UNIT 5

Operational Amplifier and its applications

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Op-Amp (operational amplifier) is a direct coupled multistage voltage amplifier with

an extremely high gain. Opamp is basically an amplifier available in the IC form. The
word “operational” is used because the amplifier can be used to perform a variety of
mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, integration, differentiation etc.

Figure 1 below shows the symbol of an Op-Amp.

+VCC
V1

Inverting input Vo

V2
Noninverting input
-VEE

Fig.5.1 Symbol of Op-Amp

• It has two inputs and one output. The input marked “-“ is known as Inverting
input and the input marked “+” is known as Non-inverting input
If a voltage Vi is applied at the inverting input ( keeping the non-inverting input at
ground) as shown below.

Vi

VO

Vi VO

Fig.5.2 Op-amp in inverting mode

The output voltage Vo= -AVi is amplified but is out of phase with respect to the input
signal by 1800.

• If a voltage Vi is fed at the non-inverting input ( Keeping the inverting

input at ground) as shown below.

Vo

VO

Vi

Fig 5.3 Op-Amp in Non-inverting mode

The output voltage Vo= AVi is amplified and in-phase with the input signal.

• If two different voltages V1 and V2 are applied to an ideal Op-Amp as

shown below.

Vcc

V1
VO

V2

-V
Fig.5.4 Ideal Op-Amp

The output voltage will be Vo = A(V1 – V2)

i.e the difference of the two voltages is amplified. Hence an Op-Amp is also called as
a High gain differential amplifier.

Concept of Virtual ground

We know that , an ideal Op-Amp has perfect balance (ie output will be zero when
input voltages are equal).

Hence when output voltage Vo = 0, we can say that both the input voltages are equal
ie V1= V2.

V1
Vo
Ri
V2

Fig. 5.5a Concept of Virtual ground

Since the input impedances of an ideal Op-Amp is infinite ( Ri =∞ ). There is no

 current flow between the two terminals.

Hence when one terminal ( say V2 ) is connected to ground (ie V2 = 0) as shown.

VCC

V1 =V2 =0
Ri VO

V2=0

VEE

Fig. 5.5b Concept of Virtual ground

Then because of virtual ground V1 will also be zero

5.2 Characteristics of an Ideal Op-Amp
An ideal Op-Amp has the following characteristics.

1. Infinite voltage gain ( ie AV =∞)

2. Infinite input impedance (Ri = ∞)

3. Zero output impedance(Ro =0)

4. Infinite Bandwidth (B.W. = ∞)

5. Infinite Common mode rejection ratio (ie CMRR =∞)

6. Infinite slew rate (ie S=∞)

7. Zero power supply rejection ratio ( PSRR =0)ie output voltage is zero
when power supply VCC =0

8. Zero offset voltage(ie when the input voltages are zero, the output voltage
will also be zero)

9. Perfect balance (ie the output voltage is zero when the input voltages at the
two input terminals are equal)

10. The characteristics are temperature independent.

5.3 Typical Specifications of general purpose Op-amp

Parameter Ideal Typical or Practical

Value
Voltage Gain ∞ 2*105
[Av]
Output 0 75Ω
Impedance
Input Impedance ∞ 2MΩ
Input Offset 0 2mV
CMRR ∞ 90dB
Slew Rate ∞ 0.5V/μs
Bandwidth ∞ 1MHz
PSRR 0 30μV/V
Input Bias 0 80nA
Current

Definitions

1. Slew rate(S): It is defined as “ The rate of change of output voltage per unit
time”

𝑑𝑉𝑜
𝑆𝑅 = volts /  sec
𝑑𝑡

SR=fmax 2 Π Vm

Ideally slew rate should be as high as possible. But its typical value is 0.5 V/μ-sec.

2. Differential and Common mode Gain:

A common mode signal is one that drives both inputs of a differential amplifier equally.
The common mode signal is interference, static and other kinds of undesirable pickup etc.

The connecting wires on the input bases act like small antennas. If a differential amplifier
is operating in an environment with lot of electromagnetic interference, each base picks
up an unwanted interference voltage. If both the transistors were matched in all respects
then the balanced output would be theoretically zero. This is the important characteristic
of a differential amplifier. It discriminates against common mode input signals. In other
words, it refuses to amplify the common mode signals.

The practical effectiveness of rejecting the common signal depends on the degree of
matching between the two CE stages forming the differential amplifier. In other words,
more closely are the currents in the input transistors, the better is the common mode signal
rejection e.g. If v1 and v2 are the two input signals, then the output of a practical op-amp
cannot be described by simply

v0 = Ad (v1 – v2 )

where Ad represents differential gain.

In practical differential amplifier, the output depends not only on difference signal but
also upon the common mode signal (average).

vd = (v1 – vd )

and vC = ½ (v1 + v2 )

The output voltage, therefore can be expressed as

vO = A1 v1 + A2 v2

Where A1 & A2 are the voltage amplification from input 1(2) to output under the condition
that input 2 (1) is grounded.

3. Common Mode Rejection Ratio(CMRR): It is defined as “ The ratio of

differential voltage gain to common-mode voltage gain”.
Ideally CMRR is infinite, but its typical value is CMRR = 90 dB
The CMRR in an operational amplifier is a common mode rejection ratio. Generally, the
op amp as two input terminals which are positive and negative terminals and the two
inputs are applied at the same point. This will give the opposite polarity signals at the
output. Hence the positive and the negative voltage of the terminals will cancel out and
it will give the resultant output voltage. The ideal op amp will have the infinite CMRR
and with the finite differential gain and zero common mode gain.
CMMR = Differential mode gain / Common-mode gain
CMRR = 20log|Ad/Ac| dB

4. Open Loop Voltage Gain (AV): It is the ratio of output voltage to input voltage
in the absence of feed back.
Its typical value is AV = 2x105

5. Input Impedance (Zi):It is defined as “ The impedance seen by the

input(source) applied to one input terminal when the other input terminal is
connected to ground.
Zi ≈ 2MΩ

6. Output Impedance (ZO): It is defined as “ The impedance given by the

output (load) for a particular applied input”.
Zo ≈ 75Ω

7. Power Supply Rejection Ratio(PSRR)

The power supply rejection ratio is defined as the change in the output voltage
per unit changes in the DC supply voltage.
PSRR= ΔVo/ΔVcc

5.4 Pin Configuration of Opamp(741)

5.5 Applications of Op-Amp
An Op-Amp can be used as
1. Inverting Amplifier
2. Non-Inverting Amplifier
3. Voltage follower
4. Summer
5. Integrator
6. Differentiator
7. Comparator

1. Inverting Amplifier

An inverting amplifier is one whose output is amplified and is out of phase by

1800 with respect to the input

Rf

If
R1

V1 i1 G=0
VO

Fig 5.6 Inverting Amplifier

The point “G” is called virtual ground and is equal to zero.

Inverting Op-amp
• Input Signal Vi is applied to the inverting input terminal through resistor R1.
• Non inverting terminal is grounded.
• The feedback from output is given to the inverting terminal through Rf.

Vd = V2 –V1 = Vo = 0
From the concept of Virtual ground,
𝑉1=V2=0
Due to high input impedance of Op-amp, current flowing into inverting input terminal is
zero. Thus same current flows through R1 and Rf.
𝐼1 = 𝐼𝐹 ---------------------------------------(1)
 By KCL we have

𝑉𝑖 −𝑉1 𝑉𝑖
𝐼1 = = ------------------(2)
𝑅1 𝑅1

𝑉1 −𝑉0 −𝑉0
𝐼𝑓 = = ------------------(3)
𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓

From (1),(2) and (3),

𝑉𝑖 −𝑉0
=
𝑅1 𝑅𝑓
𝑽𝒐 −𝑹𝒇
𝑨𝒗 = = ------------Gain for Inverting Op-amp
𝑽𝒊 𝑹𝟏

Rf
Where is the gain of the amplifier and negative sign indicates that the output is
R1

inverted with respect to the input.

VO
Vi

Fig 5.7 Waveforms of Inverting Amplifier

2. Non- Inverting Amplifier

A non-inverting amplifier is one whose output is amplified and is in-phase with

the input.

Rf

i2
R1

V1 i1 G=Vi
VO

Vi

Fig 5.8 Non Inverting Amplifier

Non Inverting Op-amp

• Input Signal Vi is applied to the non - inverting input terminal.

• Inverting terminal is grounded through resistor R1.
• The feedback from output is given to the inverting terminal through Rf.

𝑉2=Vi-------------------------------(1)
Due to virtual ground,
𝑉1=V2------------------------------(2)
𝑉𝑖 =V1=V2
Due to high input impedance of Op-amp, current flowing into inverting input terminal is
zero. Thus same current flows through R1 and Rf.
𝐼1 = 𝐼𝐹 ---------------------------------------(3)
0−𝑉1 −𝑉𝑖
𝐼1 = = ------------------(4)
𝑅1 𝑅𝑓

𝑉1 −𝑉0 𝑉𝑖 −𝑉0
𝐼𝑓 = = ------------------(5)
𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓

Using (3),equating (4) and(5),

−𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑜
=
𝑅1 𝑅𝑓
𝑉0 1 1
= 𝑉𝑖 [ + ]
𝑅𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅𝑓
𝑉0 1 1
= 𝑅𝑓 [ + ]
𝑉𝑖 𝑅1 𝑅𝑓
𝑽𝟎 𝑹
𝑨𝒗 = = 𝟏 + 𝑹𝒇 ----------Gain for non inverting Op-amp
𝑽𝒊 𝟏
3. Voltage follower

VO

Vi VO
Vi

t t

Fig. 5.9 Voltage follower

Voltage follower is one whose output is equal to the input.

The voltage follower configuration shown above is obtained by short circuiting “Rf”
and open circuiting “R1” connected in the usual non-inverting amplifier.

Thus all the output is fed back to the inverting input of the op-Amp.
Consider the equation for the output of non-inverting amplifier

When Rf = 0 short circuiting

R1= ∞ open circuiting

• Input Signal Vi is applied to the non - inverting input terminal.

𝑉2=Vi-------------------------------(1)

• Inverting terminal is directly connected to the output..

𝑉0 =V1-------------------------------(2)
From (1) and (2)
𝑉0=Vi
𝑽𝟎
𝑨𝒗 = =𝟏
𝑽𝒊
Feedback factor for Voltage Follower
β =1
𝐴
𝐴𝑓 =
1 + 𝐴𝛽
Since β =1
𝑨
𝑨𝒇 = 𝟏+𝑨-----------Gain for Voltage Follower
𝑨
Error =[ 1 - ] x 100%
𝟏+𝑨

Therefore the output voltage will be equal and in-phase with the input voltage.
Thus voltage follower is nothing but a non-inverting amplifier with a voltage
gain of unity.
 4. Summer
Inverting adder is one whose output is the inverted sum of the constituent inputs

R1
Rf
i1
If
R2

V2 i2 G=0
VO

V3 R3 i3

Fig 5.10 Summer

Since non inverting terminal is grounded,

𝑉𝐵 = 0
And
𝑉𝐴 =VB = G= 0 [Virtual Ground]
𝑉1 − 𝑉𝐴 𝑉1
𝐼1 = =
𝑅1 𝑅1

𝑉2 − 𝑉𝐴 𝑉2
𝐼2 = =
𝑅2 𝑅2

𝑉3 − 𝑉𝐴 𝑉3
𝐼3 = =
𝑅3 𝑅3

𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝑜 −𝑉𝑜
𝐼𝑓 = =
𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
Applying KCL at node A
𝐼𝑓 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3

−𝑉𝑜 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3
= + +
𝑅𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑜 = [ 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉]
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 3

If Rf=R1 =R2 =R3

𝑽𝑶 = −[𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 ]
 Hence it can be observed that the output is equal to the inverted sum of the inputs.

5. Integrator

i2
R1

V1 i1 G=0
VO

𝑉2=V1 = 0 [Virtual Ground]

𝐼1 = 𝐼𝐹
𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉1 𝑉𝑖
𝐼1 = =
𝑅 𝑅
𝑑 𝑑𝑉𝑜
𝐼𝑓 = 𝐶 (𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑜 ) = −𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Since 𝐼1 = 𝐼𝐹 ,
𝑉𝑖 𝑑𝑉𝑜
= −𝐶
𝑅 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉𝑜 −1
= 𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝑖
Integrate both the sides to t
−1 𝑡
𝑉𝑜 = ∫ 𝑉 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑉𝑜 (0)
𝑅𝐶 0 𝑖
Vo(0) is the initial voltage on capacitor at t=0,which is a constant.
−𝟏 𝒕
𝑽𝒐 = ∫ 𝑽 𝒅𝒕------------Output Voltage for Integrator
𝑹𝑪 𝟎 𝒊

• Output is -1/RC times the integral of input. There is phase shift of 180
degree between input and output.
• RC is called the time constant of integrator.
• The main advantage of integrator is large time constant. Due to large
effective capacitance, time constant is very large and thus a perfect
integration results due to such circuits.
 6. Differentiator

A differentiator is one whose output is the differentiation of the input

R

i2

V1 i1 G=0
VO

Fig 5.11 Differentiator Circuit

𝑉1= V2 = 0 [Virtual Ground]

𝐼1 = 𝐼𝐹
𝑑 𝑑𝑉𝑖
𝐼1 = 𝐶 (𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉1 ) = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑜 −𝑉𝑜
𝐼𝑓 = =
𝑅 𝑅
𝑑𝑉𝑖 −𝑉𝑜
𝐶 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑅
𝒅𝑽𝒊
𝑽𝒐 = −𝑹𝑪 ----------Output Voltage of Differentiator.
𝒅𝒕

• Output is -RC times the differential of input. There is phase shift of 180
degree between input and output.
• The main advantage of differentiator is small time constant is required for
differentiation.
 7. Difference Amplifier

Fig 5.12 Difference Amplifier

• Circuit is a combination of inverting and non-inverting amplifier.

• R1 ,R2 and Op-amp constitutes inverting amplifier for Vi1.
• R1,R2 and Op-amp constitutes inverting amplifier for VR4 .VR4 is derived from
Thevenin’s Theorem.
• VR4 is obtained from the voltage divider of Vi2 by R3 and R4

To understand circuit operation consider the output produced by each input when the other
input is zero.
CASE 1 :- Vi2 = 0
V01 = V x Gain of inverting Op-amp
−𝑅
𝑉01 = 𝑉𝑖1 𝑋 [ 𝑅 2]---------(1)
1

CASE 2 :- Vi1 = 0
V02 = V x Gain of Non-inverting Op-amp
𝑅
𝑉02 = 𝑉𝑅4 𝑋 [1 + 𝑅2 ]---------(2)
1

𝑉𝑖2 𝑋𝑅4
𝑉𝑅4 = [Thevenin’s Voltage]------(3)
𝑅3 +𝑅4

Substitute (3) in (2),

𝑉𝑖2 𝑋𝑅4 𝑅1 +𝑅2
𝑉02 = X
𝑅3 +𝑅4 𝑅1

With R3=R1 and R4=R2

 𝑅
𝑉02 = 𝑉𝑖2 𝑋 [𝑅2 ]---------(4)
1

When both inputs are present ,

Apply the Superposition principle,
𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉01 + 𝑉02
−𝑅2 𝑅2
= 𝑉𝑖1 𝑋 [ ] + 𝑉𝑖2 𝑋 [ ]
𝑅1 𝑅1
𝑅2
𝑉𝑂 = [ ] [𝑉 − 𝑉𝑖2 ]
𝑅1 𝑖1
When R2=R1,
𝑽𝑶 = [𝑽𝒊𝟐 − 𝑽𝒊𝟏 ]-----output is proportional to the difference b/w 2 inputs.
Consider when inputs are equal [Common mode]
𝑉𝑖1 = 𝑉𝑖2 = 𝑉𝑐𝑚 =>VO =0
𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉01 + 𝑉02
−𝑅2 𝑅4 𝑅1 +𝑅2
0 = 𝑉𝑐𝑚 𝑋 [ ] + 𝑉𝑐𝑚 [ ] X[ ]
𝑅1 𝑅3 +𝑅4 𝑅1

On simplifying, we get
𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟒
=
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑
Hence output voltage for difference amplifier can be,
𝑅2 𝑅4
𝑉𝑂 = [ ] [𝑉𝑖2 − 𝑉𝑖1 ] = [ ] [𝑉𝑖2 − 𝑉𝑖1 ]
𝑅1 𝑅3

8. Comparator

The comparator is an electronic decision making circuit that makes use of operational amplifiers
very high gain in its open-loop state, that is, there is no feedback resistor. The Op-amp
comparator compares one analogue voltage level with another analogue voltage level, or some
preset reference voltage, VREF and produces an output signal based on this voltage comparison. In
other words, the op-amp voltage comparator compares the magnitudes of two voltage inputs and
determines which is the largest of the two.
 Fig 4.14 Comparator circuit and waveforms

*Refer Tutorial for Example problems