OR0551 - Renewable Energy Sources

ORO551- RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES – 45 Periods

OBJECTIVES:
 To get exposure on solar radiation and its environmental impact to power.
 To know about the various collectors used for storing solar energy.
 To know about the various applications in solar energy.
 To learn about the wind energy and biomass and its economic aspects.
 To know about geothermal energy with other energy sources.

Content Page Number

Unit I -- 1
Unit II -- 26
Unit III -- 101
Unit IV -- 129
Unit V -- 140

UNIT I - PRINCIPLES OF SOLAR RADIATION – 10 Periods

Role and potential of new and renewable source, the solar energy option, Environmental
impact of solar power, physics of the sun, the solar constant, extraterrestrial and
terrestrial solar radiation, solar radiation on titled surface, instruments for measuring solar
radiation and sun shine, solar radiation data.

1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Primary Energy Sources
It can be defined as sources which provide a net supply of energy. Coal, oil,
uranium etc. are examples of this type. The energy required to obtain these fuels
is less. The energy yield ratio is very high.
Yield ratio
The energy fed back by the material to the energy received from the
environment.

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1.1.2 Secondary Fuels

Though it may be necessary for the economy, these may not yield net energy.
The yield ratio is less. Example: Intensive agriculture.
1.1.3 Supplementary Sources
It can be defined as those whose net energy yield is zero and those requiring
highest investment in terms of energy.
Example: Solar energy, wind energy, water energy.
Solar energy: Solar plant, Solar Cells & Solar heaters.
1.1.4 Energy Consumption
The standard of living of a given country can be directly related to per capita
energy consumption.
Energy crisis reason: i) Population ii) Standard of living
Per capita energy consumption
 USA – 8000 kwh per year, 7% of world population consumes 32%
of the total energy
 India – 150 kwh per year, 20% of world population consumes 1% of
the total energy
 USA 50 times more than India
1.1.5 Commercial or conventional energy sources
 Major sources: Fossil fuels, water power or energy stored in water, energy of
nuclear fission
 Minor sources: Sun, Wind, Tides in the Sea, Geo Thermal, Thermionic,
Thermo-Electric Generator, etc.
Total energy consumption in the world
 Coal - 32.5%
 Oil - 38.3 %
 Gas - 19.0 % 92%
 Uranium - 0.13 %
 Hydro - 2.0%
 Wood - 6.6 %
 Dung - 1.2 % 8%

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 Waste - 0.3 %
1.1.6 Non-Commercial Energy
The energy sources that are not available in the commercial market for a price
are classified as non-commercial energy. Non-commercial energy sources include fuels
such as firewood, cattle dung and agricultural wastes, which are traditionally gathered,
and not bought at a price used especially in rural households. These are also called
traditional fuels. Non-commercial energy is often ignored in energy accounting.
Example: Firewood, agro waste in rural areas; solar energy for water heating, electricity
generation, for drying grain, fish and fruits; animal power for transport, threshing, lifting
water for irrigation, crushing sugarcane; wind energy for lifting water and electricity
generation.
1.1.7 Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES)
India has a vast supply of renewable energy resources, and it has one of the
largest programs in the world for deploying renewable energy products and systems.
Indeed, it is the only country in the world to have an exclusive ministry for renewable
energy development, the Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES). Since
its formation, the Ministry has launched one of the world’s largest and most ambitious
programs on renewable energy. Based on various promotional efforts put in place by
MNES, significant progress is being made in power generation from renewable energy
sources. In October, MNES was renamed the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy.
Specifically, 3,700 MW are currently powered by renewable energy sources (3.5
percent of total installed capacity). This is projected to be 10,000 MW from renewable
energy by 2012. Also, with a commitment to rural electrification, the Ministry of Power
has accelerated the Rural Electrification Program with a target of 100,000 villages by
2012.
1.2 Role and potential of new and renewable source
 The level and quality of the energy and the temperature required to be generated
with this energy are factors with need to be examined.
 Bulk power needs can be supplied in the anticipated future, only by increasing
utilization of conventional and nuclear energy sources.

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 The power transmission network at present covers about 45% of the villages,
with about 67% of the rural population.
 Hydroelectric sources may be the most advantageous form of renewable energy
for meeting the requirements of people living in the hilly areas of the country.
 There is also scope for renewable sources, such as solar energy, wind and
biogas to meet the decentralized requirements for lighting, heating, pumping and
low-grade heat.
 The actual contribution made by renewable energies in future will depend on
several factors which are as follows.
i. The availability of conventional sources: The constraints on oil supply are
well known. The transportation of coal to distant locations will also continue to
be a problem.
ii. The price of conventional fuels: At present, the conventional energy structure
subsidized and systems based on renewable energies are found to be
economically less attractive to users in several cases.
iii. The development of technology for effective and economic utilization of new
and renewable sources of energy.
iv. Infrastructure for the production, distribution, utilization and maintenance of
systems based on new and renewable sources.
v. Limitations such as land, animal population, climatic conditions, etc.
vi. Awareness among various sections of the population, of the importance of
new energy sources and adjustment of life styles, to use their new sources.
The total contribution of new and renewable energies has been estimated as follows:
 In rural areas: non-commercial fuels supplied 80 percent of the energy
requirements
 In urban area: they contributed 51 percent of the energy requirements.
According to the reference level forecast, in the year 2000, the consumption of various
fuels was estimated as follows:
 House hold sector: 35.80 TW of electricity, 12.95 million ton of kerosene
and 3.31 million ton of LPG
 Agriculture sectors: 28.0 TW of electricity and 5.26 million ton of diesel.

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In the rural areas, the main energy requirements can be classified as follows:
1. 95-250⁰C heat (cooking)
2. 95⁰ C heat (water heating, drying, etc.)
3. 250⁰ C heat (pottery, brick making, smithy, etc.)
4. Mechanical work in mobile equipment
5. Lighting
A study of the energy consumption at different temperature levels in the coffee, dairy
and textile industry indicates that more than 85% of the total thermal energy is
consumed for heating up to 140⁰C.
For low and medium temperature heat applications and for low power applications in
remote areas, the renewable energy like solar energy, bio-mass is nearing economic
competitiveness. The energy consumption and supply pattern in urban areas differs
considerably from that in the rural areas.
1.2 Solar energy option
The sun is a very large source of perennial source of energy The Earth receives
174,000 terawatts (TW) of incoming solar radiation at the upper atmosphere. Hence this
energy consumption certainly meets the present and future need on a continuing basis.
It is an important source of renewable energy and its technologies are broadly
characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on how they capture and
distribute solar energy or convert it into solar power. Most of the world's population lives
in areas with insolation levels of 150-300 watts/m², or 3.5-7.0 kWh/m² per day. Due to
the large distance between the sun and the earth (1.495 × 108 km) the beam radiation
received from the sun on the earth is almost parallel.

However, solar energy has certain positive and negative characteristics when
applied to thermal processes. The major technical obstacle for solar thermal application

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is the intermittent nature of the source, both on daily and short time-scale. The
intermittent nature leads to a storage requirement. The extra cost and complexity of
storage is a negative point to solar systems. Solar system also requires a good solar
climate for efficient operation. On the other hand, solar energy has an advantageous
position compared with scarce fossil fuels. This is favorable in case of India: Land for
solar collectors is abundant, energy demand is high, and the solar flux is also high and
direct beam component maximum. Therefore, most of the energy demands in India can
be met by simple solar systems. There are very few new components like collectors,
controls which are complex. By proper application of solar techniques, an excellent
thermodynamic match between the solar energy resources and many end-uses can be
achieved.
The entropy level of solar energy is manipulated in order to provide an optimum
task-to-entropy-level match. The match can be achieved by varying degrees of
concentration of solar energy. For high-entropy uses such as water heating, crop drying.
etc., high-entropy solar energy attained by using flat-plate collectors. But, solar thermal
energy generating station requires low-entropy thermal energy.
1.3 Environmental impact of solar power
Every energy generation and transmission method affects the environment. As it
is obvious conventional generating options can damage air, climate, water, land and
wildlife, landscape, as well as raise the levels of harmful radiation. Solar energy
technologies (SETs) are substantially safer offering a solution to many environmental
and social problems associated with fossil and nuclear fuels. However, there are
several disadvantages as well.
Air pollution:
This can be caused by chemical reactants used in storage or organic fluids for
heat transport. The release of CO, SO2, SO3, hydrocarbon vapors and other toxic gases
should be accounted, though their magnitude is not high.
However, the SET don’t cause any air pollution due to the combustion as like
fossil fuels. Therefore, reduction of the emissions of the greenhouse gases (mainly CO2,
NOx) and prevention of toxic gas emissions (SO2, particulates) are occurred.
Water pollution:

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Water pollution is a possibility by the release of collector or process working

fluids and chemicals used in storage. These find their way into hydro-systems and being
toxic should be cautiously contained. Nitrates and nitrites can cause carcinogenesis and
mental important, while glycol and heat transfer oil may have severe impact on
portability of water and aquatic fauna, although these are remote possibility. But, the
SET improved the quality of water resources.
Land use:
Solar plants require large land and the collection field produce shading not
normally present over large areas. This may cause disturbance in local ecosystem.
However, the SET don’t do any reclamation of degraded land.
Thermal effect:
The fire hazard associated with over-heated organic working fluids exists. An
invisible high temperature hazard zone exists near the focus of large solar reflectors
and absorbers. Human tissue when exposed would be destroyed because of high
energy-flux densities. The areas should be shielded off. However, the thermal effects of
solar plants are minimal. Actually these systems eliminate local thermal pollution as like
fossil fuel combustion.
Noise effect:
SETs do not add any new noise to that already existing in the present industrial
or utility areas.
It reduced the required transmission lines of the electricity grids. In summary, the
impact of solar systems on the environment is significantly lower than non-solar
systems. The basic research in solar energy is being carried in universities and
educational and research institutions, public sector institution, BHEL and Central
Electronic Limited and carrying out a coordinated program of research of solar energy.
The application of solar energy is:
1. Heating and cooling residential buildings
2. Solar water heating
3. Solar drying of agricultural and chemical products.
4. Solar distillation of a small community scale
5. Salt production by evaporation of sea water
6. Solar cookers
7. Solar engines for water pumping

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8. Food refrigeration
9. Bio conversion and wind energy and which are indirect source of solar energy
10. Solar furnaces
11. Solar electric power generation by: i) Solar ponds, ii) Steam generators
heated by rotating reflectors, and iii) reflectors with lenses and pipes for
fluid circulation.
12. Solar photovoltaic cells which can be used for conversion of solar energy directly
into electricity (or) for water pumping in rural agriculture purposes.
1.4 Physics of the sun
The Sun is a star comprising about 99.86% of the total mass of the solar system.
It consists mostly of Hydrogen (90%) and Helium (10%). Sun's high temperature is
maintained by enormous nuclear energy being released by the continuous fusion
reaction. The fusion reaction involves four hydrogen atoms combining to form one
helium atom (4 X 1H1  2He4 + 26.7 MeV). The radiated heat energy moves out as
electromagnetic waves. The electromagnetic waves reaching the planet earth in three
spectral regions; i) Ultraviolet 6.4 % (short wave length ≤ 0.38 μm), ii) Visible 48.0 %
(0.39 μm to 0.78 μm), and iii) Infrared 45.6 % (short wave length ≥ 0.78 μm) of total
energy.

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Central Region (Core):

 Energy is generated due to fusion reaction of gases transforms hydrogen into
helium.
 90% of energy is generated within the core range of 0 – 0.23 solar radius
 The temperature in the central region is in million degrees.
 The temperature drops to 130,000 ºK with in a range of 0.7 solar radius
 It has a density of 150 g/cm3 (150 times the density of liquid water) at the center
 Temperature of 15 million kelvins.
 The core is made of hot, dense plasma (ions and electrons), at a pressure
estimated at 265 billion bar at the center.
 Due to fusion, the composition of the solar plasma drops from 68-70% hydrogen
by mass at the outer core, to 33% hydrogen at the core/Sun center.
Convection Region:
 0.7 solar radius - where convection process involves
 The temperature drops to 5,000 K
Photosphere Region:
 The lower atmosphere and what we see
 Upper layer of the convective zone
 Composed of strongly ionized gas
 Able to absorb and emit continuous spectrum of radiation
 Source of the most solar radiation
Chromosphere Region:
 Orange red layer of atmosphere

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 thousands of miles thick

 Outer gaseous layer with temperature somewhat higher than the Photosphere.
Corona Region:
 Uppermost part of the atmosphere
 Millions of miles thick
 Consists of Rarified gases
 Temperature as high as 1000,000 K
Characteristics of Sun

Planets of the Earth

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The study of sun contains many disciplines of pure physics, astrophysics, and
computer science, including fluid dynamics, plasma physics including magneto
hydrodynamics, seismology, particle physics, atomic physics, nuclear physics, stellar
evolution, space physics, spectroscopy, radiative transfer, applied optics, signal
processing, computer vision, computational physics, stellar physics and solar
astronomy.
1.4.1 Solar Radiation

All substances solids, liquids and gases at temperature above zero emit energy
in form of electromagnetic waves. This energy is called radiation. Radiation is a
process by which heat flows from a body at a higher temperature to a body at a lower
temperature when the bodies are separated them.
A perfect radiator (called black body) emits energy from its surface at a rate Q is
given by, =
Where,
= Stefan boltzman constant = 5.67 ×10−8 / 2 4

2
A = heat transfer surface area of the body,
T = absolute temperature of body, K
For a real body, =
= / R

where, = Emissivity of the surface

1.4.2 Irradiance
It is the rate at which radiant energy is incidenting on a unit surface area. It is the
measure of power density of sunlight falling per unit area and time. It is the
measured in watt per square metre.
1.4.3 Irradiation
It is solar energy per unit surface area which is striking a body over a specified
time. Hence it is integration of solar illumination or irradiance over a specified
time (usually an hour or kilowatt a day). It is the measured in kilowatt-hour or
kilowatt day per square metre.
1.5 Solar constant (Isc)

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It is defined as the energy received from the sun per unit time on a unit surface
area perpendicular to the direction of propagation of solar radiation at the top of earth’s
atmosphere when earth is at its mean distance from the sun. It is represented by Isc and
the value is taken as 1367 W/m2. It is characterised by the following:
1. It is constant and not affected by daily, seasonal, atmospheric condition, clarity
of atmosphere etc.
2. It is on a unit area on imaginary spherical surface around earth’s atmosphere
for mean distance between the sun and the earth.
3. It is on surface normal to sun's rays. Sun rays are practically parallel (beam
radiation).
The solar constant value varies up to 3% throughout the year, because the
distance between the sun and the earth varies little throughout the year. This variation
in distance produces sinusoidal variation in the intensity of solar radiation.
1.6 Extraterrestrial and terrestrial solar radiation
The earth is closest to the sun during the summer and farthest during the winter.
The mean distance of the earth from the sun is 1.495 × 1011 km.

Elliptical orbit of earth’s revolution

The intensity of solar radiation outside the earth's atmosphere reduces with
distance and is dependent on the distance between the earth and the sun. The
intensity of solar radiation reaching outside the earth's atmosphere varies with the
square of the distance between the centres of the earth and the sun. This is the reason
why earth receives 7% more radiation on 21 March and 23 September as compared to
21 June and 22 December.

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The earth axis is tilted about 23.45º with respect to earth’s orbit around the sun.
So, the northern hemisphere of the earth points towards the sun in the month of June
(summer) and it points away from the sun in the month of December (winter). However,
earth’s axis remains perpendicular to the imaginary line drawn from the earth to the sun
during the months of September and March. Therefore, both the hemispheres are at the
same distance from the sun and receive equal sunshine. The sun-earth’s distance
varies during earth’s rotation around the sun, thereby varying the solar energy reaching
its surface during revolution, which brings about seasonal changes. During summer, the
sun is higher in the sky, while the sun is lower in the sky during winter for the northern
hemisphere.

1.6.1 Extraterrestrial radiation

Solar radiation incident outside the earth's atmosphere is called extraterrestrial
radiation. The extraterrestrial radiation varies based on the change in sun-earth’s
distance arising from earth’s elliptical orbit of rotation. The extraterrestrial radiation is
not affected by changes in atmospheric condition. On average the extraterrestrial
irradiance is 1367 Watts/meter2 (W/m2).

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Extraterrestrial radiation, Io = ISC [1+0.033 cos ( )] W/m2

Io –Extraterrestrial radiation
n - Number of days from January 1
Isc – Solar Constant, 1367 W/m2
1.6.2 Terrestrial solar radiation
When radiation passes through earth’s atmosphere, it is subjected to the
mechanism of atmospheric absorption and scattering depending on atmospheric
conditions. Earth’s atmospheric contains various constituent, suspended dust and solid
and liquid particles, such as air molecules, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, ozone, water vapour and dust. Therefore, solar radiation or intensity of
radiation is depleted during its passage through the atmosphere.
The solar radiation that reaches earth’s surface after passing through
earth’s atmosphere is called terrestrial radiation.
Direct or beam radiation
A part of sun’s radiation travels through earth’s atmosphere and it reaches
directly, which is called direct or beam radiation. The beam radiation depends on the
angle of incident on the surface and its intensity is maximum when the solar radiation is
falling normal to the surface. The solar radiation propagating normal to its direction is
specified by In.
Diffuse or sky radiation
The major part of the solar radiation is scattered, reflected back into the space or
absorbed by earth’s atmosphere. A part of this radiation may reach earth’s surface. This
radiation reaching earth’s surface by the mechanism of scattering and reflecting, that is,
radiation, is called diffuse or sky radiation. The diffuse radiation does not have any
unique directions and its intensity does not change with the orientation of the surface
Total or Global Solar Radiation
The sum of diffuse and beam solar radiation is called global solar radiation.

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From extraterrestrial region, the solar radiation reaches earth’s surface in two
ways: (i) direct or beam radiation, and (ii) diffuse or sky radiation.
Air mass:
It is the ratio of the path length though the atmosphere which the solar beam actually
traverses up yo earth’s surface to the vertical path length through the atmosphere
1.7 Solar radiation on titled surface
The rate of receipt of solar energy on a given surface on the ground depends on
the orientation of the surface with reference to the sun. A fully sun-tracking surface that
always faces the sun receives the maximum possible solar energy at the particular
location. A surface of the same area oriented in any other direction will receive smaller
amount of solar radiation. Because solar radiation is such a ‘dilute’ form of energy, it is
desirable to capture as much as possible on a given area. The measuring instruments
give the values of solar radiation falling on horizontal surfaces. Because, most of the
solar collectors or solar radiation collecting devices are tilted at an angle to horizontal. It
is therefore necessary to convert data for a hourly radiation (measured or estimated) on
a horizontal surface of radiation on a tilted surface.
Beam radiation. In most cases; the tilted surface faces due south i.e., γ = 0, for
this case,
cos θ = sin δ sin (ϕ - s) + cos δ cos ω cos (ϕ - s)

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For horizontal surface (θ = θz)

cos θz = sin ϕ sin δ + cos ϕ cos δ cos ω.
It follows that the ratio of the beam radiation falling on the tilted surface (HT) to
the falling on horizontal surface (H) is given by

Rb =

= =
( ) ( )
=

This ratio is called the tilt factor for beam radiation.

Total radiation. Beam and diffuse component of solar radiation are absorbed in flat
plate type collector. The angular correction factor has been determined for beam
radiation as given by equation. Correction for diffuse radiation can be applied for clear
days, for that it can be assumed that their origin is near the sun, that is, the scattering of
solar radiation is mostly forward scattering. For such a case, R may be assumed equal
to Rb, where R is the correction factor for both direct and diffuse radiation.

Rb =

HT = R (Hb +Hd)
For cloudy on hazy days diffuse radiation can be assumed as uniformly
distributed over the sky. The effective ratio of solar energy on the tilted surface to that
on the horizontal surface is then

Rb = = Rb=

Conversion factor for diffuse radiation (Rd) is given by equation

( )
Rd =

( )
A surface tilted at slope s from the horizontal sees of the sky dome.

The tilted surface also sees ground or other surroundings and if those
surroundings have a diffuse reflectance of ρ for solar radiation, the reflected radiation
from the surrounding on the surface from total solar radiation is

(Hb +Hd) (1 + cos s)

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Hence three components; the beam radiation, diffuse solar radiation and solar
radiation reflected from the ground which the tilted surface sees, are considered above.
This was first considered by Liu and Jordan. Hence combining the three terms.
( ) ( )
HT = HbRb + Hd + (Hb +Hd) ρ

( ) ( )
and R= Rb+ + ρ

The values of diffuse reflectance as suggested by Liu and Jordan are as follows
ρ = 0.2 when there is no snow
= 0.7 when there is a snow cover
Therefore for Indian conditions, a value around 0.2 is generally expected with
surfaces of concrete or glass and can be used. Fortunately the reflected radiation term
does not contribute much to the total because in India the value of the angle s would
rarely exceed 30°.
1.8 Instruments for measuring solar radiation and sun shine
Measurements of solar radiation are important because of the increasing number
of solar heating and cooling applications, and the need for accurate solar irradiation
data to predict performance. Experimental determination of the energy transferred to a
surface by solar radiation required instruments which will measure the heating effect of
direct solar radiation and diffuse solar radiation. Measurements are also made of beam
radiation, which respond to solar radiation received from a very small portion of the
circum solar sky. A total radiation type of instrument may be used for measuring diffuse
radiation alone by sharing the sensing element from the sun's direct rays:
Two basic types of instrument are employed for solar radiation measurement:
(1) a pyranometer, which measures the total hemisperical solar
radiation. The pyranometer measurements are the most common, and
(2) a pyrheliometer, which collimates the radiation to determine the
beam intensity as a function of incident angle.
The total solar radiation arriving at the outer age of the atmosphere is
called the solar constant.

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(1) Pyranometer
A pyranometer is radiation energy measuring device which is designed to
measure global or total radiation usually on horizontal plane but it can also be used to
measure on an inclined plane. When instrument is shaded using shading ring to prevent
them radiation reaching its detector, the pyranometer in this condition can measure only
diffuse radiation. The instrument consists of a thermopile whose sensitive surface forms
its hot junction. This surface is blackened circular in shape and exposed to radiation. So
that the surface should respond to radiation of all wavelengths so as to absorb them as
a black body. The temperature of hot junction increases depending on amount of the
incident radiation energy absorbed by it. The cold junction of the thermopile is
completely shaded to prevent the radiation reaching (shown as white). The sensing
element is covered by two concentric hemispherical glass domes to shield it from wind
and rain. This also helps to reduce or prevent heat inflow to the detector by the
convection heat transfer from air. The instrument is protected from direct solar radiation
by mounting a circular guard plate at the level of detector which is also painted white to
prevent the absorption of any solar radiation. The instrument can be accurately levelled
by means of three levelling screens provided at its base. Inside the instrument, a tube
containing silica gel is provided to keep the interior of the instrument dry without the
adverse effect of moisture; that is, moisture should not be deposited inside the glass of
the domes. The pyranometer is also provided with a shadow band or occulting disc to
prevent the direct beam radiation from reaching the sensing element and it is used
when instrument is required to measure the diffuse radiation. The temperature
difference between the hot and cold junction is the function of radiation falling on the
sensitive surface (black junction). The thermopile is designed to measure radiation in
linear manner. The instruments has a voltage output of approximately 9 μV / (W/mV)
which is recorded on a chart paper by a recorder. The daily values of radiation are
recorded on hourly basis and a pyranogram is obtained which is a graph of radiation
versus hour lines.

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(2) Pyrheliometer
It is an instrument to measure beam radiation. It has a narrow long tube called
collimator tube to collect beam radiation from the sun at normal incidence. The long
collimator tube ensures that a beam radiation having field of view limited to a solid angle
of 5.5° should be collected. The collimator tube is further blackened from inside and
provided diaphragm along the length to absorb any radiation entering the tube but
incident at any angle outside the designed angle of 5.5°. At the base of collimator tube,
a wire-wound thermopile having sensitivity of about 8 μV / (W/m2) is positioned which
has impedance of about 200Ω. The tube is sealed with dry air with help of silica gel to
avoid any absorption of beam radiation owing to presence of moisture in the air. A
tracker is provided in the instrument to keep the collimator tube continuously faces the
sun rays for the measurement.

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Three types of pyrheliometers are usually used to measure the incident beam
radiation, which are:
 The Angstrom compensation pyrheliometer
 The Abbot silver disc pyrheliometer
 Eppley pyrheliometer

Angstrom compensation pyrheliometer

The instrument has a thin blackened strip besides the detector made of a similar
strip. The detector is exposed to the beam radiation while this strip is kept shaded so
that it has no heating effect from the beam radiation. However, this trip is heated
electrically using an electric circuit so that the strip can achieve the same temperature
which is present at the sensitive solar detector ship owing to the incidence and
absorption of solar beam radiation. The leads of thermophile are connected in
opposition through a sensitive galvanometer to find null position by testing the presence
of equality of temperature at both the strips. The beam radiation energy (Hb) at the
place can be determined by the following equation:
Hb = k X i2
where i is the heating current in ampere and k is the instrument constant depending

upon resistance (R), width of strip (w) and observing coefficient (α) that is, k = .

The electrical circuits for Angstrom compensation pyrheliometer is shown in

figure.
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Sunshine recorder
The instrument is used to measure the duration of bright sunshine hours in a day.
It mainly consists of a glass sphere (diameter = 10 cm) mounted on its axis parallel to
the axis of earth within a spherical section called bold as shown in figure. The ball and
glass sphere are arranged in such a way that sun’s rays are focused sharply as a spot
on recording paper card held in a groove in the bowl. The card is made of a special
coated paper with the printed time scale. The paper card has the property to burn a spot
wherever sun’ rays fall on it. As the sun moves, the focused bright sun's rays burn a
path along the card paper. The length of the trace formed by the burn spots on the card
paper is the measure of the duration of sunshine house in a day. To take care of
different seasons of the year, three overlapping pair of grooves to fix the card paper are
provided in the bowl of the instrument.

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1.9 Solar radiation data

To design a solar energy system or to evaluate the potential of any solar
application at any place, it is necessary to have (i) monthly average, (ii) daily solar
radiation data on a horizontal surface consisting of both global and diffuse radiation and
(iii) daily solar radiation data with certain tilt angles. The typical daily solar radiation data
on clear and cloudy days as measured on a horizontal surface are as shown in figure.
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Monthly average of daily radiation is obtained by averaging the daily radiation for
a month. The radiation also depends on the tilt of the surface. The monthly average
depends on (i) hourly variation of global and diffuse radiation (ii) amount of radiation
received per day and (iii) the number of sunshine hours per day. A general idea of the
availability of solar radiation can obtained with the help of solar radiation maps which
are drawn to show the distribution of the annual mean daily global solar radiation
(kWh/m2/day).n a typical solar radiation map is shown in figure.

i. Monthly average daily global radiation ( g) on horizontal surface

The monthly average daily global (total) radiation ( g) on horizontal surface is

determined from (i) monthly average daily extraterrestrial radiation ( 0) on horizontal

surface, (ii) monthly average daily hours of bright sunshine (n) and (iii) monthly average
of maximum possible daily hours of sunshine (N). it is given by

=a+b

where a and b ar the regression parameters which are constant for a particular
location

ii. Monthly average daily diffuse radiation ( o) on horizontal surface

Monthly average daily diffuse radiation ( o) on horizontal surface can be

determined from (i) monthly average daily global radiation and (ii) monthly average
clarity index ( T), which is the ratio of monthly average of daily global radiation to the
monthly average of daily extraterrestrial radiation. The monthly average of the daily
diffuse radiation can be given as

= 1.194 – 0.838 T – 0.0446

iii. Monthly average daily global radiation ( T) on tilted surface

The monthly average daily global radiation ( T) on tilted surface can be given as
( ) ( )
T= ( − ) b + +

where b is the construction factor for monthly average daily beama radiation.

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UNIT II - SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTION – 8 Periods

Flat plate and concentrating collectors, classification of concentrating collectors, orientation

and thermal analysis, advanced collectors

2.1 Flat Plate and Concentrating Collector

2.2 Classification of Concentrating Collectors

2.3 Orientation and Thermal Analysis

2.4 Advanced Collectors

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UNIT III - SOLAR ENERGY STORAGE AND APPLICATIONS – 8 Periods

Different methods, Sensible, latent heat and stratified storage, solar ponds. Solar
Applications solar heating/cooling technique, solar distillation and drying, photovoltaic

3.1 Different methods

3.2 Sensible heat

3.3 Latent heat

3.4 Stratified storage

3.5 Solar ponds

3.6 Solar Applications

3.7 Solar heating/cooling technique

3.8 Solar distillation

3.9 Solar Drying

3.10 Photovoltaic energy conversion

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UNIT IV - WIND ENERGY – 10 Periods

Sources and potentials, horizontal and vertical axis windmills, performance

characteristics, Betz criteria BIO-MASS: Principles of Bio-Conversion, Anaerobic/aerobic
digestion, types of Bio-gas digesters, gas yield, combustion characteristics of bio-gas,
utilization for cooking, I.C.Engine operation and economic aspects.

4.1 Sources and Potentials

4.2 Horizontal and Vertical Axis Windmills

4.3 Performance Characteristics

4.4 Betz Criteria

4.5 Bio-Mass: Principles of Bio-Conversion

4.6 Anaerobic / Aerobic Digestion

4.7 Types of Bio-Gas Digesters

4.8 Gas yield

4.9 Combustion Characteristics of Bio-gas

4.10 Utilization for Cooking

4.11 I.C. Engine Operation

4.12 Economic Aspects.

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UNIT V - GEOTHERMAL ENERGY – 9 Periods

Resources, types of wells, methods of harnessing the energy, potential in India. OCEAN
ENERGY: OTEC, Principles utilization, setting of OTEC plants, thermodynamic cycles.
Tidal and wave energy: Potential and conversion techniques, mini-hydel power plants, and
their economics. DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION: Need for DEC, Carnot cycle,
limitations, principles of DEC.

5.1 Resources

5.2 Types of Wells

5.3 Methods of Harnessing the Energy

5.4 Potential in India

5.5 Ocean Energy: OTEC

5.6 Principles Utilization

5.7 Setting of OTEC Plants

5.8 Thermodynamic Cycles

5.9 Tidal and Wave energy: Potential and Conversion Techniques

5.10 Mini-Hydel Power Plants

5.11 Economics

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5.12 Direct Energy Conversion

5.13 Need for DEC

5.14 Carnot Cycle

5.15 Limitations

5.16 Principles of DEC

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