BASIC RESEARCH (RESEARCH1)

CHAPTER 1
NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH

The research room at the New York Public Library

LESSON 1 DEFINITION OF RESEARCH

Research comprises “creative work undertaken on a systematic basis

to increase the “stock of knowledge,” including the knowledge of
humans, culture, and society and their uses. Godwin Colibao defined research
as "Any gathering of data, information, and facts for the advancement of knowledge.“ It
attempts to answer intellectual and practical questions through
application of systematic methods.

The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines research as "a studious inquiry or

examination; especially investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and
interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or
practical application of such new or revised theories or laws". new application. It is also
defined as a careful or diligent search, investigation, or experimentation aimed at the
discovery and interpretation of facts.

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Research is also defined as the collection and evaluation of information about a particular
subject with the overarching purpose of answering questions and generating new
knowledge.

John W. Creswell, states that "[r]esearch is a process of steps used to collect and analyze
information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue". It consists of three steps:
posing a question, collecting data to answer the question, and presenting an answer to the
question.

Research is further defined as a systematic inquiry that investigates

hypotheses, suggests new interpretations of data or texts, and poses
new questions for future research to explore.

Research involves. . .
 Asking a question that nobody has asked before;
 Doing the necessary work to find the answer; and
 Communicating the knowledge you have acquired to a larger audience.

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH
Research is needed . . .
1. to establish or confirm facts, reaffirm the results of previous work, solve new and
existing problems, support theories and develop new ones.
2. to expand past work in the field.
3. to develop further knowledge on a topic.
4. to test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments.
5. to replicate elements of prior projects.

TYPES OF RESEARCH ACCORDING TO PURPOSE

1. Basic research has the primary purpose of documenting,

discovering, interpreting the results, and developing methods and
systems for the advancement of human knowledge. It fills in the knowledge

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that we do not have and it tries to learn things that do not have immediate application to
life.

EXAMPLES:

“Do gold, goons and guns reliable factors to win in a

political race?”
“ Is political maturity of the voters a guarantee for a
credible election in the Philippines?

2. Applied research- is a form of systematic inquiry involving the

practical application of science. It assesses and uses some accumulated theories
from the academe, knowledge, methods and techniques for specific state business, or
client-driven purpose. It seeks to answer questions and solve problems in the real world
and is focused on applying the latest knowledge and technologies on the creation of
useful products. www.algonquincollege.com.about Applied scientific research can be
about finding out the answ
3. er to a specific problem.

EXAMPLES:

'Is global warming avoidable?'

'Does a new type of medicine really help the
patients?'

FORMS OF RESEARCH
Research is of several forms: scientific, humanities, artistic, economic, social,
business, marketing, practitioner research, life, technological, etc.

1. Original research – a research that is not exclusively based on a summary,

review, or synthesis of earlier publications on research. The materials are of a
primary source character. and the purpose is to produce new knowledge.

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 Experimental research involves direct or indirect observation of the

research project. It relies on controlled experiments that compare the outcome for
an experimental and a control group that differ in a defined way. Experiments
have a control group. The subjects are randomly assigned between the groups, and
researchers tests the effects of one or more variables on the outcome.
 Analytical research produces new results or a new way of approaching an
existing problem.

2. Scientific research has a systematic way of getting and harnessing curiosity;

provides scientific information and thesis for the explanation of nature and
properties of the world; it makes practical application possible.
3. Research in Humanities – Humanities scholars did not search for the ultimate
correct answer to a question, rather it explores the issues and details surrounding
it. Context such as social, historical, political, cultural and ethnic is always
important.
4. Artistic research considered the creative work both as a research and as object of
the research itself.
5. Critical research exhibits careful and precise judgment.
6. Empirical research – based on observation and experimentation of theories.
7. Systematic research – follows orderly and sequential procedure.
8. Controlled research –compared results from a treated group and a control group.
9. Correlation/Regression Analysis: Involves determining the strength of the relationship
between two or more variables. Correlation / regression researchers determine whether
correlations exist between two quantitative variables.
10. Meta-Analysis is designed to analyze multiple studies to determine if there is a
consensus regarding the correctness of a hypothesis. Meta - analysis researchers combine
the findings from independenstudies. https://real.ucsd.edu/students/what-is-research.html

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STRUCTURAL PROCESS OF RESEARCH (BASIC AND

APPLIED)

1. Observation and formation of the topic

2. Hypothesis – a testable prediction which designates the relationship between 2 or more
variables.
3. Conceptual definition- the description of the concept by relating to other concepts.
4. Operational definition –details to define the variables and how they will be
measured/assessed in the study.
5. Gathering data – identifying a population and selecting samples; using scientific
instruments which must be valid and reliable.
6. Analysis if data –breaking down the individual pieces of data in order to draw
conclusion about it.
7. Data interpretation – presented through tables, figures, etc. that described in words.
8. Test –an assessment intended to measure the respondents’ knowledge or other abilities
9. Revision of hypothesis- is a prediction that can be tested by observing the outcome of
the experiment.
9. Conclusion- a restatement of the thesis and summary of the main points of evidence for
the reader.

RESEARCH ETHICS

Research ethics involves the application of fundamental ethical principles to a variety of

topics involving research, including scientific research. These include the design
and implementation of research involving human
experimentation, animal experimentation, various aspects of academic
scandal, including scientific misconduct (such as fraud, fabrication of
data and plagiarism), whistleblowing; regulation of research, etc.
Research ethics is most developed as a concept in medical research. The key agreement
here is the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki.

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Research in the social sciences presents a different set of issues than those in medical
research] and can involve issues of researcher and participant safety, empowerment and
access to justice.
Research involving human subjects raises unique and complex ethical, legal, social and
political issues. There are a number of ethical principles that should be taken into
account. At the core, these ethical principles stress the need to (a) do
good (known as beneficence) and (b) do no harm (known as non-
malfeasance). In practice, these ethical principles mean that a researcher needs to: (a)
obtain informed consent from potential research participants; (b) minimize the risk of
harm to participants; (c) protect their anonymity and confidentiality; (d) avoid using
deceptive practices; and (e) give participants the right to withdraw from your research.

Broadly speaking, research should not only aim to do good (i.e., beneficence), but also
avoid doing any harm (i.e., non-malfeasance). While ethical requirements in research can
vary across countries, these are the basic principles of research ethics. This is important
both for ethical and practical reasons since a failure to meet such basic principles may
lead to the research being (a) criticized or (b) rejected.

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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF RESEARCH

The three primary principles for research are autonomy, beneficence, and justice.

BENEFICENCE

AUTONOMY

JUSTICE

1. Autonomy – refers to the right of an individual to determine what activities they

will or will not participate in. To practice autonomy, the respondents must
be informed about the nature of the study the risks, benefits, and
alternatives, and an opportunity to ask before deciding whether or not
to participate. Researchers must be truthful and conduct no deception.

2. Beneficence refers to maximizing the benefits of the individual

participant while minimizing the risk of harm. Maximizing potential benefits
is based on sound experimental design. An honest declaration of reasonably anticipated
risks must be followed by a thorough risk/benefit calculation.

There are a number of types of harm that participants can be subjected to. These include:
• Physical harm to participants.
• Psychological distress and discomfort.
• Social disadvantage.

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• Harm to participants’ financial status.

• An invasion of participants’ privacy and anonymity.

In order to minimize the risk of harm the following should be considered:

• Obtaining informed consent from participants.
• Protecting the anonymity and confidentiality of participants.
• Avoiding deceptive practices when designing your research.
• Providing participants with the right to withdraw from your research at any time.

3. Justice demands equitable selection of participants ensuring

reasonable, non-exploitative, and well-considered procedures are
administered fairly — the fair distribution of costs and benefits to potential research
participants — and equally.

ETHICAL PRINCIPLES
Five of the main practical ethical principles that stem from these basic principles

PRINCIPLE 2 Obtaining Informed

PRINCIPLE 1 Minimizing the Risk of Harm
Consent

PRINCIPLE 3 Protecting Anonimity and PRINCIPLE 4 Avoiding Disceptive

Confidentiality Practices

PRINCIPLE 5 Providing the Right to

Withdraw

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PRINCIPLE ONE
Minimizing the Risk of Harm
Research should not harm participants. Where there is the possibility that participants
could be harmed or put in a position of discomfort, there must be strong justifications for
this. Such scenarios require (a) additional planning to illustrate how
participant harm (or discomfort) will be reduced, (b) informed
consent, and (c) detailed debriefing.

PRINCIPLE TWO
Obtaining Informed Consent
One of the foundations of research ethics is the idea of informed
consent which means that participants should understand that (a) they
are taking part in research and (b) what the research requires of them.
Such information may include (1) the purpose of the research,(2) the methods being used,
(3) the possible outcomes of the research, as well as associated demands, discomforts,
inconveniences and risks that the participants may face. While it is not possible to know
exactly what information a potential participant would (or would not) want to know, any
material information should not be left out; that is, influencing information whether
consent would (or would not) be granted.

Another component of informed consent is the principle that

participants should be volunteers, taking part without having been
coerced and deceived. Where informed consent cannot be obtained from
participants, it must be explained why that is the case. There are instances when informed
consent is not necessarily needed or needs to be relaxed as in the case of certain
educational, organizational and naturalistic research settings.

PRINCIPLE THREE
Protecting Anonymity and Confidentiality
Protecting the anonymity and confidentiality of research participants
is another practical component of research ethics. After all, participants will

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typically only be willing to volunteer information, especially information of a private or

sensitive nature under the notion of confidentiality. While it is possible that research
participants may be hurt in some way if the data collection methods used are somehow
insensitive, there is perhaps a greater danger that harm can be caused once data has been
collected. This occurs when data is not treated confidentially, whether in terms of the
storage of data, its analysis, or during the publication process (i.e., when submitting the
research to be marked). However, not all data collected from research participants needs
to be kept confidential or anonymous. A disclosure of the identity and views of
individuals is possible after a permit has been granted.

An alternative is to remove identifiers (e.g., vernacular terms, names,

geographical cues, etc.) or provide proxies when writing up for
research following a qualitative or quantitative research designs.

For example, a research used a quantitative research design and a survey as the main
research method. In the process of analyzing data, it is possible that when relationships
between variables (i.e., questions in your survey) are examined, a person's identity and
responses could be inferred.
Therefore, to overcome problems consider (a) collecting data in tables and (b) setting
rules that ensure a minimum number of units are present before the data/information is
presented.

A further alternative is to seek permission for access to data and analysis to be restricted
to the published material.
There are also a wide range of potential legal protections that may affect what research
can and cannot perform, how the data of research participants are treated, and so forth. In

other words, protecting the data collected from participants is both a

duty and a responsibility of the researcher.

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PRINCIPLE FOUR
Avoiding Deceptive Practices
Deceptive practices fly in the face of informed consent. After all, how can participants
know (a) that they are taking part in research and (b) what the research requires of them if
they are being deceived? This is part of what makes the use of deceptive practices
controversial. For this reason, in most circumstances, research should avoid any
kinds of deception.

Deception is sometimes a necessary component of covert research, which can be justified

in some cases. Covert research reflects research where (a) the identity of
the observer and/or (b) the purpose of the research is not known to
participants. Cases where you may choose to engage in covert research may include
instances where overt observation or knowledge of the purpose of the research may alter
the particular phenomenon that is being studied.

It is not feasible to let everyone in a particular research setting know what you are doing.
By feasibility, it means that it is not practically possible to let everyone in a particular
research setting know what is being done. This is most likely to be the case where
research involves observation, rather than direct contact with participants, especially in a
public or online setting.

Obvious instances where this may be the case:

• Observing what users are doing in an Internet chat room.
• Observing individuals going about their business (e.g., shopping, going to work,
etc.).
In these cases, it may simply be impossible to let everyone known what is being doing. It
is not engaging in a deceptive practice intentionally, but clearly participants are not
giving their informed consent.

Therefore, to engage in covert research and possibly deceptive practices, the extent of the
benefit from the research paradigm to the data analysis techniques chosen affect issues of
research ethics.

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While such covert research and deceptive practices, especially when

used intentionally, can be viewed as controversial, it can also be
argued to have a place in research.

PRINCIPLE FIVE
Providing the Right to Withdraw
With the exception of instances of covert observation, research
participants always have the right to withdraw from the research at
any stage in the research process. When participants choose to withdraw from
the research process, they should not be pressured or coerced in any way to try and stop
them from withdrawing.

EXERCISES
I. Read the sentences and on the space opposite each number, write “Yes” if you
agree and “NO” if disagree.
1. _______ is “any creative systematic activity undertaken in order to increase the
stock of knowledge, including knowledge about humanity, culture and society, and the
use of this knowledge to devise new applications” according to UNO.
2. ________ research in the humanities and social sciences is very diverse in its
objects, methods and products as noted McAllister notes (2004).
3. ________ Artists and performers need not do research activities.
4. ________ narrative inquiry, fiction-based research, poetry, music, dance, theatre,
film, and visual art are the genres of research.
5. ________ Most writers of fiction or non-fiction books do research to support
their creative work.
6. ________ Subjectivity is one of the characteristics of artistic research.
7. ________ Relics - are any objects whose physical or visual characteristics can
provide information about the past.
8. ________ To make people learn from past failures and successes is one of the
objectives of research.
9. ________ Deductive is a method of reasoning from the general to the specific.

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10. ________ The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by
which historians use historical sources and other evidence to research and then to write
history.
11. _______ Researchers are concerned with a world that is knowable and
potentially measurable.
12. _______ Scientific method relies on carefully planned studies rather than on
random or haphazard observation.
13. _______ Research is used to establish or confirm facts, reaffirm the results of
previous work, solve new and existing problems, support theories and develop new ones.
14. _______ Scientific experiments are replicable.
15. _______ Inductive is a method of reasoning from the general to the specific.

II. Fill in the blank with the appropriate word to complete the sentences.
1. Research comprises ______ undertaken on a systematic basis to increase the
“stock of knowledge,” including the knowledge of humans, culture, and society and their
uses in order to devise new application.
a. “creative work b. performance c. information d. data

2. Research is also defined as a careful or diligent, _______ investigation, or

experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts.
a. gathering b. search c. studying d. observing
3. Godwin Colibao defined research as "Any gathering of data, information, and
facts for the _________ of knowledge.
a. enhancement b. improvement c. repair d. advancement
4. Research attempts to answer intellectual and practical questions through
application of ________methods.
a. systematic b. realistic c. artistic d.pragmatic
5. The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines research as "a studious inquiry
or examination aimed at the discovery and_________ of facts, ___(6)____of accepted
theories or laws in the light of new ___(7)____, or practical application of such new or
revised theories or laws".
a. interpretation b. understanding c. inference d. conclusion
6. a. draft b. revision c. changing d. editing

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7. a. data b. opinion c. facts d. information

8. Research is also defined as the collection and _______ of information about a

particular subject with the overarching purpose of answering questions and generating
new___(9)____.
a. assessment b. computation c. measurement d. evaluation
9. a. knowledge b. idea c. fact d.
information
10. John W. Creswell, states that "[r]esearch is a process of steps used to collect and
analyze information to ________our understanding of a topic or issue".
a. add b. increase c. improve d.
expand
11. Research is further defined as a systematic inquiry that investigates ______,
suggests new interpretations of data or texts, and poses new questions for future research
to explore.
a. hypotheses b. opinion c. situation d. phenomenon
12. ________research has the primary purpose of documenting, discovering,
interpreting the results, and developing methods and systems for the advancement of
human knowledge.
a. Applied b. Pure c. Basic d. Original
13. Pure research is concerned with understanding underlying ________ principles
and describing them with elegant theories.
a. Practical b. real c. concrete d.
abstract
14. Applied research- is a form of systematic inquiry involving the_______
application of science.
a. systematic b. practical c. assumed d.
applied
15. Applied scientists might look for answers to specific questions that
help________.
a. humanity b. environment c. economy d. mentality

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III. Identify what ethical principle is illustrated by the following scenarios.

For instance, imagine that you were comparing responses amongst employees within an
organization based on specific age groups. There may only be a small group (or just one
employee) within a particular age group (e.g., over 70 years old), which could enable
others to identify the responses of this individual (or small group of employees).

Imagine some of the following scenarios where covert research may be considered
justifiable:

Scenario A

You are conducting a piece of research looking at prejudice. While participants are given
a questionnaire to complete that measures their prejudice, it is not obvious from the
questions that this is the case. Furthermore, participants are not told that the research is
about prejudice because it is felt that this could alter their responses. After all, few people
would be happy if other people thought they were prejudice. As a result, if participants
knew that this is the purpose of the study, they may well provide responses that they
think will make them appear less prejudice.

Scenario B
You are interested in understanding the organizational culture in a single firm. You feel
that observation would be an appropriate research method in such a naturalistic setting.
However, you feel that if employees knew that you were monitoring them, they may
behave in a different way. Therefore, you may have received permission to go
undercover or provide a story to explain why you are there, which is not the truth.

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LESSON 2 RESEARCH ACCORDING TO METHOD

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

1. Qualitative researchers are more concerned
with understanding what is happening as viewed by the
participants. It involves "the study, use and collection of a variety of empirical
materials," which may include "case study, personal experience, introspection, life story,
interviews, artifacts, [and] cultural texts and productions" (The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative
Research, 2005).

Qualitative research involves understanding human behavior and the

reasons that govern such behavior, by asking a broad question, collecting data in
the form of words, images, video etc. that are analyzed, and search for themes. It aims to
investigate a question without attempting to quantifiably measure variables or look for
potential relationships between variables. It is viewed as more restrictive in testing
hypotheses because it can be expensive and time-consuming and typically limited to a
single set of research subjects. Qualitative research is often used as a method of
exploratory research as a basis for later quantitative research hypotheses.

EXAMPLE:

On Teaching Spoken English Through Authentic Films

Tamara Matevosyan
Armenian State Pedagogical University after Khachatur Abovyan

The aim of the present paper is to show the peculiarities of spoken English and suggest
ways to teach communicative English through authentic films. The paper examines
different peculiarities of spoken English. It focuses also on teaching communicative
grammar in the professional course of English. It emphasizes the peculiarities of phatic
communication which should be surely taken into consideration in the process of teaching
oral speech. From this point of view, it is important to focus on the ways English people
express their emotions as it helps the language learners to understand more clearly the
meaning of certain conversations. The paper emphasizes also the peculiarities of teaching
communicative grammar through authentic films which is considered at the level of
emotional discourse. Backchannel signals are analyzed in real conversations that include
nonverbal backchannel.
2. Quantitative research requires quantifiable data involving
numerical and statistical explanations. It involves the systematic collection

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and analysis of data, primarily through objective measurement and quantitative

hypotheses for potential quantitative research analysis (statistics). Quantitative research
seeks to explain the causes of change.

Quantitative research involves systematic empirical investigation of

quantitative properties and events and their relationships by asking a
narrow question and collecting numerical data to be analyzed
utilizing statistical methods. The quantitative research designs are experimental,
correlational, and survey (or descriptive). Statistics derived from quantitative research
can be used to establish the existence of associative or causal relationships between
variables.

The quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and

structured data collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into
predetermined response categories. These methods produce results that are easy
to summarize, compare, and generalize. Quantitative research is concerned with testing
hypotheses derived from theory and/or being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon
of interest.

If the research question is about people, participants may be randomly assigned to

different treatments. If this is not feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant
and situational characteristics in order to statistically control for their influence on the
dependent, or outcome, variable. If the intent is to generalize from the research
participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to
select participants.

In either qualitative or quantitative research, the researcher(s) may

collect primary or secondary data. Primary data is data collected specifically for
the research, such as through interviews or questionnaires. Secondary data is data that
already exists, such as census data, which can be re-used for the research. It is good
ethical research practice to use secondary data wherever possible.

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EXAMPLE:

Techniques like surveys, interviews, questionnaires were used in descriptive method. It

gave direction to the study and the evidence needed to prove that the study conducted
achieved its purpose. It went far beyond the mere gathering of data. It involved the
elements of interpretation or the meaning or significance of what was described.

The researcher gathered data through questionnaires and interviews both from student
respondents and English professors from the College of Arts and Sciences.

Out of the total population of the first year college students for the Academic Year
2015-2016, nine hundred English 11 A students were taken as respondents. The
sampling technique employed by the researcher was the probability sampling.

The researcher elicited conspicuous information about the design of the program by
conducting an unstructured interview. This was administered to the language professors
and specialists for the research to come up with the most accurate program that would
answer the needs of the students and teachers.

There are four (4) topics in the questionnaire with their corresponding weight. The
vocabulary group has (20) items, main idea has (10) items, noting specific details group
has twenty- four (24) items, and critical thinking has (16) items.

4. Non-empirical (theoretical) research is an approach that involves

the development of theory as opposed to using observation and
experimentation. As such, non-empirical research seeks solutions to problems using
existing knowledge as its source. This, however, does not mean that new ideas and
innovations cannot be found within the pool of existing and established knowledge.

A simple example of a non-empirical task is (1) the prototyping of a new drug using a
differentiated application of existing knowledge; another is (2) the development of a
business process in the form of a flow chart and texts where all the ingredients are from
established knowledge.

5. Mathematics research does not rely on externally available data;

rather, it seeks to prove theorems about mathematical objects. Big
data has brought big impacts on research methods so that now many researchers do not
put much effort into data collection; furthermore, methods to analyze easily available
huge amounts of data have also been developed.

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There are other ways of classifying different research methods and approaches.
"Deductive research as observed by Russell Schutt, begins at the point of theory.
Deduction is a method of reasoning from the general to the specific; also called deductive
reasoning and top-down logic. In a deductive argument, a conclusion follows necessarily
from the stated premises; In Logic, a deductive argument is called a syllogism; in
rhetoric, the equivalent of the syllogism is the enthymeme.

The fundamental property of a deductively valid argument states that

“If all of its premises are true, then its conclusion must also be true.”
It is because the claim asserted by its conclusion has been implicitly
stated in its premises.
H. Kahane, Logic and Contemporary Rhetoric, 1998Alan G. Gross, Starring the Text: The Place
of Rhetoric in Science Studies. Southern Illinois University Press, 2006 Elias J. MacEwan, The
Essentials of Argumentation. D.C. Heath,
Inductive research begins with data but ends with theory.
Descriptive research begins with data and ends with empirical generalizations"
(Investigating the Social World, 2012).

RESEARCH ACROSS FIELD

Research across fields is concerned with understanding and
interpreting another person's social world through accessing their
lived experiences. Three types of field research methods are described here that
focus on capturing lived experiences: direct observation; participant observation; and
qualitative interviews.

Field research or fieldwork is the collection of information outside a laboratory, library or

workplace setting. The approaches and methods used in field research
vary across disciplines. For example, biologists who conduct field research may
simply observe animals interacting with their environments, whereas social scientists
conducting field research may interview or observe people in their natural environments
to learn their languages, folklore, and social structures.

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Field research involves a range of well-defined, although variable, methods: informal interviews, direct
observation, participation in the life of the group, collective discussions, analyses of personal documents
produced within the group, self-analysis, results from activities undertaken off- or on-line, and life-
histories. Although the method generally is characterized as qualitative research, it may (and often does)
include quantitative dimensions.

 Direct Observation
Data is gathered primarily through close visual inspection of a natural setting
rather than actively engaging members of a setting in conversations or interviews.
The direct observer strives to be unobtrusive and detached from the setting. Direct observation is not
necessarily an alternative to other types of field methods, such as participant observation or qualitative
interviews. Rather, it may be an initial approach to understanding a setting, a group of individuals, or
forms of behavior prior to interacting with members or developing interview protocols

Advantage of Direct Observation:

• It offers contextual data on settings, interactions, or individuals
Disadvantage of direct observation:
• Behaviors observed during direct observation may be unusual or atypical
• Photographs or video images are another form of data collected
• Direct observation as a research method is most appropriate to open, public settings where
anyone has a right to be or congregate. Conducting direct observation in private or closed settings
-- without the knowledge or consent of members -- is more likely to raise ethical concerns.

 Participant Observation
A field research method whereby the researcher develops an understanding of the
composition of a particular setting or society by taking part in the everyday routines and
rituals alongside its members
The principal research method used by ethnographers -- specialists
within the fields of anthropology and sociology who focus on
recording the details of social life occurring in a setting, community,
or society. The ethnographer, who often lives among the members of the society for

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months or years, attempts to build trusting relationships so that he or she becomes part of
the social setting. As the ethnographer gains the confidence and trust of the members,
many will speak and behave in a natural manner in the presence of the ethnographer
Advantage of Participant Observation:
• The ethnographer develops a rich, "thick" understanding of a setting and of the
members within a society

Disadvantages of Participant Observation:

• The researcher must devote a large amount of time (and money) to develop this
complex understanding.
• An ethnographer's objectivity may decline as he or she spends more time among
the members.

Forms of Data Gathered from Participant Observation:

• Field notes are the primary type of data. The ethnographer takes notes of
observations and experiences and later develops them into detailed, formal field notes
• Frequently, ethnographers keep a diary, which is often a more intimate, informal
record of the happenings within the setting
• The practice of participant observation, with its emphasis on developing
relationships with members, often leads to informal, conversational interviews and more
formal, in-depth interviews.
• The data from these interviews can become part of field notes or may consist of
separate interview transcripts

 Qualitative Interviews
Qualitative interviews are a type of field research method that elicits
information and data by directly asking questions of members. There are
three primary types of qualitative interviews: informal, conversational; semi-structured;
standardized, and open-ended.

Informal, Conversational Interviews

• Frequently occur during participant observation or following direct observation

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 BASIC RESEARCH (RESEARCH1)

• The researcher begins conversing with a member from a setting, then formulates
specific questions, of and begins asking them spontaneously and informally
• Appropriate when the researcher wants maximum flexibility to pursue topics and
ideas as they emerge during the exchange

Advantage of Informal Interview

• Allows researcher to be responsive to individual differences and to capture
emerging information

Disadvantage of informal interviewing:

• May generate less systematic data, which are difficult to classify and analyze

Semi-Structured Interviews
• Involves formally recruiting a member from a setting for the specific purposes of
conducting an interview
• Uses list of predetermined questions or probes, also known as an interview guide,
are devised so that each interviewee will respond to a similar series of questions
• Questions should be open-ended to elicit as much detail and meaning from the
interviewee
• The researcher is free to pursue and probe other topics as they emerge during the
interview

Advantage of semi-structured interviewing:

• Systematically captures data across interviewees

Disadvantage of semi-structured interviewing:

• Does not offer as much flexibility to respond to new topics that unfold during the
interview

 Standardized, Open-Ended Interviews

• Minimize variability in question wording
• The researcher asks a uniform series of questions in the same order to each
interviewee.

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 BASIC RESEARCH (RESEARCH1)

• The questions are open-ended to capture individual differences across

interviewees
• Particularly appropriate for qualitative studies involving multiple interviewers

Advantage of Standardized Interviewing:

• Enables comparability across interviewees

Disadvantage of Standardized Interviewing:

• Does not offer as much flexibility to respond to new topics that unfold during the
interview
• Both standard and semi-structured interviews are typically tape-recorded and
should begin with obtaining informed consent from the interviewee prior to starting the
interview. Additionally, the researcher may write a separate field note to describe the
member's reactions to the interview, or events that occurred before or after the interview.
Ethnography, Observational Research and Narrative Inquiry An Introduction to Qualitative
Research

CONDUCTING FIELD RESEARCH

The quality of results obtained from field research depends on the data
which in turn, depend upon the field worker, his or her level of
involvement, and ability to see and visualize things that other
individuals visiting the area of study may fail to notice. The more open
researchers are to new ideas, concepts, and things which they may not have seen in their
own culture, the better will be the absorption of those ideas. Better grasping of such
material means better understanding of the forces of culture operating in the area and the
ways they modify the lives of the people under study. Social scientists (i.e.
anthropologists, social psychologists, etc.) have always been taught to be free from
ethnocentrism (i.e. the belief in the superiority of one's own ethnic group), when
conducting any type of field research.

Participant observation, data collection, and survey research are examples of field
research methods, in contrast to what is often called experimental or lab research.

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 BASIC RESEARCH (RESEARCH1)

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Field Study Approach

Strengths

• The main strength of field studies is that it is carried out in the “real world”
environment
• This can result in very different interactions and system responses.
• A better idea of how the system fits in to the overall workflow would then be
more likely to emerge,

Weaknesses

• The main drawback of this approach is that it requires a lot of expertise in the
field that is being studied.
• The evaluator has to make sense and derived order from his observations.
• Data collection and interpretation often have to occur simultaneously in these
studies.
• Access and acceptance into the right study population is essential and may not be
straight-forward.
• It is also easy to lose focus of the original aims of the study.
• Multiple forms of data may need to be collected and this can be difficult to
compile and interpret.
• Finally, it is difficult to translate the findings of qualitative field studies into
design.

Subject Areas for Qualitative Research

• Life practices: talking, reading a book
• Episodes: divorce, crime, illness Episodes: divorce, crime, illness
• Role, occupations, family roles Role: occupations, family roles
• Relationships, friendships, family Relationships: friendships, family
• Social worlds: "wall street", "the sports world“

EXERCISES
Choose the correct answer by encircling the corresponding letter to your
answer.
1. Qualitative researchers involve the_______ of a variety of empirical materials.

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 BASIC RESEARCH (RESEARCH1)

a. study b. use c. collection d. all options

2. Qualitative research may include "case study, personal experience,

introspection,___________ , interviews, artifacts, [and] cultural texts and productions"
a. life story b. short story c. narrative d. all
options

3. Qualitative research involves understanding human behavior by asking a broad

question, collecting data in the form of, ________images, video etc. that are analyzed,
and search for themes.
a. numbers b. words c. symbols d. none
of the options

4. It aims to investigate a question without attempting to quantifiably_______

variables or look for potential relationships between variables.
a. secure b. weigh c. measure d. all
options

5. Quantitative research requires quantifiable data involving numerical and

_______explanations.
a. statistical b. descriptive c. argumentative d. all
options

6. Quantitative research involves the _______collection and analysis of data.

a. practical b. unsystematic c. systematic d. all

options

7. Quantitative research seeks to explain the _______ of change.

a. effect b. cause c. result d. all
options

8. Quantitative research involves systematic empirical investigation of _______of

properties and events.
a. relationships b. effect c. cause d. all options
9. The quantitative research designs are _________. and
a. experimental b. correlational c. descriptive d. all
options
10. The quantitative data collection method relies on random sampling and _______ data
collection.
a. structured b. interview c. unstructured d. none
of the options

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 BASIC RESEARCH (RESEARCH1)

11. The data collection method produces results that are easy to_________.
a. summarize b. compare c. generalize d. all
options
12. Quantitative research is concerned with testing _______ derived from theory.
a. hypotheses b. assumptions c. conclusions d. all options
13. Interviews or questionnaires are sources of _______ data.
a. secondary data b. irrelevant data c. primary data d. all
options
15. The use of _______ data is a good ethical research practice.
a. primary data b. secondary data c. irrelevant data d. all
options
16. Mixed-method research or ______ has been defined as the incorporation of various
qualitative and quantitative strategies within a single project using both primary and
secondary data.
a. triangulation b. combined c. experimental d. all options
17. Research across fields is concerned with understanding and interpreting another
person's ______ world through accessing their lived experiences.
a. physical b. social c. mental d. none
of the options
18. Field research involves _______.
a. informal interviews b. direct observation c. participation in the life of the
group d. all options
19. In a ______ data are gathered primarily through close visual inspection of a natural
setting.
a. participant observation b. qualitative interview c. direct observation d. all
options
20. The participant research method is used by.
a. ethnographers b. philosophers c. bibliographers d. all
options

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 BASIC RESEARCH (RESEARCH1)

LESSON 3 TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Scientific research is the systematic investigation of scientific theories

and hypotheses. It is subject to further experimentation. The scientific research (i.e.
the scientific method) is performing a methodical study in order to prove or disprove
a hypothesis or answer a specific question. Research can then follow a series of steps and
the standard protocol of experiment, depending on the conventions of that field of
science.

Primary scientific research being carried out at the MicroscopyLaboratory of the Idaho

National Laboratory.

•Pure scientific research. Some science, often referred to as 'pure science', is about
explaining the world around us and trying to understand how the universe operates. It is
about finding out what is already there without any greater purpose of research than the
explanation itself. It is a direct descendent of philosophy, where philosophers and
scientists try to understand the underlying principles of existence. Pure research often has
indirect benefits, which can contribute greatly to the advancement of humanity.

• Applied research looks for answers to specific questions that help humanity, for
example medical research or environmental studies. Its purpose is to test theories, often
generated by pure science.

'Is global warming avoidable?'

'Does a new type of medicine really help the patients?'

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 BASIC RESEARCH (RESEARCH1)

Data Gathering Procedure

All researches involve generating a theory to explain why something is happening trough
scientific tools and methods. This process opens up new areas for further study and a
continued refinement of the hypotheses.

Empirical Method
The scientific method is empirical when it relies on direct observation of the world, and
disdains hypotheses that run counter to observable fact. This contrasts with methods that
rely on pure reason and with methods that rely on emotional or other subjective factors.

Replicable
Scientific experiments are replicable. That is, if another person duplicates the experiment,
he or she will get the same results. Scientists are supposed to publish enough of their
method so that another person, with appropriate training, could replicate the results.

Provisional
Results obtained through the scientific method are provisional; they are (or ought to be)
open to question and debate. If new data arise that contradict a theory, that theory must be
modified.

Objective
The scientific method is objective. It relies on facts and on the world as it is, rather than
on beliefs, wishes or desires. Science tries to rule out eccentricities (weirdness) of
judgment by researchers.. Objectivity also requires that scientific research deal with facts
rather than interpretations of facts.

Systematic
Strictly speaking, the scientific method is systematic; that is, it relies on carefully planned
studies rather than on random or haphazard observation.
https://sciencing.com › Physics

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 BASIC RESEARCH (RESEARCH1)

Public
Scientific research is public. Advances in science require freely available information.
Researchers cannot plead private knowledge, methods, or data in arguing for the accuracy
of their findings; scientific research information must be freely communicated from one
researcher to another. Researchers therefore must take great care in their published reports
to include information on sampling methods, measurements, and data-gathering
procedures. This process of replication allows for correction and verification of previous
research findings.

Empirical
Researchers are concerned with a world that is knowable and potentially measurable.
(Empiricism comes from the Greek word for "experience.") . Researchers must be able to
perceive and classify what they study and reject.

Scientific research equipment at MIT.

HistoricalResearch. One type of qualitative research is historical research, which involves

examining past events to draw conclusions and make predictions about the
future. The steps in historical research are: formulate an idea, formulate a plan, gather data,
analyze data, and analyze the sources of data.

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 BASIC RESEARCH (RESEARCH1)

.
German historian Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886),
considered to be one of the founders of modern source-based history.

The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use historical sources
and other evidence to research and then to write history. There are various history guidelines that are
commonly used by historians in their work, under the headings of external criticism, internal criticism,
and synthesis. The following concepts are part of most formal historical research:

Identification of origin date

Evidence of localization

Recognition of authorship

Analysis of data

Identification of integrity

Attribution of credibility

Objectives:
To make people aware of what has happened in the past in order to:
 Learn from past failures and successes and apply them to present-day problems
 Make predictions; test hypotheses concerning relationships or trends
 Understand present practices and policies .
Locating relevant sources
• Documents - written or printed materials that havep been produced in some form
or another.

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 BASIC RESEARCH (RESEARCH1)

• Primary source - one prepared by an individual who was a participant in or a

direct witness to the event being described.
Secondary source - a document prepared by an individual who was not a direct
witness to an event, but who obtained a description of the event from someone
else.
Numerical records - considered as a separate type of source in and of themselves
or as a subcategory of documents.
Oral statements - are stories or other forms of oral expression that leave a record
for future generations.
Relics - are any objects whose physical or visual characteristics can provide some
information about the past.

Summarizing information obtained from historical sources

Evaluation of historical sources
Internal criticism and External criticism

Advantage. Permits investigation of topics and questions that can be studied in no

other fashion
Disadvantages
• Cannot control for threats to internal validity
• Limitations are imposed due to the content analysis
• Researchers cannot ensure representation of the sample

Artistic Research The controversial trend of artistic teaching becoming more academics-
oriented leads to artistic research being accepted as the primary mode of enquiry in art. One of the
characteristics of artistic research is acceptance of subjectivity. It uses qualitative
research and inter-subjectivity as tools to apply measurement and critical analysis.

"Artistic research is to investigate and test to gain knowledge within and for
artistic disciplines. It is based on artistic practices, methods, and criticality.
Artistic research aims to enhance knowledge and understanding with presentation of the
arts.. University of Dance and Circus (Dans och Cirkushögskolan, DOCH), Stockholm

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 BASIC RESEARCH (RESEARCH1)

Most writers, whether of fiction or non-fiction books, also have to do research to support their creative
work. This may be factual, historical, or background research. Background research could include, for
example, geographical or procedural research.
Patricia Leavy addresses eight arts-based research (ABR) genres: narrative
inquiry, fiction-based research, poetry, music, dance, theatre, film, and visual art.

EXERCISES
Identify what is referred to in the following sentences.
1. _______ a research involves direct or indirect observation of the research project.
2.________ a research that uses materials of a primary source character, and the
purpose is to produce new knowledge.
3. _______research produces new results or a new way of approaching an existing problem.
4. _______ research has a systematic way of getting and harnessing curiosity.
5. Research in ________ explores the issues and details surrounding it. social, historical,
political, cultural and ethnic context.
6. ________ research based on observation and experimentation of theories.
7. ________ research considered the creative work both as a research and as object of the
research itself.
8. ________ research compared results from a treated group and a control group.
9. ________research exhibits careful and precise judgment.
10. _______research follows orderly and sequential procedure.

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 BASIC RESEARCH (RESEARCH1)

LESSON 4 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH AND ITS

IMPORTANCE TO DAILY LIFE

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative research - is primarily an exploratory research used to gain
understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It
provides insights into the problem or helps develop ideas for potential quantitative
research.

IMPORTANCE OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

1. Qualitative research allows the researcher to develop a deep understanding of a topic.
2. Provides an opportunity for a systematic, in depth evaluation of a question
3. Deals with human understanding and interpretation

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

1. Humanistic understanding and interpretation
2. Active, powerful, and forceful
3. Multiplicity of research approaches and methods
4. Specificity to Generalization
5. Contextualization
6. Diversified data in real-life situations
7. Abounds with words and visuals
8. Internal analysis

ADVANTAGES STRENGTHS DISADVANTAGES

OF QUALITATIVE /WEAKNESSES OF
RESEARCH QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

1. Adapts a naturalistic 1. Involves a lot of researcher’s

approach. subjectivity.

2. Promotes a full understanding 2. Its open ended questions yield data

of human behavior or overload that requires long time.
personality traits in their natural

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 BASIC RESEARCH (RESEARCH1)

setting

3. Instrumental for positive 3. Involves several processes that

societal changes greatly depend on the researcher’s
view or interpretation.

4. It engenders respect for 4. Time consuming

people’s individuality

5. Ways of understanding and

interpreting social interactions

6. Increases the interest of the

researcher to the study

9. Offers various methods of

acquiring and examining
knowledge.

Alyssah Angintaopan

IMPORTANCE OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ACROSS FIELDS OF

INQUIRY
Qualitative research is a growing field of inquiry that cuts across disciplines and subject
matter. It subsumes a range of perspectives, paradigms and methods and within each
theory, qualitative research can mean different things. (Creswell, 1998)

FIELDS OF INQUIRY IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTION

History Historical realism – context such as gender,

social, and cultural values determine
perceptions of reality

Medicine The qualitative study consisting of in -depth

interviews is the first step in affecting the
optimal use of telemedicine; identifying the
needs around the discharge process and
potential improvements. www. Policylab.chop.edu.

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 BASIC RESEARCH (RESEARCH1)

Sociology Qualitative research established its

importance for the study of human group life

Philosophy Chartered the outlines of the fieldwork

method

Anthropology The acceptance of the theory of causation in

Philosophy and History is influenced by the
qualitative research.

(Anderson, G. L., Scott, J.(2012) Toward an Intersectional Understanding of Process Causality

and Social Context, Qualitative Inquiry, 18,674-685. Google Scholar Abstrac

SUMMATIVE TEST

I. On the blank opposite each number, write what is referred to in the following
sentences.
______1. is based on the observation and formation of the topic
______2. the description of the concept by relating to other concepts.
______3. a testable prediction which designates the relationship between 2 or more
variables.
______4. details to define the variables and how they will be measured/assessed in the
study.
______5. is presented through tables, figures, etc. that described in words.
______6. identifying a population and selecting samples; using scientific instruments
which must be valid and reliable
______7. an assessment intended to measure the respondents’ knowledge or other
abilities
______8. is a prediction that can be tested by observing the outcome of the experiment.
______9. a restatement of the thesis and summary of the main points of evidence for the
reader.
_______10. researchers are more concerned with understanding what is happening as
viewed by the participants.

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 BASIC RESEARCH (RESEARCH1)

CHAPTER 2
RESEARCH WRITING

Research paper writing is very time consuming so it is important to select a topic

that could sustain the researcher’s interest for the duration of the project. It is
good to select a topic that is relevant to life. Finding a personally interesting topic
will help make the arduous task a lot easier and the project will have better
results.

Observation is not accurate enough, with statistically testable and analyzable data
the only results accepted across all scientific disciplines. The exact nature of the
experimental process may vary, but they all adhere to the same basic principles.

Scientists can be opinionated, like anybody else, and often will adhere to their
own theories, even if the evidence shows otherwise. Research is a tool by which
they can test their own, and each other’s theories, by using this antagonism to
find an answer and advance knowledge. The purpose of research is really an
ongoing process of correcting and refining hypotheses, which should lead to the
acceptance of certain scientific truths.

While no scientific proof can be accepted as ultimate fact, rigorous testing

ensures that proofs can become presumptions. Certain basic presumptions are
made before embarking on any research project, and build upon this gradual
accumulation of knowledge.

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 BASIC RESEARCH (RESEARCH1)

LESSON 1 PARTS OF A RESEARCH PAPER

I. INTRODUCTION
The introduction provides the background and motivation for the
topic; the description of the focus and purpose or general and specific
objective, significance, scope and delimitation. It gives an overview of what
is contained in the paper’s various sections.

a. Background of the Study The background of the study provides the root
of the problem being studied, appropriate context of the problem in
relation to theory, research, and practice. It expands upon the key points stated
in the beginning of the introduction but is not the main focus of the paper. Sufficient
background information helps the reader determine the researcher’s basic understanding
of the research problem being investigated. This information provides the reader with the
essential context needed to understand the research problem and its significance.
Background information can include summaries of important and relevant research
studies.
EXAMPLE

The English proficiency of most students entering college has always posed a problem to
English teachers. It seems as if English skills among students keep deteriorating each
year. Many questions crowd the minds of mentors. Why is this situation so? Is it because
of the students’ lack of interests in this foreign tongue? Is it because they do not see any
importance at all in learning English? Are the students afraid to be branded “brown
Americans?” Just what are the reasons why English has deteriorated is the point of
interest in this study. Finding these out from among the students’ themselves could help
crystallize the solutions to the problem. And because the needs come from the students
themselves, the answers would also be tailored to their needs.
When the data shall have been collated, the teachers could formulate lessons and
activities, then be creative enough to look for resources that would pinpoint to and assist
in what the students really want to do with English. English Proficiency of the College of
Education Students ... Any course for that matter should begin with a needs analysis so
that the teachers and students would both known they are going in the same direction.
This is the reason d’etre for this study.
Tamara Matevosyan On Teaching Spoken English Through Authentic Films

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 BASIC RESEARCH (RESEARCH1)

b. Statement of the Problem A problem statement is the description of an

issue currently existing which needs to be addressed. It provides the

context of the research study and generates the questions which the research aims to
answer. The research problem is the focal point of the study. The statement of the
problem is a one - sentenced claim that outlines the information to be covered by the
study.
EXAMPLE

The focus of this discourse is to identity and examine the extent of our damaged
perception of the prevailing circumstances of a degenerate society hedged against
wholesomeness (Propriety) and social malady (Impropriety).

Adeleke Adebayo Ibrahim and Olusegun Ashade , Adult Deviance and Youth Delinquency:
Bane of Effective Family Cohesion and Communication Development

c. Specific Objectives - are statements that describe results in terms of

knowledge, attitude, skill, aspiration, and behavior, and participant
performance.

EXAMPLE

This study specifically aimed at determining the English proficiency of the College of
Education students in the University of Eastern Philippines, University Town,
Northern Samar. Specifically, this study aimed to: 1. find out how the students use
English outside the class; 2. determine how well they understand spoken English; 3.
find out how well they can speak and read English; 4. find out how they think the
importance of a good command of English for the success at the university; 5. find out
how they think the importance of English after graduation; and 6. evaluate their
perception/s whether all students at UEP be required to take more courses designed
to improve their command of the English language.

Leah A. De Asis, Veronica A. Piczon and Marliza Rubenecia, English Proficiency of the
College of Education Students in the University of Eastern Philippines, University Town,
Catarman, Northern Samar

d. Scope and Delimitation refers to the coverage and the limit of the
study conducted in relation to the problem; the limit of the population
involved in the research.

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 BASIC RESEARCH (RESEARCH1)

EXAMPLE:

The researcher set the limit of this study on the results of the diagnostic tests as the
bases of reading competency assessment; on the profile of the students to find out their
perceived reading proficiency; and on identifying the reading program intervention to
be proposed to enhance the students’ reading proficiency.

All students of the College of International Tourism and Hospitality Management

(CITHM) enrolled in English 11A at the Lyceum of the Philippines University, Manila
campus during the first semester of the Academic Year 2014-2015 served as
respondents to this study. The first year students of the College of Arts and Sciences
(CAS), College of International Relations (CIR), College of Business Administration
(CBA), the College of Nursing (CN), the College of Computer Studies (CCS), and the
College of Engineering were not respondents to this study since they will take English
11 A at the second semester of the current academic year.

Some one thousand two hundred first semester English 11 A takers were targeted as
respondents to this study, however in the process of administering and retrieving the
survey questionnaires and diagnostic test only nine hundred ninety –five was made
available.

e. Significance of the Study. The significance of the research is telling

the reasons for the study; who benefits from the study and what the
benefits are.
EXAMPLE

The results of this study will be significantly beneficial to LPU administrators, area
coordinators, and curriculum developers in two ways: in reviewing, evaluating, and
revising the present English program for possible improvements; and in planning
programs for reading proficiency development.

The school administrator. The school administrator may see the need to provide
technical facilities and equipment for the possible intervention.

The students. The students will be the direct benefactors of this study in as much as they
will be aware of their strengths to maintain, their weaknesses to improve and their
needs to acquire them. Through these, the students will have more focus on their
readings and may manage their time properly at their advantage. In consequence, they
will have a great opportunity to become active, skilled, and matured readers, further
develop their reading proficiency and most importantly improve their academic
competency.

The university. The Lyceum of the Philippines University will greatly benefit from this
study by producing graduates who have high level of reading comprehension
proficiency. Since the graduates are every university’s best advertisers, improved
stakeholders’ support will be possible.
39
The country. Graduates with above- average reading competency will serve as assets to
the country. The Philippines will be recognized as a country capable of producing good
readers who will become the literate working force of the country.
 BASIC RESEARCH (RESEARCH1)

f. Hypothesis. The hypothesis is the educated guess regarding the

problem which later on is subjected to acceptance or rejection. If the
outcome is inconsistent with the hypothesis, the hypothesis is rejected. However, if the
outcome is consistent with the hypothesis, that is accepted.

A useful hypothesis allows prediction and within the accuracy of observation of the time,
the prediction will be verified. As the accuracy of observation improves with time, the
hypothesis may no longer provide an accurate prediction. In this case, a new hypothesis
will arise to challenge the old, and to the extent that the new hypothesis makes more
accurate predictions than the old, the new will supplant it. Researchers can also use a null
hypothesis, which states no relationship or difference between the independent or
dependent variables.

EXAMPLES
Hypotheses of the Study
The following hypotheses were tested at 0 .05 level of significance.
HO1: Computer skills will not significantly predict information literacy among students
of federal government colleges in South-West Nigeria.
HO2: Internet attitude will not significantly predict information literacy among students
of federal government colleges in South –West Nigeria.

EXERCISES
MATCHING TYPE: Match Column A with Column B. Write the letter that
corresponds to your answer on the blank opposite each item.
COLUMN A COLUMN B
_______ 1.introduction a. gives an overview of what is
contained in the paper’s various sections

_______2. background of the study b. provides the root of the problem

being studied
_______3. hypothesis c. subjected to acceptance or
rejection
_______4. significance of the research d. reasons for the study

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 BASIC RESEARCH (RESEARCH1)

______ 5. hypothesis is rejected e. outcome is inconsistent with the

hypothesis
______ 6. hypothesis, that is accepted f. outcome is consistent with the
hypothesis
______ 7. a null hypothesis g. states no relationship or difference
between the independent or
dependent variables
______ 8. Scope and Delimitation h. refers to the coverage and the limit
of the study conducted in
relation to the problem

______9. research problem i. is the focal point of the study

______10. statement of the problem j. a one - sentenced claim that
outlines the information to be
covered by the study

TRUE OR FALSE. Write true if the statement is correct and False if the
otherwise.
1. Sufficient background information helps the reader determine the researcher’s
basic understanding of the research problem being investigated.
2. Background information does not include summaries of important and
relevant research studies.
3. The hypothesis is the educated guess regarding the problem which later on is
subjected to acceptance or rejection.
4. The significance of the research is telling who benefits from the study and
what the benefits are.
5. Scope and Delimitation provides the limit of the population involved in the
research.

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 BASIC RESEARCH (RESEARCH1)

LESSON 2 BASIC STEPS IN RESEARCH WRITING

Most research projects share the same general structure that is similar to the shape of an
hourglass. The research process usually starts with a broad area of interest, the initial
problem that the researcher wishes to study. For instance, the researcher is interested
about how to use computers to improve the performance of students in mathematics.
However, this initial interest is too broad to study in any single research project so it
needs to narrow the question down to one that can reasonably be studied in a research
project. This might involve formulating a more specific statement, called a hypothesis.
Statement such as that a particular method of computer instruction in Math will improve
the ability of high school students in a specific school is what the researcher thinks will
happen in the study. At the narrowest point of the research hourglass, the researcher is
engaged in direct measurement or observation of the question of interest.

Most research originates from some general problem or question. Typically the
researcher narrows the problem down to a more specific research question. The research
question is the central issue being addressed in the study and is often phrased in the
language of theory. For instance, a research question might be: “Is a program of
supported employment effective at keeping newly employed persons on the job?”

THE HOURGLASS NOTION OF RESEARCH

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 BASIC RESEARCH (RESEARCH1)

STEPS OF RESEARCH PAPER WRITING

STEP1. CHOOSE A TOPIC

Choose the subject carefully, keeping in mind the amount of time available to write the
paper, the length of the paper, the target audience, and the limits of the resources. Check
in the library to make sure of the available amount of information on the topic.

Writing the paper is going to be easy if the researcher chooses a topic that interest him
and that he can form an opinion or point of view. However, avoid sensational and
controversial subjects that are not scholarly and, or too technical, or will only restate the
research material.

STEP 2 NARROW THE TOPIC

The topic of the paper is what the writer wants to say about the subject. To narrow the
topic, make previous related readings and jot down the main ideas. While reading,
consider the following questions:
 Who are the important people involved?
 What are the major issues?
 What are my opinions regarding the topic?
 Why is this an important topic?
 How, when, where the problem or issue developed?
The answers will help to narrow the topic.

EXAMPLES:

Too broad: Dances are enjoyable to learn.

Better: Zumba is an enjoyable dance to learn. (Answer to the question,
“What dance is enjoyable?)
Narrowed Topic:__________ makes Zumba enjoyable. ______. (Answers the
question what makes zumba enjoyable?)
Too broad: The results of the 2015 election and the economic recovery of the Philippines.
(Answers the question,” What is the relation between the results of the 2015
Better: The results of the 2015 election affect the economic recovery of the Philippines.
election and the economic recovery of the Philippines?)
Narrowed Topic: The results of the 2015 election are _______ to the
economic recovery of the Philippines. (How significant are the results of the
2015 election to the economic recovery of the Philippines?)
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STEP 3. STATE A TENTATIVE OBJECTIVE (THESIS)

Write a thesis statement down in one sentence. The thesis statement is like a
declaration of a belief. The thesis statement is the controlling idea which will help
in choosing the research materials and limit the note taking.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD THESIS STATEMENT

James M. McCrimmon and other authorities give some characteristics of a good thesis
statement.
• A good thesis statement is a complete declarative sentence.
• It is limited.
• Thesis statement is unified.
EXAMPLES:

1. The use of modern music makes Zumba an enjoyable dance to

learn.
2. The results of the 2015 election are vital to the economic
recovery of the Philippines

STEP 4 FORM PRELIMENARY BIBLIOGRAPHY

EXAMPLES:

Baker, Paul and Sibonile Ellece, Key Terms in Discourse Analysis.

Continuum, (2011)
Ciabattar, Jane, “ The Future of Book Reviews; Critics vs. Amazon
Reviewer”, The Daily Beat, (2011) Cornish, (2008)

Couper, William “The Connoisseur”(n.d.)

Crewe W.J. ELT Journal, Vol 44/ (1990, 4 Oct.), CUP.

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STEP 5 MAKE A TENTATIVE OUTLINE

The purpose of an outline is to help think through the topic carefully
and organize it logically before start writing. A good outline is the most
important step in writing a good paper. Check the outline to make sure that the points
covered flow logically from one to the other. Include in the outline an INTRODUCTION,
a BODY, and a CONCLUSION. Make the first outline tentative.

INTRODUCTION - Clearly state the thesis and the purpose of the research paper. What
is the chief reason for writing the paper? Also state the plan to approach the topic. Is this
a factual report, a book review, a comparison, or an analysis of a problem? Explain
briefly the major points to be covered in the paper and why readers should be interested
in the topic.

BODY - This is the part of the paper where the arguments are presented to support the
thesis statement. Find 3 supporting arguments for each position taken. Begin with a strong
argument, then use a stronger one, and end with the strongest argument for the final point.

CONCLUSION - Restate or reword the thesis. Summarize the arguments. Explain why
you have come to this particular conclusion.

STEP 6 GATHER NOTES

Gather information that is relevant to the topic . Make sure the information
that has been noted is carefully recorded and in one’s own words, if
possible. Plagiarism is definitely out of the question. Document all ideas borrowed or
quotes used very accurately. While organizing notes, jot down detailed bibliographical
information for each cited paragraph and have it ready to transfer to the Works
Cited page.

STEP7 ORGANIZE THE NOTES

When gathering resources, jot down full bibliographical information
(author, title, place of publication, publisher, date of publication, page

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numbers, creation or modification date on Web, date of access), on a

work sheet, laptop, etc. for later retrieval.

STEP 8 WRITE THE FIRST DRAFT

 Start with the first topic in the outline. Read all the relevant notes
gathered that have been marked, e.g. with the capital Roman numeral I.
 Summarize, paraphrase or quote directly for each idea to be used
in the essay. Use a technique; e.g. write summaries, paraphrases or quotations on
note cards, or separate sheets of lined paper. Mark each card or sheet of paper clearly
with an outline code or reference.
 Put all the note cards or paper in the order of the outline, e.g. IA,
IB, IC. If using a word processor, create meaningful filenames that match the outline
codes for easy cut and paste when typing the final paper. Re-read the paper for
grammatical errors. Use a dictionary or a thesaurus as needed. Do a spell check.
Correct all errors and improve the overall quality of the paper to its best. Get someone
else to read it over.

STEP 9 REVISE OUTLINE AND DRAFT

Read the paper for any content errors. Double check the facts and
figures. Arrange and rearrange ideas to follow the outline. Reorganize
the outline if necessary, but always keep the purpose of the paper and the readers
in mind. Use a free grammar and proof reading checker such as Grammarly.

STEP 10 TYPE FINAL PAPER

• All formal reports or essays should be typewritten and printed, preferably on a
good quality printer.
• Read the assignment sheet again to be sure that the essay meets the
requirements as specified by the teacher.

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• Proofread final paper carefully for spelling, punctuation, missing or duplicated

words.
• Make the effort to ensure that the final paper is clean, tidy, neat, and
attractive.
• Aim to have the final paper ready a day or two before the deadline.
http://www.myspeechclass.com/good-and-interesting-research-paper-topics.html

RESEARCH STRUCTURE
Research structure is an outline provided towards the end of introduction chapter
in a research paper.
• Chapter I THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND It explains
the outline of the research. This chapter includes a brief explanation of the
research background, and the rationale for the selection of the research topic.
Moreover, the first chapter contains explanation of the research aim and
objectives, and research structure.

• Chapter II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDY This

constitutes a literature review, analysis of models and theoretical

frameworks. This chapter contains definitions of main terms and explains
search strategy for the secondary data. Viewpoints of other authors regarding the
general research topic and the specific research problems are presented in a
logical manner in this chapter.

• Chapter III METHODOLOGY The chapter explains the research process ;

addresses the issues of research philosophy; contains explanation of

research design, and the choice and implementation of data collection
methods. Sampling aspect of the study and discussions of ethical considerations
are also included in this chapter.

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• Chapter IV PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA This

contains presentation of the primary data collected through

questionnaires/interviews/focus groups/observation/etc. Presentation of
primary data findings have been facilitated through bar, charts/pie, and tables.
Brief discussions of each chart are included in this chapter.

• Chapter V SUMMARY AND FINDING constitutes discussions and

analyses. This chapter plays a critical role in the achievement of research aim
and objectives. Findings of the literature review have been compared to primary
data findings in this chapter. Also, in-depth discussions have been provided in
relation to each individual research objective.

• Chapter V1 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION concludes the

work and summarizes the level of achievement of research aim and

objectives. The chapter comprises acknowledgement of limitations of the study
and highlights scope for future studies in the same research area.

The research also contains title page, acknowledgements, abstract, table of

contents at the beginning. Furthermore, references, bibliography and appendices
sections.

ACTIVITY

 CHECKLIST ONE:
1. Is my thesis statement concise and clear?

2. Did I follow my outline? Did I miss anything?

3. Are my arguments presented in a logical sequence?

4. Are all sources properly cited to ensure that I am not plagiarizing?

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5. Have I proved my thesis with strong supporting arguments?

6. Have I made my intentions and points clear in the essay?

CHECKLIST TWO:
1. Did I begin each paragraph with a proper topic sentence?

2. Have I supported my arguments with documented proof or examples?

3. Any run-on or unfinished sentences?

4. Any unnecessary or repetitious words?

5. Varying lengths of sentences?

.6 Does one paragraph or idea flow smoothly into the next?

7. Any spelling or grammatical errors?

8. Quotes accurate in source, spelling, and punctuation?

9. Are all my citations accurate and in correct format?

10. Did I avoid using contractions? Use "cannot" instead of "can't", "do
not" instead of "don't"?
11. Did I use third person as much as possible? Avoid using phrases such
as "I think", "I guess", "I suppose"

12. Have I made my points clear and interesting but remained objective?

13. Did I leave a sense of completion for my reader(s) at the end of the
paper?

EXERCISES
MODIFIED TRUE OR FALSE. On the blank opposite each sentence, write TRUE if
the statement is correct, if otherwise underline the word the makes the statement wrong
and write the will make the sentence correct.
___________1. The topic of the paper is what the writer wants to say about the subject.
___________2. The thesis statement is like a declaration of a belief.

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___________3. The topic of the paper is the controlling idea which will help in choosing
the research materials and limit the note taking.
___________4. The purpose of an outline is to help think through the topic carefully and
organize it logically before start writing.
__________ 5. Body is the part of the paper where the arguments are presented to
support the thesis statement.
__________ 6. Summarize, paraphrase or quote directly for each idea to be used in the
essay.
__________ 7. All formal reports or essays should be handwritten.
___________8. When gathering resources, jot down full bibliographical information
___________9. Introduction is the part of the research paper where the thesis is restated.

III. Provide what is asked in each item.

1. Think of 3 different topics of your personal interest.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. Narrow down each topic to arrive at three (3) thesis statements.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3.Choose your best topic and thesis statement and ask for your teacher’s approval.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. Construct five (5) specific questions about your chosen topic.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
5. Make a tentative working bibliography.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
6. Prepare an outline for your research paper.
_________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

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7. Summarize your data.

_________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
8. Paraphrase your data.
_________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
9. Formulate and write a tentative conclusion
__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

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CHAPTER 3 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Literature review is an iterative process

The

?
Literature
Review:
A
Research Question
Journey

Write Search

Synthesize Manage

A vital step in research process is a review of related literature. It is a narration of what is

already known about a specific idea or situation. The main function of the
review is to inform the readers about previous research done on the
topic and the knowledge established on a particular topic of research.
It is an objective, a thorough summary and an analysis of the related available research
done to justify future research in the area.

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LESSON 1 THE LITERATURE REVIEW

PREPARING FOR THE LITERATURE REVIEW

A literature synthesis (also called a literature analysis) includes all the

evidence in a literature review plus interpretation of the literature,
drawn conclusions, and/or recommendations. A literature review is a very
concise and logically precise review of the knowledge regarding the questions
under investigation. It is based on primary or secondary data or information
sources, housed in libraries or the Internet.

The experience and professional judgment of the researcher and/or the research
team must provide the interpretation, grounded in the professional and empirical
literature. If properly conducted, a literature review will provide the following:

(1) assist in defining and limiting the scope of the topic,

(2) place the research into a comprehensive context,
(3) guide the construction of operational definitions,
(4) identify potentially useful research methods and measurement
instruments,
(5) relate current research results to prior knowledge, and
(6) suggest future research thesis.

When constructing a literature review or synthesis, secondary sources are

employed. These are data kept either in a library, archives, on the Internet, or in
databases. The “literature” is distributed in millions of articles, reports, and
unpublished manuscripts, bibliographies, dictionaries, encyclopedias, handbooks,
directories, manual and electronic databases, CD-roms, Internet portals, and
webpages. Different types of information are primarily drawn from different
source. The researcher should tailor his or her literature search to those

sources of information which best meet his or her needs. For example, if
the researcher needs to describe a current situation or event, he or she would draw
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information from a newspaper, radio or TV report, etc. To discuss the most recent
advances in educational science, he or she would draw from empirical,
professional, or trade journals.

TYPES OF LITERATURE REVIEWS

Having selected a topic, the next step is to identify, in a structured way, the
appropriate and related information.

1.Traditional or narrative literature review. This review critiques and

summarizes a body of literature and draws conclusions about the topic

being studied. The body of literature is made up of the relevant studies and
knowledge that address the subject area from selective materials. This is useful in
gathering a volume of literature in a specific subject area.

The primary purpose is to provide the reader with a complete background, to

understand current knowledge and highlight the significance of a new research. It
pinpoints gaps or inconsistencies in a body of knowledge to help the researcher
determine or define research literature review.

(Newell and Burnard (2006) suggest that comprehensiveness and relevance are to
consider and add that the more specific the topic or question being searched is, the
more focused the result will be.

In contrast to the traditional or narrative review, systematic reviews use a

more precise and well-defined approach to literature review. A

systematic approach is considered most likely to generate a review that will be
beneficial in informing practice (Hek and Langton, 2000).
Parahoo (2006) suggests that a systematic review should detail the time frame
within which the literature was selected and the methods used to evaluate and
synthesize findings of the studies.

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Assessing Reliability and Validity

In order for the reader to assess the reliability and validity of the review, the
reviewer needs to (1) present the precise criteria for formulating the research
question, (2) set inclusion or exclusion criteria, (3) select the literature, (4) assess
the quality of the literature included in the review and (5) analyze, synthesize and
disseminate the findings.

Having enough literature is the key to the review and on time submission.
Changing the topic close to the deadline for submission is a recipe for disaster so
choose an area that will hold your interest and ensure that enough data to meet
your needs are available.

Sources

Primary source is usually a report by the original researchers of a study while a

secondary source is a description or summary by somebody other than the original
researcher. Primary and secondary information sources include journals, reports,
books, monographs, dissertations, government and other documents, oral
histories, films, documents, etc.

Computer Technology

Nowadays, literature searches are undertaken most commonly using computers

and electronic databases. Computer databases offer access to vast

quantities of information, which can be retrieved more easily and quickly

than using a manual search. There are numerous electronic databases, many of
which deal with specific fields of information. It is important therefore to identify
which databases are relevant to the topic.

Existing literature reviews and systematic reviews can also be

important sources of data. They offer a good overview of the research that has
been undertaken, so that the relevance to the present work can be determined.

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They also offer the bibliographic references for those works that can be accessed
(Ely and Scott, 2007). Manual searches of journals that are specifically related to
the topic of interest or those that are likely to cover the topic can also be
performed. This can be a slow but often rewarding way of sourcing articles

As with all of the above search methods, a maximum time frame of 5–10

years is usually placed on the age of the works to be included. This is

usually determined by the amount of available information.

When undertaking a literature search, an important question in determining

whether a publication should be included in the review is defining the type of
source. Generally, journals are regarded as being more up-to-date than books as
sources of information. Books can be dated due to the length of time it takes for
publication. However, they should not be excluded \as they are an acceptable and
valuable source of information.

In conducting the literature search, it is important to keep a record of the

keywords and methods used in searching the literature as these will need to be
identified later when describing how the search was conducted (Timmins and
McCabe, 2005). Another consideration is how much time to allocate to the search
(Younger, 2004), as the searching and identifying of data are early steps in the
process and reviews conducted as part of academic assignments have limited
timeframes.

Conceptual/Theoretical Framework. Papers concerned with description or

analysis of theories or concepts associated with the topic.

Anecdotal/opinion/clinical. Views or opinions about the subject that are not

research, review or theoretical in nature. Clinical may be case studies or reports
from clinical settings. Colling, (2003)

EXERCISES

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LESSON 2 ANALYZING AND SYTHESIZING

LITERATURE

While the focus of the literature may vary depending on the overall purpose, there
are several useful strategies for the analysis and synthesis stages that will help the
construction and writing of the review. Initially, it is advisable to undertake a first
read of the articles that have been collected to get a sense of what they are about.
Most published articles contain a summary or abstract at the beginning of the
paper, which will assist with this process and enable the decision as to whether it
is worthy of further reading or inclusion. At this point, it may also be of benefit to
undertake an initial classification and grouping of the articles by type of source.

Summarizing a text into a paragraph or two is a useful study tool as well as good
writing practice. Its aims are: (1) to reproduce the main ideas by

identifying the general concepts that run through the entire piece, and
(2) to express these primary ideas using precise, specific language of
the writer.
Methods for Summarizing:

1. In the writer’s own words, the title, the author and the author’s thesis, must be
included in the first sentence.
2. Omit ideas that are not central to the text, minor details and specific examples.
3. Avoid writing opinions or personal responses in the summaries.
4. Be careful not to plagiarize the author’s words

Synthesize. To synthesize is to combine two or more elements to form a

new whole. In the literature review, the “elements” are the findings of the
literature; the “new whole” is the conclusion drawn from those findings. Synthesis
is done to draw conclusions about the findings in the literature and identify how
the literature addresses the research question.

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Analyzing The process of evaluating data using analytical and logical

reasoning to examine each component of the data provided. Data from

various sources is gathered, reviewed, and then analyzed to form some
sort of finding or conclusion.

According to Shamoo and Resnik (2003) various analytic procedures “provide a

way of drawing inductive inferences from data and distinguishing the signal (the
phenomenon of interest) from the noise (statistical fluctuations) present in the
data”..

The chief aim of analysis is to distinguish between an event occurring

as either reflecting a true effect versus a false one. Any bias occurring in
the collection of the data, or selection of method of analysis, will increase the
likelihood of drawing a biased inference. Bias can occur when recruitment of
study participants falls below minimum number required to demonstrate statistical
power or failure to maintain a sufficient follow-up period needed to demonstrate
an effect (Altman, 2001).

Appraising Literature Review

Quality. Hek and Langton (2000) focused on the criteria of quality, credibility
and accuracy for this type of literature. Quality and credibility encompassed
issues related to the journal, the processes of peer review, the standing of the
author(s) and the claims being made. In addition, content is judged for its

accuracy and its coherence with what is already known on the subject.

Writing the Review. Once the appraisal of the literature is completed,

consideration must be given to how the review will be structured and written.
The key to a good academic paper is the ability to present the findings
in such a way that it demonstrates knowledge in a clear and consistent
way.

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Write Well. Good writing avoids long and confusing words and keep

jargon to a minimum. Sentences should be kept as short as possible

with one clear message and spelling and grammar should be accurate
and consistent with the form of English being used.

Final Step. The final stage of appraisal is to write a short summary of

each article and may include key thoughts, comments, strengths and weaknesses
of the publication. It should be written in your own words to facilitate
understanding of the material. It also forms a good basis for the writing of the
review.

Organization The organization of material in an objective manner and the

structure of the review are crucial to its comprehensiveness. To some extent, the
structure will depend on the purpose of the review. Nonetheless, it is important to
be logical and there are some key elements that need to be included in all
literature reviews

In framing the review, divide the literature into themes or categories

• Definition: Distinct themes from literature are discussed.

• Advantages: Most popular approach. – Allows integration of theoretical and

empirical (research) literature.

• Disadvantages: Care must be taken in ensuring that the themes are clearly
related to the literature.

CRITERIA IN SELECTING, CITING, AND SYNTHESIZING RELATED

LITERATURE

1. INCLUSION CRITERION: Requirements for articles to make it eligible for

inclusion in a literature review:

• Studies must have compared elements.

• Studies must be experimental.
• Studies must have been published in the last 5 years.

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2. EXCLUSION CRITERION

Certain elements disqualified the study to be included in the review of related

literature

• .Studies used observational design.

• Studies published in a language other than English.
• Studies used qualitative methodology.

REFERENCING

• The literature review should conclude with a full bibliographical list of all the
books, journal articles, reports and other media, which were referred to in the
work.
• Regardless if the review is a part of a course of study or for publication, all
sourced material is acknowledged.
• Every citation in the text must appear in the reference/bibliography and vice
versa.
• Omissions or errors in referencing can be avoided by creating a separate file
for references and each time a publication is cited, it can be added to this list
immediately.
• Endnote may initially appear difficult to learn is worth the effort later in terms
of ensuring the reference list is accurate. (Coughlan et al, 2007),

SUMMATIVE TEST

At the Scale of 5 ; 5 being the highest and 1 the lowest. Rate the following review of
related literature according to:

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1. The development of a curriculum in French and English to regulate the

teaching of both subjects as compulsory subjects in Nigeria starting from
primary four is a major landmark in the history of the French and English
languages in Nigeria. By it, the French language has come a long way in
Nigeria and has come to stay. The teaching of the language will become
standardized. However, there has not been any attempt to appraise the
curriculum to see the extent to which the end justifies the means in terms of
how the curriculum contents and elements are meeting the goals for which the
curriculum has been formulated particularly at the Middle-Basic level where
French and English are being taught as core subjects for the essence of
ensuring unfettered access and quality to education for all and for the total
development of the Nigerian child. Unfettered access to education at this level
ensures that all children of school age including the socially marginalized and
vulnerable groups can effectively develop their full potentials and capacities
to enable them become useful to themselves and their countries, leading to
sustainable personal and national development. In developing a curriculum,
full consideration has to be given to the learners who are the beneficiaries of
the curriculum in terms of their linguistic needs and the particular linguistic
context in which they live. Bamgbose (1991) emphasizes the need for a socio-
linguistic survey of the language situation in a country prior to the
determination of language policies in general. However, though this has long
been recognized, it appears not to have been done in this instance (Anyika,
2008). This apparent oversight may account for some possible problems at the
implementation of this laudable and lofty program. Its spiral effect on other
levels of French language education in Nigeria could better be imagined than
described. This forms the basis for an early appraisal of the MBE curriculum,
so as to close up gaps (of error) in order to avoid wastage of resources,
human, material and financial. There is therefore a need to appraise it to
ensure that the means justifies the end, that theory tallies with practice and
that the expected/intended outcome harmonizes with the actual.
Carol Chinyere Opara and Patience Chidinma Ezeana Journal of Teaching and Education.
CD-ROM. ISSN: 2165-6266 :: 04(03):349–359 (2015) AN APPRAISAL OF THE MIDDLE
BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM IN FRENCH AND ENGLISH AS A TOOL FOR
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA

2. The basic concern that necessitated this study is the fact that despite the
importance of English language in Nigeria, students perform poorly in it
during both internal and external examinations. Also there is no integration in
the teaching of English language and literature even when the two are
complementary. The problem of this study therefore, is to find out if the study
of literature in English can improve students’ performance in English
language.
Also it seeks to find out if location of schools can influence the students’
performance in English.
Grace U. Eze, Fed eral College of Education, Nigeria, Influence of Literature in English on
Senior Secondary School Students’ Achievement in English Language

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CHAPTER 3 DATA COLLECTION

Data collection is the systematic approach of gathering and measuring data,

information or any variables of interest in a standardized and established manner
from a variety of sources to get a complete and accurate picture of an area of
interest. It enables a person or organization to answer relevant questions, test the
hypothesis and evaluate outcomes, and make predictions about future
probabilities and trends.

Accurate data collection is essential to maintain the integrity of research, make

informed business decisions and ensure quality assurance.

Data Collection Methods

Surveys, interviews and focus groups are primary instruments for collecting
information. Today, with help from Web and analytics tools, organizations collect
data from mobile devices, website traffic, server activity and other relevant
sources, depending on the project.

Big Data and Data Collection

Big data describes voluminous amounts of structured, semi-structured

and unstructured data collected by organizations. New approaches for collecting
and analyzing data have emerged. Machine learning and artificial intelligence
programs use complex algorithms to look for repeatable patterns.

Types of Data

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Generally, there are two types of data: quantitative data and qualitative
data. Quantitative data is any data that is in numerical form -- e.g., statistics and
percentages. Qualitative data is descriptive data -- e.g., color, smell, appearance
and quality.

In addition to quantitative and qualitative data, some organizations might also

make use of secondary data to help drive business decisions. Secondary data is
typically quantitative in nature and has already been collected by another party for
a different purpose.

As technology evolves, so does data collection. Recent advancements in mobile

technology and the Internet of Things are forcing organizations to think about
how to collect, analyse, and monetize new data. However,
privacy and security issues surrounding data collection heat up.

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LESSON 1 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

1. Biographical Study
A biographical study is considered an exhaustive account of a life
experience; however, just as some studies are limited to single aspects of a
phenomenon, the focus of a biographical study can be much narrower.

EXAMPLES

• O’Brien’s John F. Kennedy: A Biography. The author takes a collection

of archival documents (interviews, speeches, and other writings) and
various media (pictures, audio, and video footage) to present a
comprehensive story of JFK.

• The film Madame Curie, Crawford studies the film from a biographical
perspective to present the reader with an examination of how all aspects of
a film (director’s perspective, actors, camera angles, historical setting) work
to present a biography.

2. Phenomenology
Phenomenon refers to an occurrence or experience, logical refers to
a path toward understanding.(occurrence and a path). (Experience) leads
to a way of looking at the phenomenon from an individual’s point of view. The
reactions, perceptions, and feelings of an individual (or group of individuals) as she/he

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experienced an event are principally important to the phenomenologist looking to

understand an event beyond purely quantitative details.

EXAMPLE

Gaston-Gayles, et al.’s (2005) look at how the civil rights era

changed the role of college administrators is a good example.
The authors interview men and women who were
administrators during that time to identify how the profession
3. changed Theory
Grounded as a result.

In a grounded theory study, interpretations are continually derived

from raw data. The story emerges from the data. Often, researchers will begin with
a broad topic, then use qualitative methods to gather information that defines (or further
refines) a research question.

A grounded theorist would begin by interviewing students, parents, and/or teachers,

and perhaps asking students to write an essay about their thoughts on a dress code
instead of formulating specific questions. The researcher would then follow the process
of developing themes from reading the text by coding specific examples of where
respondents mentioned common things. Resistance might be a common pattern
emerging from the text, which may then become a topic for further analysis. A
grounded theory study is dynamic, it can be continually revised throughout all phases
of the study.
EXAMPLE

.A teacher might want to know what effects the

implementation of a dress code might have on discipline.

4. Ethnography
Ethnography focuses on meaning, largely through direct field
observation. Researchers generally become part of a culture that they wish to study,
then present a picture of that culture through the “eyes” of its members.

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EXAMPLE:

Jane Goodall, studied chimpanzees by living among them in their native

East African habitat.

5. Case Study
A case study is an in-depth analysis of people, events, and
relationships, bounded by some unifying factors like behaviors and views of the
subject, the perceptions of those who interact with her/him, the context of the. school,
outside constituents, comparison to other principals, and other quantitative “variables.”
Case studies do not have to be people-focused.

EXAMPLE

The Department of Education might conduct a case study on a curricular

implementation in a school district – examining how new curriculum moves
from development to implementation to outcomes at each level of interaction
(developer, school leadership, teacher, student).

Basic Qualitative Research Characteristics

1. Design is generally based on a social constructivism perspective.
2. Research problems become research questions based on prior research experience.
3. Sample sizes can be as small as one.
4. Data collection involves interview, observation, and/or archival (content) data.
5. Interpretation is based on a combination of researcher perspective and data co

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LESSON 2. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS PROCEDURE

(Survey, Interview and Observation)

Qualitative research data collection methods are time

consuming, therefore data are usually collected from a small
sample. Qualitative research is more expensive. Qualitative approach has richer
info and a deeper insight into the phenomenon under study.

Data collection approaches for qualitative research involves:

 Direct interaction with individuals on one to one basis.
 Direct interaction with individuals in a group setting.

METHOD OF COLLECTING QUALITATIVE DATA

 Interview (Individual, focus groups)
Qualitative researchers are concerned with making inference
based on perspective, so it is extremely important to get as much data as
possible for later analysis. Researchers spend a considerable amount of time
designing interview questions. Interviews are designed to generate participant
perspectives about ideas, opinions, and experiences.

Observation and Interview Procedures and Skills The researcher use their
senses to examine people in natural settings or naturally
occurring situations.

• Observation (Individual, group, location). The researcher may use a variety

of methods for observing, including taking general notes, using checklists, or
time-and-motion logs.
Observations are designed to generate data on activities and behaviors, and are
generally more focused on setting than other methods.

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WHEN TO USE OBSERVATION IN RESEARCH

There are several reason for using observation in research such as:
 When the nature of the research question to be answered is focused on
answering a how –or what – type question
 When the topic is relatively unexplored and little is known to explain the
behavior of people in a particular setting
 When understanding the meaning of a setting in a detailed way is valuable
 When it is important to study a phenomenon in its natural setting
 When self-report data is likely to be different from actual behavior.
 When implementing an intervention in a natural setting, observation may be
used with other quantitative data collection technique.

STRATEGIES FOR ANALYZING OBSERVATION

• Chronology : describe what was observed chronologically overtime, to tell the
story from beginning to end
• Key events: describe critical incidents or major events not necessarily in order
of occurrence but in order of importance
• Various settings: describe various places, sites, settings or locations in which
events/behaviors of interest happen
• People: describing individuals or groups involved in the events
• Process: describing important process
• Issues: Illuminating key issues

Document Analysis (Content analysis of written data)

Qualitative researchers analyze anything that supports the question asked. Print media
has long been a staple data source for qualitative researchers, but electronic media (email,
blogs, user Web pages, and even social network profiles) have extended the data
qualitative researchers can collect and analyze. The greatest challenge offered
by document analysis can be sifting through all of the data to make
general observations.

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TYPES OF QUALITATIVE DATA

 Structured text (writings, stories, survey, comments, news, books, etc.)
 Unstructured text (transcriptions, interview, focus group, conversation)
 Audio recordings, music
 Video recordings (graphics, art, pictures, visuals)

Questions for Qualitative Interviews

Types of Questions Examples

Hypothetical If you get the chance to the

President of the
Philippines, do you think
you can provide a better
solution to drug problems?

Provocative I have heard students

saying that many
professors are subjective
in giving grades, what do
you have to say about it?

Ideal In your opinion, what do

you think will make the
Philippine President end
his strategy on war on
drugs?

Leading Do you think being

proactive is better than
being reactive?

Loading Do you see that morally

degrading campaign about
the use of condom during

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Valentine’s Day?

Multiple Tell me who your three

favorite professors, their
styles of teaching, and
why do you like them.

SUMMATIVE TEST

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CHAPTER4 ANALYSIS OF DATA AND

DRAWING CONCLUSIONS

Analysis of Data

While methods of analysis may differ by scientific discipline, the best stage for
determining appropriate analytic procedures occurs early in the
research process and should not after the research is done. According to
Smeeton and Goda (2003), “Statistical advice should be obtained at the
stage of initial planning of an investigation so that the method of
sampling and design of questionnaire are appropriate”.

When failing to demonstrate statistically different levels between

treatment groups, investigators may resort to breaking down the
analysis to smaller and smaller subgroups in order to find a difference.

If it the study is exploratory in nature, the investigator should make this explicit
so that readers understand that the research is more of a hunting expedition rather
than being primarily theory driven. Although a researcher may not have a theory-
based hypothesis for testing relationships between previously untested variables, a
theory will have to be developed to explain an unanticipated finding.

Drawing Conclusion
Conclusions summarize whether the experiment or survey results
support or contradict the original hypothesis. Scientists have ways to
organize their data that make it easier for them to understand the results and
check their data against their original hypothesis to find out whether or not they
were right.

Without a valid design, no valid scientific conclusions can be drawn.

Internal validity concerns the degree to which conclusions about causality can be
made while external validity concerns the extent to which the results of a study
are generalizable. Stephanie Mitchell (2012)

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LESSON 1 DRAWING OUT PATTERNS AND THEMES

FROM DATA

Although theories can often motivate the processes in the investigation of

qualitative studies, many patterns of behavior or occurrences derived from
analyzed data can result in developing new theoretical frameworks rather than
determined a priori (Savenye, Robinson, 2004).

It is conceivable that multiple statistical tests could yield a significant

finding by chance alone rather than reflecting a true effect. Integrity of
the research is compromised if the researcher only reports tests with significant
findings, and neglects mentioning tests that fail to reach significance.

While access to computer-based statistical packages can facilitate application of

increasingly complex analytic procedures, inappropriate uses of these packages
can result in abuses.

Every field of study has developed its accepted practices for data
analysis. Resnik (2000) states that it is practical for researchers to follow these
accepted norms. He claims that the norms are based on two factors: (1) the nature
of the variables used (i.e., quantitative, comparative, or qualitative), (2)
assumptions about the population from which the data are drawn (i.e., random
distribution, independence, sample size, etc.). If one uses unconventional norms,
it is crucial to clearly state this is being done and show how this new and possibly
unaccepted method of analysis is being used, as well as how it differs from other
traditional methods.

HOW TO DRAW OUT PATTERNS AND THEMES

1. Start with a quick scan of the evidence by:

*Noting patterns and themes, which pull together many separate pieces of data.
*Making contrasts and comparisons which are drawn or made between sets of
information that are known to be different. Example: Responses of parents,
students, and teachers can be compared and contrasted..*Clustering or
Categorizing info that has similar patterns or characteristics.*Counting.
2. Write conclusions down for further considerations.

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3. Checked conclusions against other info, evidence and evaluation

data.
4. Initial conclusions need to be verified and checked. *If the initial
conclusion is outside the range of what is expected, there is a need for
reinvestigation. It could lead to a revision of the assumption. *Within the data
source there are common forms of triangulation by data source (survey, interview,
and observation. There is a need to be aware of the differences and variations that
exist.* If the conclusion is correct there should be an evidence. *Hold unto a
number of rival examples until one becomes increasingly evident. *If it is not
possible to find genuinely representative example of conclusions then the
conclusions may be faulty.*Ensure that conclusions are meaningful and have a
conceptual significance. Educational Measurement Directorate: Program Reviews,Team
Training Manual (2005)

TYPES OF QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

 Content Analysis. It is the procedure to categorize verbal or behavioral data

for the purpose of classification, summarization, and tabulation
 Narrative Analysis. Narratives are transcribed experiences. The core activity
in narrative analysis is to reformulate stories presented by people in different
contexts and based on their different experiences.
 Discourse Analysis. A method of analyzing a naturally occurring talk and all
types of written texts. Focus on ordinary people’s method of producing and
making sense of everyday social life. How language is used in everyday
situation?
 Framework Analysis. Familiarization: Transcribing and reading the data
 Identifying a thematic framework: Initial coding framework which is
developed both from priori issues and from emergent issues.
 Coding: Using numerical or textual codes to identify specific piece of data
which corresponds to different themes.
 Charting: Charts created using heading

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 Grounded Theory : Taken from thematic framework

 Mapping and Interpretation: Searching for patterns, associations, concepts
and explanations in the data.

SUMMATIVE TEST

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CHAPTER V
REPORTING AND FINDINGS

This is the central part of the thesis where the data that forms the basis of the study, designed
by the by the way the researcher thought about it is presented. It is the researcher telling the
readers the story that has emerged from his findings.

The major task of reporting the research involves working out how to make contextually
grounded theoretical points (based on your data), and theoretical (related to relevant
theory) that are viewed as a contribution by the relevant professional community of
readers. (Golden-Biddle & Locke, 1997, p. 20). They must fit into a framework that
makes a coherent story of the findings.

The presentation of findings should be logically organized to reflect *the aims or

research question(s) of the project, *any hypotheses that have been tested,* the
research methods and theoretical framework that have been outlined earlier in the
thesis and the analysis of the results of data analysis.

Reporting is not simply describing the data but also making connections and reasoning
out regarding data interpretation. Usually, the obtained data are presented in
appropriate figures (diagrams, graphs, tables and photographs) and the reporter’s
comment on these data.

LESSON 1 RESEARCH REPORT

Research report is a condensed form or a brief description of a

research work. It has several steps to present a report through thesis and
dissertation.
Preparing a report leads to (1) evaluate the project, (2) document lessons learned,
and (3) add organization knowledge- based for future reference.

Qualitative data

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The reporting of qualitative data is much less bound by convention than that of
quantitative data. The data itself usually consists of words, from written documents or
interview transcripts (but may include images), which have been analysed in some way,
often into themes. In reporting the data, it is generally important to
convey both the themes and some of the flavour of the actual words.

The data needs to be connected back through the layers of detail to the overarching
research question it relates to. This can be done through the introductions to carefully-
structured sections and subsections. Individual data extracts can be connected back
into this structure through a process of 'tell-show-tell'.

Data commentary element example quantitative data

Instructions: Click on the highlighted data elements in the example below.

Table 5 shows the most common modes of computer infection in Australian

businesses. As can be seen in the table, home disks are the most frequent source
of infection.

Activity: Data commentary element example

Instructions: Click on the text below to identify the location element, summary and
highlighting statement.

The influents to filter A and B were analysed fully on a number of occasions, and the
averaged results are presented in Table 6.1. It can be seen from the table that the
wastewaters from plants A and B and of similar composition.

Sometimes a reduced location element is used which gives only the table or figure
number in brackets after the highlighting statement.

Examples:

1. The ranges of metal atom concentrations for the two precipitate types were
found to overlap (Table 6)

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2. Quantitative analysis revealed some variation in the composition of the

rods in the various exservice samples (Figure 7 and Table 5).

Commentary on results may include:

 explanations
 comparisons between results
 comments on whether the results are expected or unexpected
 comments about unsatisfactory data.

Dealing with "Problems"

The difference between expected may be due to the incorrect calibration of the
and obtained results instruments.

This discrepancy can be attributed to the small sample size.

The anomaly in the observations can probably be by a defect in the camera.

accounted for

The lack of statistical significance is probably a weaknesses in the

consequence of experimental design.

The difficulty in dating this would seem to stem the limited amount of organic
archeological site from material available.

(Adapted from Swales & Feak, 2004, p. 138).

If you are discussing your findings in a separate chapter or section, limit your comments
here to the specific results you have presented.

Past or present tense?

Location element present …the averaged results are presented in Table 6.1.
tense Table 5 shows…

Summary of past tense The influents to filter A and B were analysed fully on a
procedure number of occasions,…

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Results of analysis past tense The ranges of metal atom concentrations … were found to
overlap.

Comments present This discrepancy can be attributed to the small sample size.
tense

Click on the highlighted text below to read the comments.

Example from a Doctor of Education thesis:

6.4.3 Themes from the Interview Data

In analysing the interview data, two themes emerged which will be discussed in this section.
These themes were: the complexity and challenges of working with families and the professional
satisfaction and challenges of program planning for children in preschool or childcare.

For each of these graduates, their work with children was clearly the area of their professional
lives that was bringing the most satisfaction, although there were some challenges identified. In
the interviews, the data reveal that they were all seeking ways to improve their pedagogy and
achieving success in different ways…

Angela suggested that in her second year of teaching she had changed in that she was
programming in a "more child oriented" way. She discussed this change:

One of the things I've changed is this idea of herding children through the
Kinder day: they go from indoor play to snack time to the mat and so on. How
I do it now is that I have a lot of different things happening at once. I'll have a
small group on the mat and there might be some children sitting down and
having a snack and there's still some children in home corner playing.

These comments seem to provide evidence that Angela is growing professionally for two
reasons. First, the ability to identify changes in her program suggests to me that she has deeper
pedagogical knowledge gained through critical reflection on her practice, and second, there is
congruence between her expressed beliefs and the practice she describes.

Research question

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In your discussion you must draw together your research question and your own
research results. If the discussion is in a self-contained chapter or section you will need
to briefly summarise the major findings that come from the research and relate them to
what you originally proposed to find out.

If your research is testing a hypothesis, you need to answer these questions:

 Do your research findings support your initial hypothesis? Why and how?
 Do your findings only support the hypothesis in part? Why and how?
 Do your findings disprove your hypothesis? Why and how?
 What else do your findings tell you, over and above what you initially set out to
investigate?

Relation to other research

Since one of the requirements of a doctorate is to make a contribution to knowledge, it

is essential to show how your results fit in with other work that has been done in your
field.

 Point out the agreements and disagreements between your data and that of
others.
 In presenting your own interpretation of the results, consider the strengths and
weaknesses of alternative interpretations from the literature.

Implications

Another aspect of making clear the contribution of your research is to draw out the
implications of your findings. Depending on the nature or your research, these will
probably be related to:

 current theory
 technical applications
 professional practice

Writing your discussion

The skill in writing a successful discussion is in moving backwards and forwards

between others' research and your own research, making it clear:

 which has been done by other people

 which has been done by you
 and how they complement each other.

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Tip

Remember that you are dealing with three different issues and the three must be clearly
differentiated for the reader.

Some techniques to differentiate your own research from previous research in your
writing (these are suggestions, not rules, and your best guide is to see how other writers
in your discipline do this):

Use the first person to describe your findings. My data shows...

Consistently use ‘this’ to refer to your own research This study...

and refer to previous research by name, place or time. The findings of this research...
Smith and Geva found that...
A previous study in Belgrade...

Make reference to similarities or differences in Similar research carried out in the 1980s
approach or findings. showed that...

Use the present perfect tense to highlight the recent This study has shown a prevalence rate of 2.5
relevance of your research in comparison with earlier which is greater than that found by Smith and
research, referring to it in the simple past. Geva in their Belgrade study...

Using cautious language

Discussing results and drawing conclusions involves making claims about interpretation,
significance and applicability. This is done within a research tradition where existing
knowledge is always being modified in the light of new results. As a researcher, you are
expected to distinguish carefully between:

 knowledge you are sure of because you have reliable evidence for it
 other knowledge you are less sure of
 other knowledge you think is only within the realms of possibility

Therefore, very strong claims, like the one below, are rare in academic writing

Reducing fat intake lowers the risk of heart disease.

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A claim like this, which implies that the statement is true in every case, cannot be
supported with evidence. Claims should therefore be specific and precise, and the level
of certainty must match the level of evidence.

There are many methods used in academic writing to qualify a claim:

1. Indicate the degree of probability (note how the claim progressively weakens):

It is certain that

It is very probable/ highly likely that

It is likely that

It is possible that

It is unlikely that

→
reducing fat intake lowers the risk of heart disease.

Reducing fat intake lowers the risk of heart disease.

Reducing fat intake could/might lower the risk of heart disease.

Reducing fat intake may lower the risk of heart disease.

2.Distance yourself a) from the claim:

Reducing fat intake appears to lower the risk of heart disease.

It seems that reducing fat intake lowers the risk of heart disease.

Some researchers suggest that reducing fat intake lowers the risk of heart
disease.

or b) from the data, by showing its limitations:

Some studies indicate that reducing fat intake lowers the risk of heart
disease.

For this age group , reducing fat intake lowers the risk of heart disease.

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In most of the cases studied , reducing fat intake lowered the risk of heart
disease.

3. Use a qualifying verb:

Reducing fat intake tends to lower the risk of heart disease.

Reducing fat intake contributes to lowering the risk of heart disease.

4. In practice, a combination of these methods is often used:

The majority of studies indicate that for this age group, reducing fat intake
contributes to lowering the risk of heart disease.

References

Evans, D., & Gruba, P. (2002). How to Write a Better Thesis (2nd ed.). Parkville:
Melbourne University Press.

Golden-Biddle, K., & Locke, K. (1997). Composing Qualitative Research. Thousand

Oaks: Sage Publications.

Silverman, D. (2005). Doing Qualitative Research: A Practical Handbook (2nd ed.).

London: Sage Publications.

Swales, J.M., & Feak, C.B. (2004). Academic Writing for Graduate Students (2nd ed.).
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press

GUIDELINES FOR REPORT WRITING

 Decide the Objective. Consider the purpose of the report to keep focused. Will
it describe, explain, recommend, or persuade?
 Understand the Audience. Tailor the language, use of data and supporting
graphics to the audience.
 Report Format and Type. Doing an oral report, or delivering a presentation
calls for the submission of a written paper.
 Gather the Facts of the Data. Facts and data solidify argument.
 Structure the Report. 1. Executive Summary. 2. Introduction, 3 Body, 4
Conclusion

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 Readability. Make the report accessible and enjoyable to read. Use visuals to
break up the long section of the report.

THE CONCLUSION
The conclusion is the presentation of the interpretation of the results
given in the results section of the paper. Conclusion can be drawn from the
analysis of those results and then make recommendations based on the analysis.

A. Guidelines in Making Conclusion

 The conclusion discusses the meaning of the results beyond statistical

meaning by interpreting the findings and what can be concluded from them.
 In the discussion, indicate whether the results conform totally or in part the
original expectations, predictions or hypotheses.
 For each hypothesis, indicate if it is supported or not and why? The limitations
inherent in the procedure as well as the implication of each limitation to the
conclusion must be discussed.
 Discuss the relationship of the results to the original problem description.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: This section identifies the relevant results and
conclusions of the study. Results are those finding or “things” which

occurred. Conclusions are made based on the results, literature, and

professional judgment. In long reports with many results and
conclusions, it is best to number them. Record any response (e.g., feelings)
which arises from reading or viewing the source which may affect interpretation
of source findings or conclusions.
EXAMPLE

CONCLUSIONS:

User’s education is an essential mechanism for ensuring effective use of the library
and information materials through orientation, bibliographic tour, and user’s
awareness. It efficacy is in creating in the library and information users the right
attitudes to learning and use of information resources. This could be in a various
forms as may be decided by the librarian from84 time to time. User’s education could be
designed as a stand - alone course designated as “use of library” or an embedded
course as part of general studies, offered to newly admitted students.
 BASIC RESEARCH (RESEARCH1)

B. RECOMMENDATION

The recommendation should be supported by the results of the study.

Recommendation should include:
 Statement of what should be done; the steps required for the implementation
and the resources needed.
 Discussion of the benefits to the organization and what problems should be
corrected or avoided.
 Discussion of the feasibility of the proposed policy;
 A general statement about the nature and timing of an evaluation plan that
determines the effectiveness of the policy.
 The actions that the future researchers may take should be a part of the
recommendation.

EXAMPLE:
RECOMMENDATIONS:
Based on the findings of this study, the proponent makes the following
recommendations”
1. The government should continue providing reading programs that will
improve the reading competence of the elementary and high school
students.
2. Modern electronic devices must be implanted in reading programs to
encourage and motivate the young school children to read.
3. The college students must realize the significance of improved reading
proficiency in their lives as students and future professionals.
4. Needs assessment must be regularly conducted to find out if needs exist to
C.beTECHNIQUES FOR CITING
able to provide solution REFERENCES
at the early stage of the problem.

Reading Proficiency Needs Assessment of the First Year College Students of the Lyceum of the Philippines University
Academic Year 2014-2015:A Basis for Electronic-Reading Program (E – Reading Program) Intervention Proposal
by Dr.Emelita Santiago-Custodio

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LESSON 2 THE APA CITATION

The APA (American Psychological Association) style is commonly

used within the social sciences research as a form of citation. The APA
Citation guideline 6th edition of the APA Manual provides the general format for
the in-text citations and the reference page. A citation is a quotation from or
reference to a book, paper, or author, especially in a scholarly work.

o
IN-TEXT CITATION

An in-text citation is an ACKNOWLEGEMENT used, when one

refers to, summaries, paraphrases, or quotes from another source. For
every in-text citation in a paper, there must be a corresponding entry in the reference list.

Using In-Text Citation

APA in-text citation style uses the author's last name and the year of
publication, for example: (Smith, 2005).
For direct quotations, include the page number as well, for example: (Field, 2005, p. 14).

Example paragraph with in-text citation

The “System Theory” by Lawrence Peters, as cited by Villamater (2001), to which this
study applies its three major components namely: the input, the process, and the output
will serve as the paradigm of this study.

References

Derwing, T. M., Rossiter, M. J., & Munro, M. J. (2002). Teaching native speakers to
listen toforeign-accented speech. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural
Development, 23(4), 245-259.
Thomas, H. K. (2004). Training strategies for improving listeners' comprehension of
foreign- accented speech (Doctoral dissertation). University of Colorado, Boulder.

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Web Pages Citing In -Text

• Cite web pages in text using the author and date if known.
• If the author is not known, use the title and the date as the in-text citation (for long
titles just use the first few words). The in-text citation should lead the reader to the
corresponding entry in the reference list. For sources with no date use n.d. (for no date) in
place of the year: (Smith, n.d.). Below are examples of using in-text citation with web
pages.

Web page with author:

In-text citation
Role-play can help children learn techniques for coping with bullying (Kraiser, 2011).

Reference entry
Kraizer, S. (2011). Preventing bullying. Retrieved from
http://safechild.org/categoryparents/preventing-bullying/

In-text citation
(All things Shammer, 2006).

Reference entry
All things Shammer, (2006). Retrieved from
http://www.psu.edu/ur/about/nittanymascot.html

Web page with no date:

In-text citation
Establishing regular routines, such as exercise, can help survivors of disasters recover
from trauma (American Psychological Association [APA], (n.d.).

Reference entry

American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Recovering emotionally from disaster.

Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/recovering-disasters.aspx. Gas &Varonis,
85).

Note: For direct quotations of more than 40 words, display the quote as an indented block
of text without quotation marks and include the authors’ names, year, and page number in
parentheses at the end of the quote.

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Works by Multiple Authors. For multiple authors' names within a parenthetic citation,
use &.
One author: (Field, 2005)
Two authors: (Gass & Varonis, 1984)
Three to five authors:
First citation: (Tremblay, Richer, Lachance, & Cote, 2010)
Subsequent citations: (Tremblay et al., 2010)
Six or more authors: (Norris-Shortle et al., 2006)

In-text citations - General Guidelines

With in-text citations, a source is acknowledged by providing a brief

reference to exactly where in the source the information was found.
The reader can then use the complete reference listed in the Works Cited page at the end
of the paper to verify what has been written. In most cases, providing the author's last
name and a page number is sufficient.

Example:

In response to rapid metropolitan expansion, urban renewal projects

sought "an order in which more significant kinds of conflict, more
complex and intellectually stimulating kinds of disharmony, may take
place" (Mumford 485).

 If you mention the author’s name in your text, only the page reference needs to be
inserted in parentheses

Example.

According to Postman, broadcast news influences the decision-making

process (51-63).

In-text citations - Audiovisual resources

Audiovisual recordings such as videos and songs do not have page numbers to be
included in in-text citations. For such time-based media, include the time or
range of times for any segment being quoted or discussed.

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Example

Near the beginning of the film, a woman tells Johnnie that Lina is “a very
carefully brought-up young lady” (Suspicion 4:50).

In-text citations - Indirect quotations

When citing a quotation which is cited in another source, indicate the source
actually consulted in the parenthetical reference and in the works cited. Use
the abbreviation qtd. to indicate that the information has been quoted in another source.
Example: Landow admitted that there was "work to be done" (qtd. in Rogers 333).

If quoting text that is longer than four typed lines, block indent the passage half an inch (1.27
cm) from the left margin. Do not surround the quotation with quotation marks. The parenthetical
reference follows the final punctuation.

Example
Anderson argues that all nations can be measured:The nation is imagined as
limited because even the largest of them, encompassing perhaps a billion living
human beings, has finite, if elastic, boundaries, beyond which lie other nations. No
nation imagines itself coterminous with mankind. The most messianic nationalists
do not dream of a day when all the members of the human race will join their
nation in the way that it was possible, in certain epochs, for, say, Christians to
dream of a wholly Christian planet. (7)

Works cited - General Guidelines

The alphabetical list of works cited that appears at the end of the paper contains more
information about all of the sources cited, allowing readers to refer to them, as needed.
The main characteristics are:

 The list of Works Cited must be on a new page at the end of the text
 Entries are arranged alphabetically by the author's last name or by the title if
there is no author

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 Titles of books are italicized and titles of articles are placed in quotation marks.
All important words should be capitalized
 Entries are double-spaced (for the purposes of this page, single-spacing is used)
 For online sources, date of access is an optional element. However, it can be
helpful to include this information, especially if the source you are using does not have a
date of publication

Works cited – One Author; Many Works

Begin by arranging the creator’s works in alphabetical order. Create a full entry for the
first work in the list (following the instructions below). For the other work(s), replace the
creator’s name by three hyphens and arrange alphabetically by the work’s title.

Example
Postman, Neil. Amusing Ourselves to Death: Public Discourse in the Age of Show
Business. Viking,1985. ---. The Disappearance of Childhood. Vintage, 1994.

Works cited - Book with 1 author

Last Name, First Name. Title. Publisher, Year of Publication.

Example Mumford, Lewis. The Culture of Cities. Harcourt, 1998.

Works cited - Book with 2 authors

First Author’s Last Name, First Author’s First Name, and Second Author’s First and
Last Names. Title. Publisher, Year of Publication.

Example Ormerod, Neil, and Christiaan Jacobs-Vandegeer. Foundational Theology.

Fortress Press, 2015.

Works cited - Book with 3 or more authors

First Author’s Last Name, First Author’s First Name, et al. Title. Publisher, Year of
Publication.
Note: these rules regarding the listing of authors also apply to other kinds of sources (e.g.
journal articles).

Example
Francis, R. Douglas, et al. Destinies: Canadian History since Confederation. Harcourt,
2000.

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Works cited - Anthology or compilation. Include the word “editor” after the
editor’s name.

Example Abate, Corinne S., editor. Privacy, Domesticity, and Women in Early
Modern England. Ashgate, 2003.

Works cited - Work in an anthology or an essay in a book

Last Name, First Name. “Work Title.” Book Title, edited by Editor Name, Publisher,
Year, pp.

Example: Naremore, James. "Hitchcock at the Margins of Noir." Alfred Hitchcock:

Centenary Essays, edited by Richard Allen and S. Ishii-Gonzalès, BFI, 1999, pp.
263-77.

Works cited - Book by a corporate author. Associations, corporations, agencies

and organizations are considered authors when there is no single author.

Example: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. Action

against Climate Change: The Kyoto Protocol and Beyond. OECD, 1999.

Works cited - Article in a reference book or an entry in an encyclopedia If

the article/entry is signed, include the author's name; if unsigned, begin with the title of
the entry.

Example of a signed article: Guignon, Charles B. "Existentialism." Routledge

Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward Craig. Routledge, 1998.

Example of an unsigned article: “Niagara Falls.” Encyclopaedia

Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc., 2016.

Works cited - A translation. The translator’s name follows the title of the work.

Example: Murakami, Haruki. 1Q84. Translated by Jay Rubin and Philip Gabriel,
Alfred A. Knopf, 2011.

Works cited - Book in a series. Optionally, you may include the series title at
the end of the citation, followed by the number in the series if applicable.

Example: Bloom, Harold, editor. André Malraux. Chelsea House, 1988. Modern
Critical Views.

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Works cited - Article in a journal

Last Name, First Name. “Article Title.” Title of Journal, vol. #, no. #, Month/Season
Year, pp.

Example:Ferrer, Ada. "Cuba 1898: Rethinking Race, Nation, and Empire." Radical
History Review, vol. 73, Winter 1999, pp. 22-49.

NOTE – If an article is not printed on consecutive pages, record the first page number
followed by a plus sign. If there are no page numbers, leave the field blank.

Example of article with non-consecutive page numbers:

Mack, Candice. “From the President.” Young Adult Library Services, vol. 14, no. 2,

Example of article with no page numbers:

Sehmby, Dalbir S. "Wrestling and Popular Culture." CCLWeb: Comparative Literature
and Culture, vol. 4, no. 1, March 2002.

Works cited - Article in a newspaper or magazine

Last Name, First Name. “Article Title.” Title of Newspaper or Magazine, Date, <page
range.

Examples Semenak, Susan. "Feeling Right at Home: Government Residence Eschews

Traditional Rules." Montreal Gazette, 28 Dec. 1995, A4.

Driedger, Sharon Doyle. "After Divorce." Maclean's, 20 Apr. 1998, pp. 38-43.For

newspaper and magazine articles retrieved online, please see examples for
journal articles retrieved from a library database.

Works cited - An entire website

Last Name, First Name. Title of Website. Date, URL.

Example: Linder, Douglas O. Famous

Trial2009, law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/ftrials.htm.

Works cited - A page on a Web site

An entry for a non periodical item found on the Web contains the following:
Last Name, First Name. "Document Title if Available." Title of the Overall Web site,
Date, URL.
If you cannot find some of this information, include only what is available.

Example (including optional date of access):

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"Joyce Wieland." Celebrating Women's Achievements: Women Artists in

Canada, 2000, collectionscanada.gc.ca/women/030001-1173-e.html. Accessed
29 Mar. 2004.

Works cited - Social media posts

If the author’s name begins with “@”, disregard it when alphabetizing your Works Cited
list. Instead, begin with the character immediately following it.
Author. “Full text of post.” Name of Social Media Website, Date, Time, URL.

Twitter example:
@jk_rowling. “God, I hate this stuff. I’ve winged it my whole life. I’ve messed up
regularly. There are no rules. Do your thing.” Twitter, 12 June 2016, 10:03
a.m., twitter.com/jk_rowling/status/742039536688107520.

Instagram example:
@montreal. “Doux lundi // Peaceful Monday Photo par @susanmossphotography
#MTLmoments #MTL #montreal.” Instagram, 13 June 2016,
5:4 a.m., instagram.com/p/BGmFK7Ny9TF/?hl=en

Works cited - Emails

Author of email. “Subject.” Received by Recipient Name, Date.
Example: Bélanger, Suzanne. “Travaux de Construction.” Received by Ravi Vishnaj, 9
Feb. 2016.

Works cited - Sound recording

Last Name, First Name. “Title of Track.” Album Title, Record Label, Year.

Example:
Ellington, Duke. "Black and Tan Fantasy." Music is My Mistress, Musicmasters, 1989.

If the recording was obtained online, include a link to the website.

Example:
Jonas, Nick, and Tove Lo. “Close.” Last Year Was Complicated, Island and Safehouse,
2016. listen.tidal.com/track/61554644.

Works cited - YouTube video

“Title of Video.” Video Hosting Service, uploaded by Uploader name, date of upload,
URL.
Example:
“Ken Burns & Henry Louis Gates, Jr. in Conversation with Michel Martin.” YouTube,
uploaded by BAMorg, 18 Mar. 2016, youtube.com/watch?v=42OlCnuXN0A.

Works cited - Film, videorecording or DVD

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The format of your citations depends on the focus of your work. If you want to
emphasize the role of a particular contributor (such as a director, performer, or writer),
list the person’s name first, followed by their role, then the title of the film. Otherwise,
you can start with the title of the film.

Example where the film title is listed first:

The Shining. Directed by Stanley Kubrick, performances by Jack Nicholson and Shelley
Duvall, Warner Bros., 1980.

Example where a contributor is listed first:

Nair, Mira, director. Monsoon Wedding. Performances by Naseeruddin Shah and Lillete
Dubey, Mirabai Films, 2001.

Works cited - Television or radio program

As with films, video recordings and DVDs, elements can be ordered in different ways
depending on what you want to emphasize. “Episode Title.” Program Title, created by
Creator Name, performance[s] by Performer Name[s], season #, episode #, Network,
Date.

Example: Blax, Snake, Home.” Happy Endings, created by David Caspe, performance by
Elisha
Cuthbert, season 2, episode 1, ABC, 28 Sept. 2011.

Example of program obtained from a website (including optional date of access):

“Arianna Huffington.” The Daily Show, created by Lizz Winstead and Madeleine
Smithberg, performance by Trevor Noah, season 21, episode 111, Comedy Central, 19
May 2016. ctv.ca/ The Daily Show/video.aspx?vid=870157. Accessed 12 June 2016.

Works cited - Untitled sources

This format could apply for items such as artifacts or works of art.
Creator. Description. Year/Range of Years, Museum, Place.
Example: Savage & Lyman Co. Brooch and earrings. About 1845, McCord Museum,
Montreal.

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REFERENCES

Balkema W.A and H. Slager (Hg.): Artistic Research. Lier en Boog, Series of
Philosophy of Art and Art Theory 18. Amsterdam 2004 .
Barrett and E B., Bolt: Practice as Research. Approaches to Creative Arts Enquiry.
London 2009.
Birell , R., “Jacques Rancière and The (Re)Distribution of the Sensible: Five Lessons in
Artistic Research”, in: Art & Research 2/1 (2008), pp. 1-11.
Borgdorff, H., “The debate on research in the arts”, in: Dutch Journal of Music Theory
12/1 (2007) S. 1
Busch: K. “Artistic Research and the Poetics of Knowledge”, in: Lesage/Busch 2007, p.
41
D. Carr: “Art, Practical Knowledge and Aesthetic Objectivity”, in: Ratio 12/3 (1999), p.
240256

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