INTRODUCTION TO

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

Dr. G. P. CHANDRADHARA
Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering
S. J. College of Engineering
MYSORE
Email : [email protected]
 Natural Disasters

Earthquake Tornado, Cyclone

Floods Fire
 Natural Disasters

Volcano
Hurricane
Damage during Natural Disasters

Loss of life from natural disasters

(Source: Herath and Katayama, 1994)

Loss of built environment

from natural disasters
(Source: Andrew and Robin, 2002)

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Dead & Live loads

Direction Of Dead
& Live loads

Depends on self
weight and
functional aspects
of building
Wind loads

Direction Of wind loads

Depends on Wind
intensity and exposed
area of the building
&
Distribution is uniform
along the height

F = p * area
Seismic loads

Direction of seismic forces

F = Mass * Acceleration

Depends on acceleration
and weight of the building
&

Distribution is not uniform

Earthquake motion
Effects of Earthquake
Inertia Force F = m a

ACCELERATION

DECELERATION
Static Vs Dynamic Loading

P
Y(t)

P(t)
Y
Y(t)

F=ma

Static Loading Dynamic Loading

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

 TYPES OF DYNAMIC LOADING

RAPID OR TRANSIENT LOADING

MONOTONIC LOADING
LOAD

SLOW
LOADING

TIME

CYCLIC OR REPETITIVE
LOADING
 WHAT IS DYNAMIC FORCE ?

LOAD

Time Time

Large Period Small Period

Actual Impulse

Time Time

Single Impulse Multiple Impulse

 Seismic and Harmonic Waves
Acceleration

Random
Time Dependent
Cyclic
Time

Typical Seismogram
Acceleration

w = 2 / T

Time

A = a sin w t
T Harmonic wave
Nature of Loading
 Earthquake
 Random, Dynamic & Cyclic loading
 Wind
 Oscillatory & Monotonic loading Droof

Earthquake Loading Wind Loading

Ground Deformation Pressure on Building

Distribution of Lateral Forces Due to Earthquake
 Wind force Seismic Force
1. Wind Force depends on 1. Earthquake force depends on
exposed surface Mass of Structure
2. Pressure from above the 2. Base motion from below the GL
surface and in one direction in both directions
3. Estimated wind speed is used to 3. Peak acceleration & frequency
find pressure are used
4. Less uncertainties 4. Uncertainties are more
5. No stress reversal 5. Reversal of stresses
6. Mostly structural problem 6. Seismologist, geotechnical
engineer and structural
engineer problem
7. Pseudo-static analysis possible
7. Pseudo-static analysis yields
erroneous results
8. Non-zero mean
8. Zero mean

GPC, SJCE, Mysore

Effects of Earthquake

 Primary Effects
 Ground Break, Fault formation
 Secondary Effects
 Failure of R. C.Structures
 Failure of railway, highway & bridges
 Land slides and slope failure
 Liquefaction and Foundation Failure
 Failure of retaining walls
 Tsunami
Ground Break
Failure of Buildings and Loss of Human Life
Fallen Hanshin Expressway & loads of debris
Failures after Earthquake

Navalakki Port, Bhuj 2001

Railway track after
the Earthquake

Failure of Express highway in Kobe Ahmedabad, Bhuj 2001

Concrete Jungle
 Rapar Town after
Bhuj Earthquake
of 26th Jan 2001

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Japan during & one year later (11/03/2012)

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Embankment failure of a fast track bullet train

Before During After

 Hyogo Ken Nambu
Earthquake, Japan
January 17, 1995

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Failure of Dams
Failure and Tilting of Building Blocks due
to Liquefaction
Is it Leaning
Tower
of Pisa ?
Short Circuiting & Leaking gas
The Economics and Societal Impacts of Earthquakes

Damage in Oakland, CA, 1989

• Building collapse
• Fire
• Tsunami
• Ground failure

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

 Tsunami Effects
Japanese word:
English translation:
“Tsu“ means “Harbor wave”
“harbor”
“Nami“
means
“wave”
Importance of Seismic Design
Region Date M Death Injured &
Homeless
Kobe, 17th Jan 1995 7.2 5500 3 Lakh Homeless
Japan
Izmit, 17th Aug 1999 7.8 18000 50000 Injured
Turkey
Chi Chi, 21st Sept 1999 7.3 2500 Thousands Injured
Taipei
Gujarat, 26th Jan 2001 7.9 25000 12 Lakh Homeless
India
Seattle, 28th Feb 2001 6.8 1 272
USA
Kaman, Iran 26th Dec 2003 6.6 20000 80000 Casualties in 1
Lakh Population

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

 BIGGEST EARTHQUKES RECORDED
Sl Magnitude Date Place Damage
No
1 9.5 22/05/1960 Chile 5000 deaths, 20 Lakh homeless
2 9.2 28/03/1964 Alaska 125 deaths, Tsunami
3 9.1 26/12/2004 Indonesia 2.26 Lakh killed, Tsunami
4 9.0 04/11/1952 Russia 0 death, Tsunami
5 9.0 11/03/2011 Japan 15000 deaths, Tsunami
6 8.8 27/02/2010 Chile 500 deaths, Tsunami
7 8.8 31/01/1906 Ecuador 1000 deaths
8 8.6 – 8.9 11/04/2012 Indonesia 0 death
9 8.7 04/02/1965 Alaska 0 death, Tsunami
10 8.6 28/03/2005 Indonesia 1300 deaths

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

 Indian Earthquakes of the Past

Year of
Place Maximum Intensity Other Features
Occurrence
1618 Bombay - - 2000 lives lost
1720 Delhi 6.5 - some lives lost
1737 Bengal - - 300,000 lives lost
1803 Mathura 6.5 - The shock felt up to Calcutta.
1803 Kumaon 6.5 - Killed 200-300 people.
Towns of Tera, Kathara & Mothala razed to
1819 Kutchch 8.0 XI
ground.
1828 Srinagar 6.0 Intensity 1000 people killed.
1833 Bihar 7.7 X Hundreds of people killed
1848 Mt.Abu 6.0 - Few people killed
1869 Assam 7.5 - Affected an area of 2,50,000 Sq. miles.
1885 Srinagar 7.0 - Kamiarary area destroyed.
1897 Shillong 8.7 XII Wide spread destruction in Shillong.
1905 HP 8.0 XI Thousands of people killed.
1906 HP 7.0 - Heavy damage.
1916 Nepal 7.5 - All houses collapsed at Dharchulla.
1918 Assam 7.6 - Heavy damage.
1930 Meghalaya 7.1 IX Heavy damage in Dhubri.
1934 Bihar, Nepal 8.3 XI Large number of border area people killed.
1935 Quetta (Pak) 7.5 IX 25,000 people killed
1941 Andaman 8.1 X Very heavy damage.

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Past earthquakes in India
Past earthquakes in India
 Recent Major Earthquakes
in India

Sumatra Earthquake (2004)

Kashmir Earthquake (2005)
Sikkim Earthquake (2011)

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Frequency of Earthquakes of Different Magnitudes
 Super Structural Engr
Structure
Foundation
Geotechnical Engr

Geologist
Focus
Water Resource Engr, Mechanical Engr, Environmental Engr,
Electrical Engr, Sociologist + Good Manager, Earthquake
Engineering is Interdisciplinary
Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore
Characteristics of Seismic Ground Motion

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

TYPES OF LOADING
RAPID OR TRANSIENT LOADING
FORCE

STATIC LOADING

SLOW
LOADING

TIME

CYCLIC OR REPETITIVE
LOADING

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

 Description of wave
LOAD

Amplitude –A

TIME

CYCLIC OR REPETITIVE
LOADING
Frequency f = 1/ T
Period –T No. of cycles per second
( One cycle )

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

No two earthquake motions are similar

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

DAMPING AND RESONANCE

Effect of
Damping

Effect of
Resonance

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

 Earthquake

Vibrations of the earth surface caused by

waves originating from a source of
disturbance in the earth mass
Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore
What are Earthquakes?
 The shaking or trembling caused by the sudden
release of energy
 Usually associated with faulting or breaking of rocks
 Continuing adjustment of position results in
aftershocks

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

 Structure and Diameter of Earth

Diameter along Equator- 12740 km

Polar Diameter _ 12700 km

The higher diameter along equator is caused by the

higher centrifugal forces generated
along the equator due to rotation of earth
 Anatomy of Earth

Region Radius
(km)
Inner Core 1290
Outer Core 2200
Mantle 2900
Crust 5 to 70
•Temperature
•Pressure
•Density
Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore
 Anatomy of Earth

Four Parts

Earth Crust – 5- 40 km, density 15-20 kN/m3

Lithosphere – crust and upper part of mantel-

70-100 km – under Deep Ocean
and 100-150 km – under continent (properties same as crust)

Asthenosphere – 150 km thick, has lower rigidity and partially molten

plays imp. Role in plate tectonics, density- 50-60 kN/m3

Barysphere – core (inner-1224 and Outer-2200) , density – 130 kN/m3

Composed of Iron and Nickle alloys with silica. Pressure 4 x 106 Atmosphere
 Composition of Earth

6500 km Radius

2900 3500
Crust (brittle)
5 To 100
Core Continent/ Ocean
Fluid

Mantle - Semi Solid

Core temperature 2500o-50000c

Crust temperature 25oc pressure 4 million atmosphere
pressure 1 atmosphere( 1 kg/cm2) density 135 kN/m3
density 15 kN/m3
(Core Pressure -mountain of 4000 cars piled up)
 Continental Drift

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Continental Drift

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

 Continental Drift

Alfred Wegener -1912

– large “supercontinent” (Pangaea)
existed and then split into pieces
– fossil & glacial deposit evidence
Wegener not able to provide
MECHANISM for his theory
Major mechanism later found in the
OCEANS

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

 Evidence for Continental Drift

• There is a noticeable jigsaw fit between many

continents - for example, between the East Coast of
South America and the West Coast of Africa, which
suggests that the continents were once assembled
together.
• A number of identical fossils have been found
distributed across the southern continents. Fossils of the
Mesosauras dating back 280 million years ago are
found in South America and Africa Plant Fossils, such
as Glossopteris (a tree) have been found in South
America, Africa, India and Australia.
Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore
Evidence for Continental Drift

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Evidence for Continental Drift

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

 Evidence for Continental Drift

• A number of continents show evidence of matching

geological sequences with rocks of similar age, type,
formation and structure occurring in different countries
• A number of climatic anomalies have been discovered
which suggest that continents must once have been in a
different position and therefore have experienced a
different climate. Coal which only forms under wet /
warm conditions have been found beneath the
Antarctica ice cap and there is evidence of glaciation in
Brazil

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Continental Drift
1.That the continents were once joined.
Therefore, they must have moved apart over
time.
2.Contracting Earth theory was not consistent
with the facts.
3.Wegener proposed a mechanism for
continental drift: pushing of the continents by
gravitational forces that derived from the sun
and the moon (similar to tides).
Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore
:

Plate Tectonics

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

 Major Tectonic Plates on the Earth Surface

India

Mantle
Crust

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

HOW EARTHQUAKE GENERATES ?

India

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Plate Tectonics – Epicenters of recent
earthquakes of moderate magnitude

8 to 10 cm
Every year

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

 Plate Movements

8 to 10 cm
Every year

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Why Plates Move?

Warmer material to Raise

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

What drives Earth processes?
Gravity and density differences
External (e.g. hydrologic cycle, erosion)
Internal (e.g. mantle convection)

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Where Do Earthquakes Occur and How Often?

 95% of all earthquakes occur along the plate boundaries

 most of these result from convergent margin activity
 remaining 5% occur in interiors of plates and on spreading ridge centers
 more than 150,000 quakes strong enough to be felt are recorded each year

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Properties of Plate Tectonic Theory

1. Continental crust is less dense, or lighter, than

Oceanic crust so it doesn't sink. It is never
destroyed and is considered permanent.
2. Oceanic crust is heavier so it can sink below
Continental crust. It is constantly being formed and
destroyed at ocean ridges and trenches.
3. Continental crust can carry on beyond the edges of
the land and finally end far below the sea. This
explains why the edges of all the continents don't
have deep trenches right up against their
coastlines.
Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore
 Properties of Plate Tectonic Theory

4. Plates can never overlap. This means that they must

either collide and both be pushed up to form
mountains, or one of the plates must be pushed
down into the mantle and be destroyed.
5. There can never be gaps between plates, so if two
plates move apart, as in the middle of the Atlantic,
new rock will be formed to fill the space.

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

 Properties of Plate Tectonic Theory

6. Earth is not getting bigger or smaller, so the amount

of new crust being formed must be the same as the
amount being destroyed.
7. Plate movement is very slow. Nobody could 'see' the
continents moving. When the plates make a sudden
movement, it is called an Earthquake, and it is the
only time we are directly aware of the plates moving.

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Plate Tectonic Theory

Surface is made of 12 major plates – constantly

drifting over semi molten mass
Plates collide - stresses will develop
Strain energy due to deformation > Resilience,
Energy is released
Released in the form of waves

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Elastic Rebound Theory

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

 What is Elastic Rebound Theory?

 Explains how energy is

stored in rocks
 Rocks bend until the
strength of the rock
is exceeded
 Rupture occurs and
the rocks quickly
rebound to an
undeformed shape
 Energy is released in
waves that radiate
outward from the
fault

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

 Earthquakes

Vibrations of the earth surface caused by

waves originating from a source of
disturbance in the earth mass is called
Earthquake.

Earthquake may be caused by volcanic

eruption or by strain building process
inside the earth mass.

UNPREDICTABLE
 Earthquake Shaking

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Earthquake may be caused by volcanic eruption or
by strain building process inside the earth mass.
UNPREDICTABLE
Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore
The Focus and Epicenter of an Earthquake

• The point within Earth

where faulting begins
is the focus, or
hypocenter
• The point directly
above the focus on
the surface is the
epicenter

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

FOCUS or HYPOCENTER: Location from where
earthquake originates. It may be a point, line or a
plane. It will be deep below the earth surface.
EPICENTER: Projection of focus on the surface of
earth. It is a point which is closest to point of
release of energy.
FOCAL DEPTH: Distance between focus and
epicenter. The closer the focal depth, more
damaging is the earthquake.
EPICENTRAL DISTANCE: Distance between
point of interest and epicenter.
Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore
 Faults

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Minor faults in Bhuj Earthquake (2001)

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Fault movement

Chichi Earthquake, Taiwan, 1999 SHIH KONG DAM

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

 Surface Fault Rupture

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

 Faults

 Normal Fault
 Reverse Fault
 Strike Slip Fault

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Normal
Fault

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Reverse
Fault

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Strike Slip Fault

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore
Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore
Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore
 Seismic Waves

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

 WAVE PROPAGATION IN ELASTIC HALF SPACE

BODY WAVE SURFACE WAVE

P-WAVE S-WAVE RALEIGH WAVE LOVE WAVE

SH WAVE SV WAVE
 Wave Propagation during Earthquake

1. AMPLIFICATION
2. DEGRADATION

Epicentral
Distance EPICENTER

Observation
Point
SHEAR WAVES PROPAGATES
VERTICALLY UPWARDS
Focal
Depth
RARER MEDIUM

DENSER MEDIUM

FOCUS
Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore
 Body Waves

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Body Waves: P and S waves
P or primary waves
 fastest waves
 travel through solids, liquids, or
gases
 compressional wave, material
movement is in the same
direction as wave movement
S or secondary waves
 slower than P waves
 travel through solids only
 shear waves - move material
perpendicular to wave
movement

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

 Surface Waves

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Surface Waves: R and L waves

 Surface Waves
◦ Travel just below or along the ground’s surface
◦ Slower than body waves; rolling and side-to-side
movement
◦ Especially damaging to buildings

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore
What are the Destructive Effects of Earthquakes?
Ground Shaking amplitude, duration, and
damage increases in poorly consolidated rocks

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

 Seismic Instruments

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Seismic Measuring Instruments
Two types of Instruments
1. Seismographs - Instrument
Seismogram - Record
Sensitive, less accurate
2. Accelerographs - Instrument
Accelerogram – Record
Accurate, less sensitive

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Seismograph

Charles
Richter

Cheng Heng's Earthquake

weathercock
Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore
 Seismic Measuring Instruments

Vertical Pole
String
Vibration Free Arm
Seismic Mass
Recording Assembly

Base Plate

Seismographs - Instrument
Seismogram - Record

Strong Motion Accelerographs - Instrument

Accelerogram - Record

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Seismogram Unpredictable ? ? ? ? ?

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

 Typical Seismograph

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Typical Seismogram
• PGA
• Predominant Frequency
• Duration of Strong Motion
Acceleration Start of Surface Waves
Start of Primary
Waves Trace
SA
Amplitude
Time
Start of Secondary
Waves Strong Motion • Random
• Time Dependent
• Cyclic

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Seismogram
Printout

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Typical result
from a
Seismograph

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

 Seismographs record
earthquake events

At convergent boundaries,
focal depth increases along
a dipping seismic zone
called a Benioff zone

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore
 Accelerogram Records

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

 How is an Earthquake’s Epicenter Located?

Seismic wave behavior

◦ P waves arrive first, then S waves, then L and R
◦ Average speeds for all these waves is known
◦ After an earthquake, the difference in arrival times at a seismograph
station can be used to calculate the distance to the epicenter.

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

How is an Earthquake’s Epicenter Located?

Time-distance graph
showing the average
travel times for P- and S-
waves.
The farther away a
seismograph is from the
focus of an earthquake,
the longer the interval
between the arrivals of
the P- and S- waves
Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore
 Time-Travel
Curve
Δ S-P 11 mnts – 8600 km
Δ S-P 8 mnts – 5600 km
Δ S-P 3 mnts – 1500 km

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

 Karnataka
State Natural
Disaster
Management
Center

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

 Triangulation
of 3 stations
to locate
earthquake
epicenter

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Epicenter Location

S Wave

P Wave
dt

Epicenter

dt
D = ( 1/V – 1/ V )
s p

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore Vp=4.8 km/s, Vs=3 km/s

How is an Earthquake’s Epicenter Located?

Three seismograph
stations are needed to
locate the epicenter of an
earthquake
A circle where the radius
equals the distance to the
epicenter is drawn
The intersection of the
circles locates the
epicenter

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

 Magnitude & Intensity

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

 Earthquake Magnitude

How can we compare the sizes of earthquakes?

What is Richter magnitude?
How does magnitude relate to the energy released
by an earthquake?
When rocks shift suddenly along a fault, they generate waves.
These waves shake the ground, producing earthquakes.
Seismographs record the wave amplitudes, which are used to
calculate the earthquake magnitude and the energy released by
the rupture.

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

The intensity of shaking is one way to assess the size of an earthquake. A
value is assigned based on damage reports and personal interviews of
people who experienced the quake. The intensity depends on location; in
general, the closer the observer to the earthquake, the higher the intensity.
Intensity values assist in seismic hazard and historical earthquake analysis.
In 1935 Charles Richter developed a method to
compare the sizes of California earthquakes based on
waves recorded by seismographs. In his method, a
single magnitude is assigned based on maximum
wave amplitudes.
Modern seismologists have modified his method and
now analyze a large section of the waves recorded on
a seismograph to calculate a seismic moment. The
seismic moment is then converted to moment
magnitude, which is the standard size reported by the
U.S. Geological Survey.

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

A seismogram is a graph of wave amplitude Vs. Time. In old
seismographs, a pen drew the recording on a piece of paper.
In new seismographs, the signal is recorded digitally.
This is a seismogram of the magnitude-9.1 Sumatra-
Andaman Islands earthquake that occurred on December 26,
2004. The recording seismograph is located on the Cocos
Islands in the Indian Ocean.

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

How the Magnitude of an Earthquake Measured?

Magnitude
 Richter scale
measures total amount
of energy released by
an earthquake;
independent of
intensity
 Amplitude of the
largest wave produced
by an event is
corrected for distance
and assigned a value
on an open-ended
logarithmic scale

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

MAGNITUDE
A number – RICHTER Scale M = log 10 A
Energy released at focus
log 10 E = 11.4 + 1.5 M
log 10 E = 4.8 + 1.5 Ms
Each increase in M > the energy by 32 times
Strength of earthquake ( Atom bomb – 5.0 )
Measure of strain energy released at
hypocenter.
Determined by seismographs
It is independent of place
Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore
How does the amplitude of a magnitude-8
earthquake compare to the amplitude of
smaller events?

If we likened
earthquakes to hills
and mountain
peaks, each peak is
10 times the height
of the previous one.

Mag. 6 Mag. 7 = 10× larger than Mag 6 Mag. 8 = 10× larger than Mag. 7
= 100× larger than Mag. 6

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

 Moment Magnitude Scale (MMS or Mw) is
more popular presently.
The magnitude is based on seismic moment of
the earthquake
Seismic Moment Mo=muxLengthxwidthxslip
mu = modulus of rigidity N/m2
Mw = 2/3 (log10 Mo-9.1)is better for bigger
earthquakes.
It is equal to the rigidity of the Earth multiplied
by the average amount of slip on the fault and
the size of the area that slipped
Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore
INTENSITY:Is not Quantitative-
Mercalli’s scale
Measure of damaging effect of
earthquake at a site
Depends on
• Local soil conditions,
• Type & Quality of structures,
• Epicentral distance etc.
• Focal Depth

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

How are the Size and Strength of an Earthquake Measured?

 Intensity
 subjective measure
of the kind of
damage done and
people’s reactions
to it
 isoseismal lines
identify areas of
equal intensity

• Modified Mercalli Intensity Map

– 1994 Northridge, CA earthquake,
magnitude 6.7

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Fire Crackers
of different
magnitudes of
blasts

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

 Intensity of Earthquake – Modified Mercalli’s Scale
I Insignificant Only detected by instruments
II Very Light Felt by sensitive persons, Oscillation of hanging objects
III Light Small vibratory motion
IV Moderate Felt inside building, Noise produced by moving objects
V Slightly Strong Felt by most persons, some panic, minor damages
VI Strong Damage to non seismic resistant structures
VII Very Strong People panic, serious damage to poor construction
VIII Destructive Serious damage to structures in general
Serious damage to well built structures, almost total
IX Ruinous
destruction of non-seismic resistant structures
X Disastrous Only seismic resistant structures remain standing

XI Extremely Disastrous General Panic, almost total destruction, ground cracks & opens

XII Catastrophic Total destruction

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

 Intensity of
Earthquake
Modified Mercalli’s
Scale

Isoseismal Map of Bhuj (2001)

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Magnitude & Intensity
Energy released and Magnitude Relationships

1.E+23

1.E+23

9.E+22 1.E+22

8.E+22

7.E+22
1.E+21
6.E+22

5.E+22

4.E+22 1.E+20

3.E+22

2.E+22
1.E+19
1.E+22 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Magnitude
1.E+19
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Magnitude

Energy (Log)
Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore
Causes for Earthquake
• Tectonic earthquake
• Volcanic earthquake
• Rock fall or collapse of cavity
• Microseism
• Explosion (Controlled blast)
• Reservoir induced earthquake
• Mining induced earthquake
• Cultural Noise (Industry, Traffic etc.)

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

EARTHQUAKE DAMAGE
1. An earthquake does not cause death or injury by
itself.
2. People are hurt by falling plaster and collapsing
walls or falling of heavy objects.
3. Collapsing buildings and vibrations can cause
short circuits and electric fires.
4. Lighted gas or stoves may also cause fires.
5. All this leads to panic and confusion.
6. With some precautions it is possible to avoid such
confusion.
Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore
Classification of Earthquakes
Based on Focal Depth
Based on magnitude
Based on origin
Based on location
Based on Epicentral distance

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Based on Focal Depth
Shallow Focus earthquakes
(<70 km)
Intermediate focus earthquakes
(70 to 300 km)
Deep focus earthquakes
(> 300 km)

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Based on magnitude
Micro earthquakes (M < 3)
Intermediate earthquakes (M 3 to 5)
Moderate earthquakes (M 5 to 6)
Strong earthquakes (M 6 to 7)
Major earthquakes (M 7 to 8)
Great earthquakes (M > 8)

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Based on origin
Tectonic earthquakes
Plutonic earthquakes
Explosions
Collapse earthquakes
Volcanic earthquakes
Reservoir induced earthquakes
Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore
Based on location
Inter-plate earthquakes
Convergent boundaries
Divergent boundaries
Transform plane boundaries
Intra-plate earthquakes
Dip slip fault
Strike slip fault

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore

Based on Epicentral distance
Local shock (4 km range)
Near shock (4 to 10 km range)
Distant shock (10 to 20 km range)
Telescopic shock (> 20 km range)

Dr. S. K. Prasad, S.J.C.E., Mysore