COLLEGE OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY

ELECTRONICS DEPARTMENT

ASSIGNMENT NO. 1
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

TRISTAN JEFF BAUTISTA

BET-EsET 2A

RONALD L. QUITAIN
PROFESSOR

AUGUST 13, 2019

SUMMING AMPLIFIER

In the inverting operational amplifier, the

inverting amplifier has a single input voltage, (Vin)
applied to the inverting input terminal. If we add
more input resistors to the input, each equal in value
to the original input resistor, (Rin) we end up with
another operational amplifier circuit called a
Summing Amplifier, “summing inverter” or even a
“voltage adder” circuit.

In this simple summing amplifier circuit, the output

voltage, (Vo) now becomes proportional to the sum of the input
voltages, V1, V2, V3, etc. Then we can modify the original
equation for the inverting amplifier to take account of these new
inputs:
:

Summing Amplifier Equation

We now have an operational amplifier circuit that will amplify each individual input voltage and produce
an output voltage signal that is proportional to the algebraic “SUM” of the three individual input voltages V1, V2
and V3. We can also add more inputs if required as each individual input “see’s” their respective resistance, (Rin)
as the only input impedance. This is because the input signals are effectively isolated from each other by the
“virtual earth” node at the inverting input of the op-amp. A direct voltage addition can also be obtained when all
the resistances are of equal value and Rƒ is equal to Rin.
Problem example:
Find the output voltage of the following Summing Amplifier circuit.

Using the previously found formula

for the gain of the circuit

We can now substitute the values of the resistors

in the circuit as follows,
We know that the output voltage is the sum of the two
amplified input signals and is calculated as:

Then the output voltage of the Summing Amplifier circuit above is given as -45 mV and is negative as it is an
inverting amplifier.
SUMMING AMPLIFIER APPLICATIONS
-Summing amplifier is a versatile device, used to combine the signals. These amplifiers add the signals directly
or scale them to fit some prearranged combination rule.
-These amplifiers are used in an audio mixer to add different signals with equal gains
-There are various resistors are used at the input of the summing amplifier to give a weighted sum. This can be
used to change a binary number to a voltage in an AC (digital to analog converter)
-This amplifier is used to apply a DC offset voltage with an AC signal voltage. This process can be done in an
LED modulation circuit to maintain the LED in its linear operating range

DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

We have used only one of the operational amplifiers inputs to connect to the amplifier, using either the
inverting or non-inverting input terminal to amplify a single input signal with the other input being connected to
ground. But as a standard operational amplifier has two inputs, inverting and no-inverting, we can also connect
signals to both of these inputs at the same time producing another common type of operational amplifier circuit
called a Differential Amplifier.
All op-amps are Differential Amplifiers due to their input configuration. But by connecting one voltage
signal onto one input terminal and another voltage signal onto the other input terminal the resultant output voltage
will be proportional to the “Difference” between the two input voltage signals of V1 and V2. Then differential
amplifiers amplify the difference between two voltages making this type of operational amplifier circuit a
Subtractor unlike a summing amplifier which adds or sums together the input voltages.
By connecting each input in turn to 0v ground we can use superposition to solve for the output voltage
Vout. Then the transfer function for a Differential Amplifier circuit is given as:
When resistors, R1 = R2 and R3 = R4 the above transfer function for the differential amplifier can be simplified
to the following expression:
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER EQUATION

If all the resistors are all of the same ohmic value, that is: R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 then the circuit will become
a Unity Gain Differential Amplifier and the voltage gain of the amplifier will be exactly one or unity. Then the
output expression would simply be Vout = V2 – V1. If input V1 is higher than input V2 the output voltage sum
will be negative, and if V2 is higher than V1, the output voltage sum will be positive.
The Differential Amplifier circuit is a very useful op-amp circuit and by adding more resistors in parallel
with the input resistors R1 and R3, the resultant circuit can be made to either “Add” or “Subtract” the voltages
applied to their respective inputs.
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER APPLICATIONS
There are numerous differential amplifier applications in practical circuits, signal amplification
applications, controlling of motors & servo motors, input stage emitter coupled logic, switch etc. are common
applications of the differential amplifier circuit.

VOLTAGE TO CURRENT CONVERTERS

In industrial electronics, it is necessary to provide current proportional to certain voltage, even though the
load resistance may vary. A circuit which can perform this job, is called a Voltage to current converter. The circuit
is similar to that of positive scalar except that the feedback resistor Rf is replaced by a load resistor RL. For a
single input, the current in the load resistor is given by IL = I = Vin/R. from this equation it is obvious that the
output current IL is independent of load resistance and is proportional to the input voltage. This is because of the
virtual ground at the inverting input terminal of the op-amp. Such a circuit is employed in analog-to-digital
converter (ADC).
One good thing with the op amp voltage to current converter is that it
can be driven by a voltage source which is itself not capable of
supplying the load current. This is because the voltage source only has
to drive a non-inverting operational amplifier, whose input impedance
is very high. The load current itself is supplied by the op amp.
Another version of voltage to current converter is given below:

In this circuit, the load is grounded, and an input voltage controls the
load current.

Application of Voltage to Current Converter

 Zener diode tester
 Low AC and DC Voltmeters
 Testing LED
 Testing Diodes

INTEGRATORS AND DIFFERENTIATORS

Integrators and differentiators are circuits that simulate the mathematical operations of integration and
differentiation. It is not necessary for you to understand these operations now to be able to learn how integrators
and differentiators work.
Differentiator - is a circuit that calculates the
instantaneous slope of the line at every point on a
waveform. The output of the differentiator is always
proportional to the rate of change of the input
voltage. The figure shows a basic circuit for a
differentiator. This circuit is an inverting amplifier
but instead of a resistor a capacitor is used as the input
element of the system. When a signal, vi(t), is applied
to the input terminal the output will be
the derivative with respect to time of the input signal
multiplied by a constant factor. In equation form
As you can see the constant that multiplies the derivative is –RC. Fig. A
Figure B shows the output produced when several input
functions are applied to the input terminal of a
differentiator. Notice that the functions are exactly
opposite to the integrator actions shown in Fig. 25.3. When
a triangular wave is applied to the input the output will be
a negative square wave; if the input is a triangular wave the
output produces a negative triangular signal; and when the
input is a sine wave the output is a negative cosine function.

The value of the voltage at the output is given by the

following equation:

or

Figure B: basic differentiator responses

where slope is the slope of the ramp , and R and C are the circuit elements. The above equation is
applied every time there is a constant slope in the input signal.

To illustrate this concept we present in part (b) of Fig. A a triangular input waveform being applied to the
differentiator. The corresponding output voltage is as indicated. For the first ramp (from t = 0 to t = t1) the slope
of the input voltage is V/t1, where V is the input voltage reached at t = t1. For this time interval the output voltage
is -(V / t1) RC as indicated. For the second ramp (from t = t1 to t = 2t1) the output voltage is given by (V /
t1)RC. Thus, a triangular wave input produces a square wave output.
Integrator - computes the total area underneath the curve of a given waveform. This is basically a summing
process. Figure C shows a basic circuit of an
integrator. As you can see this circuit is an
inverting amplifier with a feedback branch
through a capacitor C. In terms of the
mathematical operation of integration1, if we
consider the integrator in terms of its input-
output behavior, when an input signal, vi(t),
is applied to the input terminal the device will
generate at the output terminal the integral
respect to time of the input waveform
multiplied by a constant. In equation form

Figure C: A basic integrator using an op-amp

As you can see the constant that multiplies the integral is -1/RC.

Figure beside shows the output produced when several input functions
are applied at the input terminal of an integrator. As you can see a
constant voltage applied to the input of an integrator generates a voltage
with a constant negative slope (a ramp), a square wave produces a
triangular wave, and a sine functions generates a negative cosine
function.
ACTIVE FILTER CIRCUITS

An active filter is a type of analog circuit implementing an electronic

filter using active components, typically an amplifier. Amplifiers included in
a filter design can be used to improve the cost, performance and predictability
of a filter. .
An amplifier prevents the load impedance of the following stage from An example of high-pass active filter of the Sallen–
affecting the characteristics of the filter. An active filter can have complex Key topology. The operational amplifier is used as a
poles and zeros without using a bulky or expensive inductor. The shape of buffer amplifier.
the response, the Q (quality factor), and the tuned frequency can often be set
with inexpensive variable resistors. In some active filter circuits, one
parameter can be adjusted without affecting the others.
Types
Using active elements has some limitations. Basic filter design equations neglect the finite bandwidth of
amplifiers. Available active devices have limited bandwidth, so they are often impractical at high frequencies.
Amplifiers consume power and inject noise into a system. Certain circuit topologies may be impractical if no DC
path is provided for bias current to the amplifier elements. Power handling capability is limited by the amplifier
stages.

Active filter circuit configurations (electronic filter topology) include:

 Sallen-Key, and VCVS filters (low sensitivity to component tolerance)
 State variable filters and biquadratic or biquad filters
 Dual Amplifier Bandpass (DABP)
 Wien notch
 Multiple Feedback Filters
 Fliege (lowest component count for 2 opamp but with good controllability over frequency and type)
 Akerberg Mossberg (one of the topologies that offer complete and independent control over gain,
frequency, and type)
Active filters can implement the same transfer functions as passive filters. Common transfer functions are:

 High-pass filter – attenuation of frequencies below their cut-off points.

 Low-pass filter – attenuation of frequencies above their cut-off points.
 Band-pass filter – attenuation of frequencies both above and below those they allow to pass.
 Band-stop filter (Notch filter) – attenuation of certain frequencies while allowing all others to pass.
Combinations are possible, such as notch and high-pass (in a rumble filter where most of the offending rumble
comes from a particular frequency). Another example is an elliptic filter.
INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER
An instrumentation amplifier allows an engineer to adjust the gain
of an amplifier circuit without having to change more than one
resistor value. Compare this to the differential amplifier, which
we covered previously, which requires the adjustment of multiple
resistor values.
The so-called instrumentation amplifier builds on the last version
of the differential amplifier to give us that capability:

Understanding the Instrumentation Amplifier Circuit

This intimidating circuit is constructed from a buffered differential amplifier stage with three new resistors
linking the two buffer circuits together. Consider all resistors to be of equal value except for Rgain.
The negative feedback of the upper-left op-amp causes the voltage at point 1 (top of Rgain) to be equal to V1.
Likewise, the voltage at point 2 (bottom of Rgain) is held to a value equal to V2. This establishes a voltage drop
across Rgain equal to the voltage difference between V1 and V2. That voltage drop causes a current through Rgain,
and since the feedback loops of the two input op-amps draw no current, that same amount of current through
Rgain must be going through the two “R” resistors above and below it.
This produces a voltage drop between points 3 and 4 equal to:

The regular differential amplifier on the right-hand side of the circuit then takes this voltage drop between
points 3 and 4 and amplifies it by a gain of 1 (assuming again that all “R” resistors are of equal value).

Advantages of the Instrumentation Amplifier

Though this looks like a cumbersome way to build a differential amplifier, it has the distinct advantages of
possessing extremely high input impedances on the V1 and V2 inputs (because they connect straight into the
non-inverting inputs of their respective op-amps), and adjustable gain that can be set by a single resistor.
Manipulating the above formula a bit, we have a general expression for overall voltage
gain in the instrumentation amplifier:

Though it may not be obvious by looking at the schematic, we can change the differential gain of the
instrumentation amplifier simply by changing the value of one resistor: Rgain.
Yes, we could still change the overall gain by changing the values of some of the other resistors, but this would
necessitate balanced resistor value changes for the circuit to remain symmetrical. Please note that the lowest
gain possible with the above circuit is obtained with Rgain completely open (infinite resistance), and that gain
value is 1.