15)
(11-16)
dT aT
(1 1-17)
Integral equations corresponding to those introduced for 2D flows in Chapter 2
can also be derived. For 3D constant-density and constant-property flows with the X I
axis taken to be along the inviscid streamlines, these equations may be written
(11-18)
and
(11-19)
with the various integral thicknesses defined as
(11-20)
11-2-2 Special Cases
As in 2D flows, there are some special cases of 3D flows that admit to a relatively
easy solution. The first is constant-density, constant-property flow over a flat plate,
where the external, inviscid flow has streamlines in planes parallel to the plate, but
forming a system of parabolic translates whose common axis is parallel to the lead-
ing edge. This configuration is illustrated in Fig. 11-4. For such a flow, it is more
convenient to align the coordinate system with the plate, rather than the external
flow. The edge velocity is
U, = constant, We = U e ( x - Cx) (11-21)
Figure 11-4 Parabolic streamlines of a

curved external flow over a flat plate.
where x = cot (00). The flow is independent of z, and the equations reduce to
-a u+ - =avo
ax ay
dU aZU
u-+v-= (1 1-22)
ax ay 'ay2
If C = 0, the problem collapses down to the Blasius problem considered in Section

4-3-1, and the solution for C # 0 can also be obtained by similarity methods.
Sowerby (1954)introduced a similarity transformation using
Sec. 11-2 Laminar Three-Dimensional Boundary Layers 47 1
q, = ;J” vx’
u =
1
2
-U,f ’
(11-23)
whereupon the equations become

f ”’ + ff ” = 0
g” + fg’ = 0 (1 1-24)
h” + fh’ - 2f’h + 4 = 0
with boundary conditions
Clearly, the first equation forfis related to the Blasius solution, and his results can
be adapted for use here. Comparing the second equation for g with the first equation
forfand the boundary conditions for each, we see that g = f’/2. The last equation
is linear in h, and it was solved numerically by Sowerby (1954). The solutions for a
particular case are plotted in Fig. 11-5 in terms of a velocity component in the di-
rection of the inviscid streamlines, called us in this coordinate system, and another
component perpendicular to the inviscid streamlines, called u,, . The component u,,is
what we have called the secondary flow, and it is directed towards the center of cur-
vature of the inviscid streamlines, reaching a value about 64 percent of the edge ve-
locity. The component us has an overshoot-i.e., us > U,-something we did not
see in 2D flows. The streamline skewing in the boundary layer that was mentioned
earlier is quite substantial here. The results in Fig. ll-5(B) show a 38” difference
between the streamline angle on the wall and the inviscid streamline at the edge.
The second special case that will be discussed is the flow at a 3D stagnation
point, such as that on a blunt-nosed body that is neither planar nor axisymmetric.
The problem was solved by Howarth (1951), who formulated it as shown in Fig.
11-6, where the coordinate system he chose is depicted. If the flow in the external
flow is irrotational, it can be written as U, = Ax and We = Bz near the stagnation
point, where A and B depend on the specific geometry of the body. This situation
can be seen to be closely akin to that for a 2D body discussed in Section 4-3-2,
where we had Ue = Ax at a 2D stagnation point. Howarth introduced
0. 1 2 3 4
')1
( A ) Velocity profiles
Figure 11-5 Solution of 3D laminar

0 1 2 3 4
boundary layer with parabolic external
'?? flow, y, = I , Cx = 2. (From Sowerby,
(6)Streamline angle 1954.)
(A) Schematic of flow field
X X
Ill a=O
Figure 11-6
O<a<l
(B) Streamline patterns
a= 1
Three-dimensional stagnation-point flow. (After Howarth, 1951.)
which yields the equations

+
f”’ ff’f- ( f r y + 1 = -agff’
(1 1-27)
g”‘ + fg” = a [ ( g f ) 2 - gg” - 11
where a = B / A . When a = 0, the flow reduces to 2D, and when a = 1 , the flow
reduces to axisymmetric. The shapes of the streamlines in the external flow are
shown schematically in Fig. 11-6(B). Howarth (1951) obtained numerical solutions
for various values of a , and some velocity profiles are shown in Fig. 11-7, where it
can be observed that the value of a has a small effect on the profiles in the direction
of the major axis, but a large effect on the profiles in the direction of the minor axis.
There is also a strong effect on the angle of the surface streamlines, compared with
those in the external flow. The results show differences of 14”, 6”, 3”, and 0” for
(A) Streamwise velocity profiles
0 1 2 3
02
(B) Crossflow velocity profiles
Figure 11-7 Velocity profiles near a general stagnation point; a = 0 is 2D,

a = 1 is axisymmetric. (From Howarth, 1951.)
ct = 1/4, 1/2, 3/4, and 1 , respectively. These solutions are interesting in their own
right, but in modern times they are most useful as starting profiles for general 3D
problems treated with numerical methods.
The last special case to be considered is the inJnite swept wing, or, more gen-
erally, infinite yawed cylinder. Flows over finite swept wings are of interest in aero-
dynamic applications, and the case of an infinite version allows great simplification
to the equations of motion. The inviscid, external flow over an infinite swept cylin-
der can be found by the superposition of two flows, one lying in planes normal to
the cylinder axis and the second parallel to the generators of the cylinder. Since a
cylinder is a developable surface, one can use the boundary layer equations in Carte-
sian coordinates. Here, we treat only the constant-density, constant-property case,
so the equations reduce from Eqs. (1 1 - 14) through (1 1 - 16) to
-au+ - =a0o
ax ay
au au due a2u
u- + 2) -= u, - +v- (11-28)
ax ay dx aY
aw aw a2w
u - + u - = v 2
ax ay ay
where x is measured normal to the leading edge, y is measured normal to the sur-
face, and z is in the spanwise direction. The flow is independent of z, since the
cylinder is of infinite extent and the approach flow is taken to be uniform. The
boundary conditions are
u ( x , 0) = u ( x , 0) = w ( x , 0) = 0
(11-29)
u + U e , w + Weasy + 03
Interestingly, the solution for u and u can be found from the first two equations inde-
pendently of w . Then, the last equation is linear, and it can be solved for w using the
known u and 2) as coefficients. This is reminiscent of the case for the low-speed en-
ergy equation in Section 4-4. Separation can occur only through the effects of an
adverse pressure gradient formed by U,(x), not We.This whole special behavior was
called the independence principle by Prandtl (1946).
The simplest example is, as usual, a flat plate, in this case with the leading
edge yawed to the uniform approach flow. Thus, both U,and We are constant. The
solution for u and 2) is just the Blasius 2D solution, and the equations can be seen to
admit of the simple solution w / u = We/U,. At each point across the boundary layer,
the resultant of u and w forms a profile that is itself a Blasius profile. The flow is
then independent of yawing of the leading edge, and there is no streamline skewing.
This kind of analysis has been extended to Cooke’s (1950) yawed equivalent of the
Falkner-Skan wedgeJlows discussed in the 2D case in Section. 4-3-2. There really
is no great practical utility to this very restrictive, special class of flows.
11-2-3 Integral Methods
As with all integral methods, the main issue in 3D integral methods is the selection
of the shape(s) of the velocity profile(s). Experience with 2D cases is helpful in se-
lecting the shape of the profile of the streamwise velocity component. However, the
choice of shape for the profile of the crossflow velocity component presents new and
difficult problems. If the streamline skewing is all in one direction for a given prob-
lem, the choice is not so trying. But, if, as in the general case, the skewing first is in
one direction and then changes direction under the influence of the inviscid pressure
gradient, the crossflow profile can have a complicated S-shape. The crossflow ve-
locity in one part of the layer is in one direction, and that in another part of the layer
is in the opposite direction. The development or relaxation of this behavior is obvi-
ously important in predicting the flow, and it is hard to “build in” the correct behav-
ior in the choice of profile. Most workers have chosen to employ two boundary layer
thicknesses to describe the two velocity profiles. Wild (1949) proposed
U =F(i) +
-
U, :2G(i), W =
-
We F(t)
(11-30)
F = -’[2 - 2 -
6 (ys)i + -(:I],
for his treatment of the case of the infinite yawed wing. In that case, 6 is known
from the equivalent 2D solution, and A is the remaining unknown. The latter is
found from the remaining momentum equation. With the assumptions in Eq.
(1 1-30), the w-profile is independent of the u-profile. In other methods, especially
for turbulent flows, it is common to express the shape of the w-profile in terms of
the shape of the u-profile. For the case of an infinite swept wing, Rott and Crabtree
(1952) have extended the Thwaites-Walz 2D method described in Section 2-3-2.
All in all, the serious limitations of integral methods for 3D laminar flows has
resulted in their being little used in modern times. The use of integral methods for
3D turbulent cases is more common, and we shall consider that subject later in the
chapter. If one needs accurate solutions for 3D laminar flows under fairly general
conditions, the only choice is numerical solutions.
11-2-4 Numerical Solution Techniques
The general methods discussed in Chapter 4, 5, 7, and 10 for 2D flows can be ex-
tended to 3D flows. The new items that need special attention are the complexities
of 3D geometries and the zones of influence and dependence introduced in Section
11-1. The zone of dependence influences numerical stability, and it must be reck-
oned in determining the “marching” direction. Also, obtaining the required 3D in-
viscid flow solution is not trivial, but that subject will not be treated in any depth
here.
The thorough review of numerical methods for 3D boundary layer flows by
Blottner (1975) and other reviews by Van den Berg et al. (1988) and Humphreys and
Lindhout (1988) will be used as the basis of the discussion here. The boundary layer
equations in physical coordinates, as described in Section 11-2- 1 , or in the various
transformed forms that will be described later, all have first derivatives in the three
coordinate directions and second derivatives in the normal, y -direction. A general
grid system and notation are shown in Fig. 11-8 for reference in discussing the sev-
eral finite difference methods that are in use. In the figure, the y-direction is up out
~i-i-k-l--L
Knownx l
points
*
-
---
..........
Unknown points
y-derivatives
x1 and xg derivatives
Necessary Initial and
Desirable } boundary conditions
l-/Jk+l
W
x3
(A) Grid system and notation
Der and Raetz (1962) East and Pierce (1972)
(B) Explicit schemes
@-;wQ----
:----I-----
*-@
I
I
I
@
I
# I
-0
I I
I I
I I I
Shevelev (1966) O<y<- O<y=G;m
Shevelev (1966) Krause (1969)
Dwyer (1968)
/
I.. ....... i d . .......... r----*--'-- .......... I""""
+'I-t. ' I
""
I I
I
1-
I I
,.-0
I '\
I
III '\ *."!' I
I
I
I
I
I..............
;
I.. ...........
I ..........I.....s...... L ............................
-1 G y 4 1 -1<y<- w>o w <o
Hall (1967) Krause (1968) O<y<l -l<y<O
Dwyer and Sanders (1974)
(C)Implicit schemes
Figure 11-8 Finite difference schemes for 3D boundary layer flows. (From Blot-
tner, 1975.)
of the paper, and the sketch is at a plane j above the surface. Unknowns are at the
grid point i, k. Unless noted otherwise, derivatives in the y-direction are always rep-
resented by central differences; i.e.,
@i,j+l,k - @i,j-1.k
(11-31)
2 * Ay
(11-32)
The first derivatives in the X I - and x3-direction are expressed as the differences
@i, j , k - mi-2. j , k
(1 1-33)
2 * Ax1
@i-l,j.k+l - Q i- 1 , j,k-I
(1 1-34)
i-1,j.k 2 . Ax3
If the continuity equation itself is used as one of the equations in the system,
rather than being eliminated with the introduction of one or more stream functions,
then care must be exercised in developing an appropriate finite difference represen-
tation. (Reread Section 4-7-2 for a discussion of the related 2D situation.) The con-
tinuity equation involves only first derivatives in the three coordinate directions, and
these are represented as
@i.j.k - @i,j-1,k
(1 1-35a)
AY
I I
(1 1-35b)
(11-3%)
The y-derivative is evaluated at the i, k points, as indicated by the circle in the

sketches in Fig. 11-8, and the xl- and x3-derivatives are evaluated with the i, k
points shown by the arrows in the sketches.
As in 2D flows, the finite difference formulations can be grouped as explicit or
implicit methods. In the 3D case, the simplest explicit methods, discussed in Chapter
2, have not been applied. Rather, a more elaborate method, which was originally de-
veloped for the model equation called the Dufort-Frankel scheme, was adopted by
Der and Raetz (1962) and East and Pierce (1972) for 3D boundary layer flows. The
second derivative is written
The two variants of this method are illustrated in Fig. 11-S(B), which shows how
the initial data can be used. Heavy and light dashed lines represent the options. For
Next Page
Sec. 11-2 .Laminar Three-Dimensional Boundary Layers 479
the options given as light dashed lines, information at two stations, (i - 1) and
( i - 2), is required, which means that some special starting procedure is needed at
the very first station. Stability for 3D schemes is described in terms of the parameter
(11-37)
and these schemes are rated as stable for -1 Iy I1 with the Der and Raetz
scheme and for 0 Iy 5 OJ with the Pierce and East scheme. Thus, the Der and
Raetz scheme can be used for reverse crossflow. The only unknown in these
schemes is at (i, j, k ) , so an explicit relation for that unknown in terms of known
quantities at that and other points can be written.
There are several implicit methods in use for 3D boundary layer calculations
that are related to the simple implicit and Crank-Nicolson schemes in Chapter 2. As
in the 2D case, these schemes result in equations for unknowns at ( i , j, k ) ,
(i, j+ 1, k), and ( i , j - 1, k) in terms of knowns at those points and others. How-
ever, the implicit 3D schemes are not all unconditionally stable, as was the case for
2D flows. The stability limits, where available, are shown along with schematics of
the various schemes in Fig. 11-8(C). The Krause (1968) zigzag scheme requires a
special treatment of the xs-derivative:
Only the schemes in the lower part of Fig. 11-8(C) are stable for reverse crossflow.
The Dwyer-Sanders (1974) scheme is the only one that can be used to calculate the
solution downstream from a plane of initial data. The finite-difference equations for
all these methods result in a system of algebraic equations that are linearized, as in
the 2D case, giving a system that can be solved with the Thomas algorithm. The
continuity equation can again be written in finite-difference form to give an explicit
relation for 0 as the only unknown.
One can distinguish three broad classes of 3D boundary layer flows for numer-
ical treatment:
1. Tip, stagnation point, or leading edge j o w s . The equations are functions of y

and x3 alone. A 2D finite-difference scheme is needed, and the solution is
started where the crossflow is zero.
2. Plane-of-symmetryjows. The equations are functions of y and xl alone. A 2D
finite-difference scheme is needed, and the solution is started at the tip, stag-
nation point, or leading edge.
3. General 3 0 j o w s . The equations are functions of xl , y , x3. One of the 3D
finite-difference schemes is needed.
Finally, just as in the 2D case, it has proven convenient to introduce transfor-

mations that approximately scale the computational region with the growth of the
boundary layer. Numerous suggestions have been made. To illustrate, we pick one
APPENDIX
A
LAMINAR
THERMOPHYSICA
PROPERTIES
OF SELECTED
FLUIDS
This appendix contains information on the laminar thermophysical properties of a

few selected fluids. It is designed as an aid to the reader in working the problems at
the end of each chapter. The information included was obtained from two main
sources. For gases, the computer code developed by Svehla and McBride (1973) was
used. For liquid water, the data compiled by the Thermophysical Properties Re-
search Center (Touloukian and Ho, 1970, 1975) were used. Both are excellent, con-
venient sources of information on a wide range of fluids. A brief listing of conver-
sion factors for viscosity and thermal conductivity is included, since data from
different sources are often given in a variety of units.
Only Newtonian fluids are included in this appendix. There are simply so
many different types of non-Newtonian fluids, that a short, comprehensive listing is
not possible.
TABLE A-1 CONVERSION FACTORS FOR VISCOSITY
Multiply by
4 to obtain+ N . s/mZ Pa . s Poise Ibr . Slft2
N . s/m2 1 1 10 2.0885 X lo-’
Pa . s 1 1 10 2.0885 X
Poise lo-’ 10-1 1 2.0885 X lo-’
Ibr . s/ft2 4.7880 X 10’ 4.7880 X 10’ 4.7880 X 10’ 1
512
App. A Laminar Thermophysicial Properties of Selected Fluids 513
TABLE A-2 CONVERSION FACTORS FOR THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Multiply by
4 to obtain+ BTU/h . ft . R cal/s . cm . K J/s . cm . K
~
W/cm * K
______
BTU/h * ft * R 1 4.1338 X lo-’ 1.7296 X lo-’ 1.7296 X lo-’

calk . cm K - 2.4191 X 10’ 1 4.184 4.184
J/s . cm K
1 5.7818 X 10’ 2.3901 X lo-’ 1 1
W/cm . K 5.7818 X 10’ 2.3901 X lo-’ 1 1
TABLE A-3 AIR AT 1.O ATM
Specific
Temperature Viscosity Conductivity heat Prandtl Density
K Poise calk . cm . K cal/gm . K number kg/m3
300 184 X 63 X 0.240 0.706 1.177

400 227 78 0.242 0.706 0.883
500 265 92 0.246 0.706 0.705
600 299 106 0.251 0.706 0.588
700 331 121 0.257 0.706 0.503
800 362 135 0.263 0.706 0.441
900 391 148 0.268 0.706 0.393
1,ooo 419 162 0.273 0.706 0.352
TABLE A-4 HYDROGEN AT 1.0 ATM
Specific
Temperature Viscosity Conductivity Heat Prandtl Density
K Poise calk * cm K cal/gm . K number kg/m3
300 89 X 439 x 3.421 0.695 0.0819

400 108 539 3.458 0.694 0.0614
500 126 629 3.471 0.693 0.0492
600 142 713 3.477 0.692 0.0409
700 157 794 3.489 0.692 0.0349
800 172 874 3.512 0.692 0.0306
900 186 954 3.544 0.691 0.0272
1,OOo 200 1035 3.581 0.691 0.0245
514 Laminar Thermophysical Properties of Selected Fluids App. A
TABLE A-5 CARBON DIOXIDE AT 1.0 ATM

~ ~
Specific
K Poise calls * cm . K callgm * K number kgh3
300 150 X 40 x 10-6 0.208 0.729 1.787

400 194 60 0.224 0.732 1.340
500 234 77 0.242 0.734 1.072
600 27 1 95 0.257 0.736 0.894
700 305 112 0.269 0.736 0.766
800 335 127 0.279 0.737 0.670
900 363 142 0.288 0.737 0.596
1,ooo 389 156 0.295 0.736 0.536
TABLE A-6 LIQUID WATER
Specific
K Poise calls * cm * K callgm . K number kgh3
273.15 1.753 X 1.349 X 1.003 13.03 1,OOo

300 0.823 1.454 0.998 5.65 997
350 0.360 1.595 1.002 2.26 974
400 0.215 1.641 1.013 1.33
450 0.151 1.608 1.055 0.99
500 0.117 1.518 1.110 0.86
600 0.097 1.365 1.259 0.90
647* 0.042
* Critical temperature
TABLE A-7 SEAWATER
Temperature Viscosity Kinematic Viscosity Density

K Poise m2/s kg/m3
280 1.48 X 1.49 X 1,027

285 1.29 1.30 1,026
290 1.13 1.14 1,025
295 1.02 1.02 1,024
300 0.92 0.91 1,023
App. A Laminar Thermophysical Properties of Selected Fluids 515
TABLE A-8 BINARY DIFFUSION COEFFICIENTS, crn2/s
Pair 300K 400K 500K 600K 700K 800K 900K 1,000K
c02-c02 0.110 0.190 0.287 0.399 0.524 0.658 0.803 0.958

COz-Hz 0.553 0.932 1.384 1.899 2.477 3.107 4.094 4.892
C02-H20 0.108 0.211 0.347 0.517 0.717 0.942 1.194 1.469
c02-N~ 0.174 0.293 0.436 0.600 0.782 0.982 1.034 1.233
coz-02 0.161 0.277 0.418 0.580 0.762 0.965 1.050 1.256
H2-H2 1.466 2.386 3.482 4.760 6.150 7.696 9.390 11.237
Hz-H2 0 0.886 1.502 2.237 3.080 4.024 5.057 6.179 7.386
Hz-Nz 0.622 1.013 1.473 1.994 2.576 3.217 3.912 4.660
H2-02 0.914 1.490 2.170 2.944 3.800 4.745 5.772 6.876
H20-H20 0.088 0.202 0.373 0.603 0.891 1.235 1.636 2.086
H20-N2 0.258 0.420 0.610 0.826 1.067 1.331 1.618 1.926
HzO-02 0.258 0.442 0.665 0.922 1.210 1.527 1.871 2.241
N2-N 0.204 0.335 0.490 0.665 0.861 1.075 1.309 1.561
N-02 0.206 0.340 0.498 0.679 0.884 1.113 1.368 1.643
02-02 0.206 0.341 0.502 0.686 0.894 1.126 1.381 1.656
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References
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Additional References for Revised Edition

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INDEX
Index Terms Links
Adiabatic wall temperature 128 132 134 426

Adverse pressure gradient 37 40 85 164 182
220 242 292 296 302
426 438 452 457 463
484
Airfoil 20 85 165 191 220
Algebraic turbulence model (See
Reynolds stress, models,
algebraic stress model)
Amplification rate 187
Apparent viscosity 23 198
Axisymmetric body, (See also
Body of revolution) 40 63 73
Axisymmetric flow 40 59 63 69 71
73 462
displacement thickness 583
equations 40 59 63 69 71
73
jets (See Jets, round)
stream function 60
wakes (See Wakes, round)
This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

Index Terms Links
Backward difference (See Finite

difference, backward form)
Baldwin-Lomax turbulence model
(See Eddy viscosity outer
region models, Baldwin-
Lomax model)
Bernoulli’s equation 10 19 33
Binary diffusion 7
coefficient 7
laminar 7 49 70 89 144
158
modeling of 70 375 434
turbulent 332 375 416 433
Bingham plastic fluid 23 53 65 92 324
Blasius:
flat-plate solution 81 135 182 257 470
475
skin friction law 213
Body forces 15 33 61
Body of revolution 64
Body system of coordinates 63 69
Boundary and initial conditions:
boundary layer edge 3 9 31 43 56
67 74 82 87 97
102 123 132 144 162
281 304 362 364 468
471 475
downstream 75

Index Terms Links
Boundary and initial conditions: (Cont.)

fluid/solid interface, (See also
Wall functions) 2 9 17 31 43
46 48 67 74 77
82 87 90 97 102
123 129 144 162 208
252 257 275 285 295
301 312 318 471 475
in numerical methods 97 102 123 477
symmetry 146 313 318
in turbulent transport models
(See also Wall functions) 262 275 281 285 295
301 304 412
3D flows 464 468 471 475 477
upstream 36 39 47 62 67
74 82 87 97 304
412 464 477
Boundary layer:
assumption (and approximation) 9 16 33 66 70
282 315 322 431
concept 9 462
concentration 3 50 90 147 375
equations,
laminar 19 63 69 70
reduction of Navier-Stokes
equations to 16
turbulent 236 264 282 295 299
430 454
3D flows 467
thermal 3 45 88 140 372

Index Terms Links
Boundary layer: (Cont.)

thickness definitions 3 33 53 138 223
257 434 469
Bradshaw turbulence model (See
Turbulent kinetic energy,
models, Bradshaw model)
Bulk temperature 315 318
Bursting 231
Busemann energy integral 130
Catalytic wall 162

Central (and centered) finite difference (See Finite
difference, central form)
Channel flows 322 325 335 340 350
482
Chemically reacting flows (See
also Real gas effects)
laminar 132 138 157
turbulent 454
Circuit analogy of Karplus 106
Clauser boundary layer thickness 257
Clauser eddy viscosity model (See
Eddy viscosity, outer region
models, Clauser model)
Closure problem for turbulent
flows 236 298
Coles’ wake function 212 241 332
Coles’ wake parameter 212 222

Index Terms Links
Concentration of species 4 7
fluctuations of 375
Conductivity, thermal (See Thermal
conductivity)
Conservation of energy 31 44 65
Conservation of mass 16 31 48 58
Conservation of mass of species 49 70
Conservation of momentum 31 48 60
Continuity equation 16 58
Convective Mach number 382
Convective speed 382
Conversion factors:
for thermal conductivity 513
for viscosity 512
Couette flow 77
Crank-Nicolson finite difference
formulation 101 110 479
Crocco integrals 130 144 420 423
Crocco transformation 136
Crocco-Lees mixing theory 168 457
Curvature, velocity profile 182
Daly-Harlow model (See

Reynolds stress, models, Daly-
Harlow model)
Damping 79 180 249
Defect law 207 211 220 256 265
434
in pipes 332
Index Terms Links
Defect law (Cont.)

plot 207 211 220 256 265
434
for temperature 415
Developable surface 469
Diffusion of mass (See Binary diffusion)
Diffusion, binary (See Binary diffusion)
Diffusion coefficient (See Binary
diffusion coefficient)
Dilatant fluid 5 23
Direct numerical simulations (of
turbulent flow) 303 341 411 454
Displacement thickness 34 138 166 170 259
392 434
axisymmetric 393
compressible 138 434
kinematic 434
3D flows 469
Dissociation 132 157 454
Donaldson model (See Reynolds
stress, models, Donaldson model)
Drag 1 30 194 366 385
Duct flow:
non-circular 311 316 335 482
heat transfer in 316
pressure drop in 316
square 316 341 350

Index Terms Links
Eddies 25 229
Eddy conductivity (See Thermal
conductivity, turbulent)
Eddy diffusivity (See Binary diffusion
coefficient, turbulent)
Eddy viscosity:
composite model for a
boundary layer 262
definition 238 433
inner region models 247 434
Granville model 255
with injection or suction 252
Reichardt model 250
with roughness 251
Van Driest model 249
variable-density flow 434
models for jets and wakes 386
3D flows 508
model for shear layers 381
outer region models 256 434
Baldwin-Lomax model 260 436 502
Clauser model 256 434
internal flows 340 348
Kiss-Schetz model 435
Situ-Schetz model 436 505
3D flows 497 499 502

Index Terms Links
Eddy viscosity: (Cont.)

Prandtl model 381 387 393
pressure gradient effects 255 260 267 270
relation to mixing length 239
3D boundary layer flows 486 497 499 502 505
N
e method 183 327 481
Effective velocity 420
Ejections 233
Elliptic partial differential equations 74
Energy:
internal (See Energy, thermal)
mechanical, equation 68
thermal 65
conservation (See Conservation of energy)
equation (See Energy equation)
transfer by mass transfer 71 144 433 454
turbulent kinetic (See Turbulent
kinetic energy)
Energy cascade 228
Energy equation 65 87 127 129 136
144 158 433 467
integral form (See Integral en-
ergy equation)
Enthalpy, definition of 67 71
Entrainment velocity 213
Entrance region flows:
laminar 317
turbulent 341
Equation of state 74 157 454

Index Terms Links
Equilibrium pressure gradient (See

Pressure gradient, equilibrium
in turbulent flow)
Equilibrium flow 158 162 454
Equilibrium constant 158
Excess temperature 87 133
Explicit finite difference formulation 97 103 477
Falkner-Skan wedge flows 85 89 220 260

Fanno line 355
Favorable pressure gradient 37 40 85 164 183
220 438 452
Favre averaging (See Mass
weighted averaging)
Fick’s law 7 70
Film coefficient:
heat transfer 47 52 128 316 416
based on enthalpy 143
mass transfer (and diffusion) 50 52 416
Finite difference:
backward form 96 105
central form 96 104 478
definition 94
forward form 96 97
method:
Crank-Nicolson type 101 110 479
explicit type 97 103 477
implicit type 100 110 117 150 184
477
Index Terms Links
Finite difference:
method: (Cont.)
stability of 99 106 479
in turbulent flows 264
3D flows 476
Finite element method 118 151
Flat plate flow:
laminar 36 45 50 81 88
90 120 135 138 150
hypersonic 170
non-Newtonian fluid 52 90 305
transition 180 190 196
turbulent 204 224 256 265 303
414 445
Fluctuation in turbulent flows:
concentration 375
density 382 431
pressure 282
temperature 204 371 426
velocity (See also Turbulence
intensity) 23 224 367 380 385
426 431 492
Foreign gas injection 89 144 375 416 439
Forward difference (See Finite
difference, forward form)
Fourier’s law 6 47 69
for non-Newtonian fluids 69
Freestream turbulence 281 290
Frictional heating 44 128

Index Terms Links
Friction factor (See Resistance

coefficient)
Friction velocity, definition of 206 420
Frozen flow 158 162 454
Fully developed flow 312 324
turbulent 328
Fully rough flow 215 330
Galerkin method of weighted

residuals 120
Gradient transport formulations
(and models) 238 283 297 375 492
Half-width (and radius) 366 387 506

Hanjalic-Launder model (See
Reynolds stress, models,
Hanjalic-Launder model)
Heat of formation (and dissociation) 71 158
Heat equation 97 99
Heat flux:
laminar 6 66
modeling 69
turbulent 372 394 433
vector 66

Index Terms Links
Heat (and energy) transfer:

laminar:
flat plate 45 87
high-speed flow 128 142 148 150 160
173
with injection 89 148
nonuniform wall temperature 48 89
non-circular ducts 316
pipe flow 315
entrance region 317
pressure gradient effects 88 143
stagnation point 142 160 173
transitional:
pipe flow 329
turbulent:
flat plate 416 436 455
with injection 416
in jets 372
pipe flow 329 341 345
Heat transfer coefficient (See Film
coefficient, heat transfer)
Heat transfer temperature 415
Hot-wire anemometer 25
Howarth problem 107 112 123
Howarth-Dorodnitzin transformation 134 137
Hydraulic diameter 316 327 329 335
Hydrodynamic stability theory 179 327
Hypersonic interaction parameter 171

Index Terms Links
Implicit finite difference formulation 100 110 117 150 184

477
Injection 89 144 182 216 252
274 292 297 301 375
416 439
Infinite swept wing 474 487 499
Inner (and wall) region of a turbulent
boundary layer 207 214 224 226 247
284 294 299 332 415
434 489 499
Instability:
flow 179 481
numerical 99 106 479
Integral energy equation 43
Integral momentum equation:
jets and wakes 364 384
laminar 31
turbulent 240
3D flows 469 496
Integral species conservation equation 49
Intermittency 25 224 228 495
factor 265
Interpolation function 118
Inviscid:
pressure distribution 10 33 104 310 468
edge velocity distribution 110 33 36 39 85
116 468
Isotropic fluid (and flow) 13 486

Index Terms Links
Jets 359
laminar:
planar 363
round 365
turbulent:
planar 372 384 386 408
round 366 382 386 408
3D jets 506
Johnson-King model (See Turbulent kinetic
energy, models, Johnson-King model)
Karplus stability analysis 106

Kє models:
compressibilty corrected 405 445
constant-density boundary layer flows 293
equation for є (and Z) 293 295 299
internal flows 340
jets and wakes 403
Kє 2 403
3D jets 509
shear layers 405
standard model 295
transition prediction with 188
variable-density boundary layer
flows 445 449
3D boundary layer flows 502

Index Terms Links
Kinematic displacement thickness 434 439

Kinematic viscosity 6
Kutta condition 19
Laminar sublayer 304 372 378 618 628

Laminar shear stress:
modeling of 4 12 62
non-Newtonian 4 22 64
Large eddy simulations 303
Law of mass action 158
Law of the Wake 212 222 241 332 423
3D flows 489
Law of the Wall 208 247
internal flow 332
with roughness 214
for temperature (See Temperature
law of the wall)
variable-density flow 420 423 434
3D flows 489 502
Levy-Lees transformation (and
coordinates) 136 142 149 160 436
Lewis number 7 144 455
turbulent 378
Logarithmic region (See Overlap
region)

Index Terms Links
Mangier transformation 73 137

Mass, conservation (See Conservation
of mass)
Mass flux:
laminar 7
modeling of 7 70
turbulent 375
Mass fraction 7
Mass transfer:
laminar:
duct flow 317
flat plate 50 89 146
high-speed flow 146 160
pipe flow 316
entrance region 322
stagnation point 160
turbulent:
flat plate 416
in jets 375 394 401
pipe flow 332
Mass transfer coefficient (See
Film coefficient, mass transfer)
Mass -weighted averaging 430 445
Matched asymptotic expansions 18
Mean flow variables in turbulent
flow, definition 25 234 430

Index Terms Links
Mean flow turbulence models (See

also Eddy viscosity and
Mixing length) 237
Mean free path 6 238
Mechanical energy equation 68
Metric coefficients 322 467
Michel method for transition 179
Mixing length:
composite model for a
boundary layer 262
definition 238 433
inner region models 248
with roughness 251
Van Driest model 249 646
variable-density flow 420 434 436 439 445
models for jets and wakes 385 401
Prandtl model 388
Taylor model 388
model for shear layers 380
outer region models 256
internal flows 339
variable-density flow 434 439 445
relation to eddy viscosity 239
relation to turbulent length
scale 284
pressure gradient effects 239 270
Situ-Schetz model 436 439 444
von Karman model 388 423
3D flows 499

Index Terms Links
Mole fraction 71
Momentum, conservation (See
Conservation of momentum)
Momentum equation(s) 16 18 62 77 87
103 130 134 136 144
182 235 433
3D flows 467
Momentum integral equation (See
Integral momentum equation)
Momentum integral method:
laminar 30
Thwaites-Walz method 38
axisymmetric 40
compressible flow 137
3D flows 469 475
turbulent 239
Moses method 241
3D flows 469 495
Momentum thickness 33
3D flows 469
Moody chart 329
Moses method (See Momentum
integral method, turbulent,
Moses method)
Navier-Stokes equations 9 166 350 457 464

Neutral stability 180 184 327
Newtonian fluids 4 13 63
Newton’s law of cooling 47
Index Terms Links
Non-Newtonian fluids 4 22 52 63 92
198 200 324
in turbulent flow 305 353
Normal pressure gradient 10
Normal stresses 12 14
turbulent 287 335 371
No-slip condition 2
Numerical methods (See also
Finite differences, method
and Finite element method): 93 149 318 325
turbulent flows 264 345 436
3D flows 476
Nusselt number:
definitions 17
laminar flow:
flat plate 17 88
nonuniform wall temperature 17
pipe flow 316 320
turbulent flow 329
Nusselt number for diffusion:
definition 50
laminar flow:
flat plate 50
with injection 91
pipe flow 316
relation to skin friction and
Nusselt number 52
turbulent flow 332

Index Terms Links
Orr-Sommerfeld equation 180

Outer region (and layer) of a
turbulent boundary layer 204 210 220 256 332
423
Overlap region of a turbulent
boundary layer 210
Parabolic partial differential equations 74 97 283

Parallel flows 77 312
Perfect gas 74 157
Perry-Schofield outer region law 223
Pipe flow:
laminar:
entrance region 317
fully developed 312
heat transfer in 315
mass transfer in 316
non-Newtonian fluids 324
transitional 327
turbulent:
entrance region 341
fully developed 328
heat transfer in 329 332 341 345
mass transfer in 332
Plane of symmetry flows 479
Plastic fluid 5 23

Index Terms Links
Plate thermometer problem 132

Pohlhausen:
method 35
polynomial velocity profile 37
pressure gradient parameter 37 192
Poiseuille flow (See Pipe flow,
laminar, fully developed)
Polar plot for 3D boundary layers 484 488
Potential core 359 366 375 401 506
Power law fluid 23 52 64 92 324
Prandtl energy method (See Turbulent
kinetic energy, models,
Prandtl energy method)
Prandtl independence principle 475
Prandtl number 6 128 129 132 134
316 332 416
for turbulence quantities 283 293
turbulent 345 372 394 422
Pressure drop (and loss) 1 312
laminar flow,
entrance region 317 320
fully developed 312
turbulent flow,
entrance region 341 344
fully developed 329

Index Terms Links
Pressure gradient:
adverse (See Adverse pressure gradient)
equilibrium in turbulent flow 222 242 260 268 270
favorable (See Favorable pressure gradient)
pipe flow (See pressure drop)
Pseudolaminar flow 257 435
Pseudoplastic fluid 5 23
Rayleigh line 355

Real gas effects 157 454
Recovery factor:
laminar 128 132 427
turbulent 426
Recovery temperature (SeeAdiabatic
wall temperature)
Reference temperature (and method) 128 143
Reichardt eddy viscosity model
(See Eddy viscosity, inner
region models, Reichardt
model)
Reichardt sublayer length scale 250 254
Relaminarization 198
Resistance coefficient:
laminar 313 316
turbulent 329
non-Newtonian fluids 324 6
Reynolds analogy 48 416
Reynolds pipe flow experiments 177

Index Terms Links
Reynolds number 6
critical value of 178 327
Reynolds (and turbulent shear) stress:
convection of 298
definition of 224 236
in compressible flow 426 430 433
diffusion of 298
dissipation of 298
equation for 298
models,
algebraic stress models 301 349
constant-density flows 297
Daly-Harlow model 301 408
Donaldson model 299 408 449
Hanjalic-Launder model 298 341
jets and wakes 408
shear layers 408
variable-density flows
boundary layer flows 449
pressure strain 298
production of 298
redistribution of 298
3D flows 492
Richardson number 196
Roughness effects:
transition 192 197
turbulent flow 214 251 329
Round-off errors 99

Index Terms Links
Schmidt number 7 50 316 332

turbulent 378
Second viscosity coefficient 14
Secondary flows (and crossflow) 310 316 334 341 345
349 464 471 475
pressure-driven 335 463 482
shear-driven 335 341 482
Separation, boundary layer 19 30 37 42 85
220 224 242 311
by shocks 164 457
3D flows 465 475 484
Shape factor (and parameter) 38 183 205
Shear layers:
laminar 359
high-speed flow 363
initial boundary layer effects 362
turbulent 379 405
initial boundary layer effects 381
Shear strain rate tensor 12
Shear stress tensor 12
Shock/boundary layer interaction:
laminar 164
turbulent 457
3D flows 505
Shooting 83

Index Terms Links
Similar solutions:
energy equation 87
jets 363 383
momentum equation, (See also Blasius flat-plate
solution and Falkner-Skan wedge flows) 79 150
shear layers 361 379
species conservation equation 89 146
stagnation point 85 142 160
wakes 385
3D flows 470
Skin friction coefficient:
definition 30
laminar flow 36 37 84 86
with injection 148
pressure gradient effects 86
relation to Nusselt number
and Nusselt number for diffusion 52
with viscous interaction 172
with vorticity interaction 173
measurement of 208
turbulent flow 213 240
relation to Nusselt number 416
with roughness 215
3D flows 489 496

Index Terms Links
Slender channel equations 322 350

Species continuity equation 70
Specific heat:
constant pressure 67
constant volume 69
Sphere, flow past 24 194
Spreading parameter 380 405
Spring/mass/damper problem 17
Squire, theorem of 180
Stability:
laminar flow 177
numerical methods 99 107 477
Stagnation point flow 39 40 85 86 142
160 170
3D bodies 471
Stanton number:
definition 48
laminar flow 48
high-speed flow 154
relation to skin friction
coefficient 52
turbulent flow 416
with chemical reactions 455
flat plate 416 437
high-speed flow 154
with injection 419
in pipes 329 341 345
relation to skin friction
coefficient 416

Index Terms Links
Stanton number for diffusion:

definition 52
laminar flow 52
relation to skin friction coefficient 52
turbulent flow 622
Stiffness matrix 121 124
Stokes’ flows 78 249 255
Stokes’ hypothesis 14
Stokes’ law 4
Stratification, density 196
Streaks 232
Stream function:
axisymmetric flow 60 318
compressible flow 60 134
planar flow 60 81
3D flows 478
Streamline coordinates 322
Sublayer, laminar (See Laminar sublayer)
Suction 42 90 183
Superlayer 213
Surface forces 11 61
Sutherland viscosity law 8 138 162
Sweeps 233
Temperature:
bulk 315 318
heat transfer (See Heat transfer
temperature)
reference 128 143
Index Terms Links
Temperature law of the wall 415

Thermal boundary layer 3
thickness 3
Thermal conductivity:
conversion factors 513
laminar 6 513
mixture 72
turbulent (and eddy) 345 372
Thomas algorithm 102 112 118 123 150
Three-dimensional flow,
definition of 462
Thwaites and Walz method (See
Momentum integral
method, Thwaites-Walz method)
Time averaging 25 27 234 430
Tollmein-Schlichting waves 182 481
Transformations:
compressible flow 134
similarity 79 81 85 87 90
92 146 470
to two-dimensional form 73
Transition to turbulence 176
bluff bodies at low speeds 194
density stratification effects 196
freestream turbulence effects 190 197
heating/cooling effects 182 197
injection/suction effects 182 482
nature of 188

Index Terms Links
Transition to turbulence (Cont.)

prediction of 179 327 481
pressure gradient effects 191 194 198
roughness effects 192 197 200
supersonic flow 197 482
3D flows 480
Transpiration cooling:
laminar 90 146
turbulent 416
Triple Deck formulation 166
Truncation error 99
Tubes, flow in (See Pipe flow)
Turbulence intensity:
axial 27 224 229 299 335
345 367 426 449
spectra 228 335 338 370
mass-averaged 431
normal (and transverse) 27 224 229 299 335
345 367 449
tangential (and out-of-plane) 27 224 229 299 335
345 367 449
Turbulent flow, nature of 23 213 229
Turbulent kinetic energy:
balance 229 335 371 492
convection of 228 282 335 492
definition 226
diffusion of 228 282 335 492
dissipation of 228 282 335 492
equation for 282 295 299

Index Terms Links
Turbulent kinetic energy: (Cont.)

models:
Bradshaw model 282 285 399 445 502
with freestream turbulence 291
jets and wakes 399
Johnson-King model 289 445 502
Prandtl energy method 282 292 399 445
3D flows 502
profiles 226 335 369 492
production of 228 282 335 492
Turbulent length scale 282 293 298 403 445
relation to mixing length 284
Turbulent Prandtl number (See
Prandtl number, turbulent)
Turbulent shear stress (See
Reynolds stress)
Turbulent transport models (See
Eddy viscosity, models;
Mixing length, models;
Turbulent kinetic energy,
models; Kє models;
Reynolds stress, models)
Unheated starting length problem 45

Index Terms Links
Van Driest:
damping factor 249
with injection and suction 252
with roughness 251
eddy viscosity model (See Eddy
viscosity, inner region
models, Van Driest model)
effective velocity (See Effective
velocity)
mixing-length model (See Mixing
length, inner region
models, Van Driest model)
Van Driest I and II correlation laws 420
Velocity defect 34 206
Viscosity:
apparent 23
conversion factors 512
definition 4
kinematic 6
laminar 4 513
measurement of 4
mixture 71
non-Newtonian fluid 4 23
second coefficient of 14
turbulent (See Eddy viscosity)

Index Terms Links
Viscous/inviscid interaction:
laminar 166
hypersonic 169
turbulent 457
vorticity 171
Viscous throat 169 356 459
von Karman mixing-length model
(See Mixing length, von
Karman model)
von Neumann stability analysis 154
Vorticity parameter 173
Wake:
Coles’ law of (See Law of the wake)
function (See Coles’ wake function)
parameter (See Coles’ wake parameter)
Wakes 359
laminar:
planar 365
round (and axisymmetric) 366
near wake 359
turbulent:
planar 385 388 396
round (and circular and
axisymmetric) 386 398
Wall functions:
in Kє models 295 449 502
in mean flow models 277
in Reynolds stress models 301
Index Terms Links
Wall functions: (Cont.)

in TKE models 285
3D flows 502
Wall law (See Law of the Wall)
coordinates (or variables) 210
plot 208 214 216 250 252
265 421 491
Wall shear (See Skin friction
coefficient)
Walz method (See Thwaites and
Walz method)
Wave number of fluctuations 226 371
Wedge flows (See Falkner-Skan
wedge flows)
Zone of dependence 464 476

Zone of influence 464 476

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BOUNDARY LAYER

Speed of sound and amplification factor

Binary diffusion coefficient

Half-widths in three-dimensional jets

ff Wave number, amplification factor, and atom mass

v Laminar kinematic viscosity

C Values on the centerline

1 INTRODUCTION TO VISCOUS FLOWS 1

3-6 Transformation to Two-Dimensional Form 73

4 EXACT AND NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS FOR LAMINAR,

5 COMPRESSIBLE LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYERS 127

5-8 Exact Solutions for Compressible Flow

6 TRANSITION TO TURBULENT FLOW 176

7 WALL-BOUNDED, INCOMPRESSIBLE TURBULENT

7-3-2 Roughness Effects, 214

8 INTERNAL FLOWS 310

8-5 High-speed Flows 355

9 FREE SHEAR FLOWS 359

10 WALL-BOUNDED TURBULENT FLOWS WITH VARIABLE

1-1 THE IMPORTANCE OF VISCOUS PHENOMENA

An applied fluid dynamicist is generally engaged in the analysis or design of a device

1-2 CONDITIONS AT A FLUID-SOLID BOUNDARY

Figure 1-1 Typical velocity and tem-

1-3 LAMINAR TRANSPORT PROCESSES

Stationary Figure 1-2 Schematic of a device for

Figure 1-3 Variation of shear stress

Rearranging Eq. (1-7) to the form

where T is in degrees Kelvin and p is in millipoise (N - s/m2 X lo4 gives mP). A

1-4 THE BOUNDARY LAYER CONCEPT

1-5 THE NAVIER-STOKES EQUATIONS

The net force from these is

By analogy, the net forces on the other faces can be written

must hold in general.

Figure 1-7 Velocity distribution of a

be developed by considering Fig. 1-8 with ex,. as an example. Clearly,

As in solid mechanics, this tensor is symmetric. Thus, Eq. (1-22) is generalized to

Figure 1-8 Distortion of a fluid ele-

(u + $dx)(pu + -ax dx)dy dz

Sec. 1-5 The Navier-Stokes Equations 15

So the net pressure force is

Using Eqs. (1-25) and (1-26) with A = - 2p/3, this becomes

2-2 THE INTEGRAL MOMENTUM EQUATION

The streamwise momentum flow in the left-hand side is

and that out of the right-hand side is

[pu2dy + dx [[pu2dy]dx (2-5)

The change in x-momentum is balanced with the summation of forces in

There is a laminar shear force on the bottom surface (7, = p ( d u / d ~ ) , = ~acting

Figure 2-2 Schematic illustration of

2-3 SOLUTION OF THE INTEGRAL MOMENTUM EQUATION

2-3-1 The Pohlhausen Method

$ = f($ (2- 16)

operation tends to amplify inaccuracies. In any event, it is instructive to try a simple

which says that 6 grows as 6.

6 12' - 3.46Re;'I' (2-19a)

The coefficients a through e were determined by forcing satisfaction of a set of phys-