Understanding the Dimensions of Biological Literacy

Author(s): Gordon E. Uno and Rodger W. Bybee

Source: BioScience, Vol. 44, No. 8 (Sep., 1994), pp. 553-557
Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Institute of Biological Sciences
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Education

the
Understanding dimensions of biological literacy
ne outcome of the recent The dimensions of gued that the nature of science and
spate of reports detailing bioethical issues should be used in
biological literacy classes to promote biological literacy
problems with American
science education and scientific lit- It is essential for biologically liter- for students. Ewing et al. (1987)
eracy was the publication of several ate students to know and under- report a study in which college stu-
books describing what people should stand the characteristics of scien- dents read about bioethical issues
know about science-to help people tific knowledge, the values of science, from sources other than textbooks
become scientifically literate (AAAS and the methods and processes of and engaged in discussions that made
1989, Flaste 1991, Hazen and Trefil scientific inquiry. A biologically lit- connections between those readings
1991, Hirsch 1987). Can the read- erate individual should understand and citizenship. The research sup-
ing of one or more of these books biological principles and major con- ported the investigators' hypothesis
produce scientific literacy? Similarly, cepts of biology, the impact of hu- that incorporating bioethical issues
can students become scientifically mans on the biosphere, the processes in the biology curriculum encour-
literate after simply reading their of scientific inquiry, and the histori- ages scientific literacy among stu-
science textbooks or hearing lec- cal development of biological con- dents. Jones (1989) used the goal of
tures? cepts. He or she should develop per- biological literacy-the public's
Educators use the phrase scien- sonal values regarding scientific knowledge, understanding, and per-
tific literacy to express the major investigations, biodiversity and cul- spective about biological science-
goal of contemporary science edu- tural diversity, the impact of biol- to argue for incorporating nature
cation, an aim recognized for all ogy and biotechnology on society, study into contemporary biology
students. However, we-as scien- and the importance of biology to the curricula.
tists, teachers, and educators-must individual. And he or she should be Gibbs and Lawson (1992) stud-
define scientific literacy and under- able to think creatively, formulate ied the nature of scientific thinking
stand that achieving that goal is a questions about nature, reason logi- as reflected by the writing in high
complex and multifactorial prob- cally and critically, evaluate infor- school and college biology text-
lem. Only then can we help students mation, use biological technologies books. The authors concluded that
become more scientifically literate appropriately, make personal and because most textbooks do not por-
or can we develop a course or cur- ethical decisions related to biologi- tray an accurate view of the pro-
riculum in which all students con- cal issues, and apply biological cesses of science, the majority of
tribute to this goal. knowledge to solve problems. Americans are not scientifically lit-
In this article, we argue that bio- Most discussions of biological lit- erate-if scientific literacy means
logical literacy, a subset of scientific eracy use the term as a goal that one understanding how scientists do sci-
literacy, is not a single endpoint that either achieves or does not, that is, a ence. Demastes and Wandersee
can be attained within one biology person either is biologically literate (1992) suggested that the essence of
course, but it is a continuum over or is not. It is much more appropri- biological literacy is understanding
which a person's understanding de- ate to recognize that each individual a small number of pervasive bio-
velops throughout life. We outline occupies a position somewhere along logical principles and applying them
four levels-nominal, functional, a continuum of biological literacy in appropriate ways to activities in
structural, and multidimensional- for different biological concepts. personal and social spheres. The
of biological literacy (Table 1) for Accordingly, the task for biology authors recommended modifying
high school and college students. educators is to move students to a college courses to make biology more
We then describe characteristics of different position along the con- relevant to students.
students at each level, and we sug- tinuum-a position that implies a The phrase science as a way of
gest teaching strategies to promote richer understanding of biology. knowing concisely presents what we
the continued development of bio- think students should understand
logical literacy beyond the nominal about the nature of science. It is an
and functional levels.
Biological literacy: the concept ongoing process focused on gener-
Few biology educators have ad- ating and organizing knowledge. The
dressed the general topic of biologi- phrase, used by John A. Moore in a
by Gordon E. Uno and cal or scientific literacy. Those who series of volumes prepared for un-
Rodger W. Bybee have dealt with this issue have ar- dergraduate biology programs

553
September 1994

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(Moore 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986, Table 1. Characteristics of students at the four levels of biological literacy.
1987, 1988, 1989, 1990), empha-
sizes that science is not the only way Level Characteristics
of knowing.
Nominal biological literacy Can identify terms and questions as biological in nature
Most biologists and biology edu- Possess misconceptions
cators agree that a biologically liter- Provide naive explanations of biological concepts
ate person should understand how
scientists use a variety of methods Functional biological literacy Use biological vocabulary
Define terms correctly
and processes in their work. These Memorize responses
methods include observing, classi-
fying, designing experiments, con- Structural biological literacy Understand conceptual schemes of biology
ducting investigations, interpreting Possess procedural knowledge and skills
Can explain biological concepts in own words
data, and inferring. Students also
should understand that biological Multidimensional biological Understand the place of biology among other
knowledge is: literacy disciplines
* tentative, Know the history and nature of biology
* public-other individuals could Understand the interactions between biology and society
arrive at the same explanation if
they had access to similar evidence,
* empirical-the validation or nominally literate, most biological
refutation of scientific knowledge is
A model of biological literacy
terms, principles, and concepts have
based in the natural world without Our model of biological literacy little or no meaning. They have mis-
appeal to supernatural explanations, (Table 1) reflects different levels of conceptions and naive theories
* replicable-scientists working understanding a student has about (Table 2).
in different places at different times biological concepts. We recognize Although one can find humor in
should be able to repeat another that a student may be simultaneously the definitions listed in Table 2, the
scientist's observations and experi- at different levels of literacy. For students' definitions are basically
ments and derive the same evidence, instance, although a student may scientific in the sense that these stu-
and possess a low level of literacy about dents recognized that the terms, prin-
* historic-building on and re- photosynthesis and cellular respira- ciples, and concepts are related to
vising the accumulated corpus of tion, that same student may possess science, and they tried to define them
understanding. a higher level of literacy about dino- within that context. In a few cases,
As students increase their bio- saurs because he or she has studied students simply may have confused
logical literacy, they better under- them since grade school. A student similar-sounding words; however,
stand the principles, standards, or may, but does not necessarily have this situation may still present a
values that govern scientific work to, pass through each level on the problem in that such confusion may
and that guide the acceptance of way to the highest level of literacy, cause students to misunderstand lec-
information into the structure of and most students may never reach tures or readings.
biology. Although understanding of this level. As instructors, we should In biology classrooms, an inabil-
biological concepts is one goal of help our students move toward the ity to understand and explain ideas
biology education, another goal higher levels. is promoted by the use of textbooks
should be to develop an inclination and other teaching methods that
in students to apply the values of Nominal biological literacy. At the emphasize facts and by multiple-
science to the natural and techno- nominal level of biological literacy, choice exams where students need
logical world. They should under- students are literate in name only. only to recognize correct informa-
stand that: Many students recognize the domain tion. We encourage instructors to
* questioning is essential-au- of biology and can identify certain identify the misinformation, miscon-
thoritative statements by other sci- words and concepts as belonging to ceptions, and misunderstandings of
entists and beliefs of nonscientists the realm of biology, as opposed to biology that students at this level of
need not be accepted as knowledge other disciplines such as art or po- literacy possess. One way to iden-
by any biologist, litical science. Many students enter- tify such problems is simply to ask
* data are fundamental to biol- ing high school and college classes students to explain concepts before
ogy-statements of empirical fact, may have heard a biological term or any instruction on the subject. An-
not arguments of belief or appeals concept; they even may have already other way is to give students an
to authority, resolve scientific dis- studied some biology but did not exam over the entire course material
putes, develop an understanding of the in- at the beginning of the course or a
* verification is required-the formation presented to them. For shorter quiz before teaching each
validity and accuracy of scientific instance, students might be able to major topic. Once problems have
findings from observations, experi- identify the term mitosis as being been identified, an instructor should
ments, and theoretical claims are scientific in nature, but they may then use activities that break down
open to review, and have little knowledge of its meaning student misconceptions and help
* logic is respected. or use. To students who are only them construct appropriate under-

554 BioScience Vol. 44 No. 8

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standings of biological concepts. Table 2. Selected misconceptions of biological subject well enough to
For instance, many students be- college students on the first day of an explain it in his or her own words
lieve that plants obtain much of introductory biology class. (Students and can place the subject within a
their food from the soil. By compar- were directed to define only those words
for which they were certain of the defi- greater scheme of biology.
ing the growth of some albino and Students are willing to learn more
normal corn plants in washed sand, nition.) about biology if it is meaningful and
which has no nutrients, and in rich interesting to them. Some students
Term Definitiongiven
potting soil, students can easily see must overcome a barrier of disinter-
that plants without chlorophyll do est before they study biology. One
Algae Type of fungus
not survive, regardless of the soil in Anthropology The study of plants way to engage students is to use
which they are grown, while green Capillary Somethingin your blood hands-on investigative experiences
Carboniferous A total meat eater
plants grow if given water and light Eocene Some plants use this as
that generate excitement and enthu-
with little material taken from the intake food siasm while introducing students to
soil. Epiglottis Little pigments inside the biological concepts. Another way is
plant to lead students through directed-
Functional biological literacy. In Era The aromaor surrounding
Finite Forever inquiry laboratories that help stu-
functional biological literacy, stu- Genus dents discover information for them-
dents can accurately define certain Reproductivepart of a plant
Germinate Sprayingto eliminate selves while they learn the processes
biological terms or concepts but have harmfulair of scientific investigation. Empow-
limited understanding of or personal Locus An insect or a kind of plant ering students with tools to identify
experience with them. Students may Sampling Small,young tree questions, pursue open-ended inves-
Testosterone A male sexual organ
have been introduced to biological Virus A sicknesscausedby bacteria tigations, and propose explanations
terms and concepts through books of natural phenomena on their own
and articles, classroom activities, or is one very important way to pro-
television programs. Students then three-dimensional models of biologi- mote biological literacy.
may memorize an appropriate defi- cal parts or processes, or to find, In addition, instructors should
nition of terms or concepts. Unfor- read, and report on a newspaper or help students see the personal con-
tunately, technical vocabulary is magazine article relating to a sub- nections between biological concepts
often emphasized in biology classes ject taught in class. Any activity that and themselves. For instance, al-
and textbooks and by instructors, rewards students for doing more though photosynthesis may be
which leaves students with only one than simply memorizing informa- taught as a series of chemical reac-
dimension of biological literacy. tion and that gets students to prac- tions represented by an equation,
Students at this level have no un- tice their critical thinking skills will students should appreciate the sig-
derstanding of the conceptual struc- move students toward the next level nificance of the process to their
ture of biology as a discipline and of biological literacy. lives-that the oxygen they breathe,
no feeling for the excitement of sci- the food they eat, and the clothes
entific investigations. Just as people Structural biological literacy. Stu- they wear are byproducts of photo-
described as functionally literate can dents who have achieved structural synthesis. Similarly, memorizing the
get by in life, students who have a biological literacy understand the phases of mitosis provides some
functional biological literacy may major conceptual schemes of biol- understanding of cell division; re-
be able to get by in discussions and ogy-those ideas, such as genetic lating uncontrolled mitosis to the
on certain objective examinations continuity, that help organize all of development of cancer, however,
about biology. Students may be able biological thinking. One can think may make the topic more relevant to
to pronounce the terms and memo- of these schemes, or unifying prin- students.
rize what they have read, but with ciples, of biology as branches of a Identifying the personal signifi-
little understanding. tree that has evolution as its main cance of biological concepts ad-
Teaching and learning at the func- trunk and the facts of biology as its dresses the common student ques-
tional level recognizes and supports leaves. An understanding of the tion, Why do I have to study this?
the importance of biological vocabu- trunk and branches of the biological The major concepts in biology are
lary, but educators should help stu- tree constitutes structural biologi- all relevant to the lives of students,
dents develop other dimensions of cal literacy, whereas functional lit- if only indirectly so, and highlight-
biological literacy. We strongly feel eracy focuses on the leaves alone- ing these relationships by using cur-
that students should be able to read, and like leaves, many of the rent events, interesting natural phe-
comprehend, explain, analyze, and individual facts may change or be nomena, or human-related examples
work with scientific information. lost while the trunk remains strong. should promote an increased appre-
Biology programs should de-empha- For students to reach a structural ciation for their study. When con-
size rote memorization of terms and level of literacy, they also should fronted with a personal problem, an
use a variety of assessment strate- understand the processes of growth illness, a physical problem, or even
gies that promote the understanding for the metaphorical tree, that is, the purchase of a major consumer
and application of knowledge. For the nature and methods of scientific item, many people are compelled to
instance, students could be given inquiry. At the structural level of learn because they have become en-
more essay exams, asked to build literacy, a student understands a gaged in the subject at hand. For

September 1994 555

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these people there is no prescribed view that biological literacy is a of action to investigate a biology-
amount of information required; continuum that has various end related social problem. But such stu-
their investigation is limited only bypoints. A scientist may have multi- dents may be drawn into action if
imagination, resources, or contin- dimensional literacy about the life they develop a commitment or a
ued interest. histories of temperate birds but have relationship to the subject. For in-
Once students are engaged in bi- only a functional level of literacy stance, in northern California, stu-
ology, they may seek, and assimilate about the molecular biology of dents who studied a bog as a class
to a greaterextent, the concepts and plants. assignmentdeveloped a fondness for
skills that will help them better un- Multidimensional biological lit- the natural area, and when a devel-
derstand the living world. Students eracy involves the ability to investi- oper proposed destroying part of it
will begin to construct their own gate a problem concerning a bio- to construct a parking lot, the stu-
meaning of a subject based on logical concept, to collect related dents became committed to saving
sources such as readings, laborato- information, and to apply this the bog. They began a plan of action
ries, and research. Students demon- knowledge to the resolution of that that required detailed information
strate structural biological literacy problem. Students discover that this about the bog's physical and bio-
when they understand how biologi- intensive investigation requires the logical attributes as well as its im-
cal facts, explanations, and theories interconnection of many ideas and portance to members of the human
were developed, when they are able much information. Once they begin community.
to apply information about the sub- a long-term study of a subject, stu- In a classroom setting, it is im-
ject to novel situations, and when dents should recognize the types of portant for the instructor to find
they know and appreciate the sig- information and skills required to some topic or issue that can propel
nificance of the information to biol- answer a question or solve a prob- students along an open-ended study
ogy and to themselves. lem, and they should realize that in which they try to investigate, as
The structural level of biological biological knowledge might have to much as they can, a specific problem
literacy is a foundation on which be integrated with knowledge from or to answera specificquestionasked
the understanding of other, related other scientific, mathematical, so- of them. High school and university
biological concepts is based. For cial, political, and economic disci- instructors might be involved in a
instance, a student may be sexually plines. Because most authentic prob- research project in which students
active and develop an interest in lems take months or years to resolve, collect and analyze data. However,
sexually transmitted diseases. He or if ever, it is important for instruc- it is important that students not
she may develop an understanding tors to provide students with the simply be used as laborers without
of the cause of AIDSand thus be able skills and background to continue any opportunity to ask questions,
to understand why certain behav- their studies after the class is com- suggest alternative ways to collect
iors are more risky than others, why pleted. The multidimensional level data, or plan future investigations.
the virus cannot be destroyed by of literacy cultivates and reinforces At the multidimensionallevel of bio-
antibiotics, and why a cure for the life-long learning in which individu- logical literacy, students are engaged
disease eludes scientists. This un- als acquire the abilities to ask and in an investigation, whether it is
derstanding, in turn, may lead to answer appropriate questions and research in a scientific laboratory
learning about other health issues, develop and retain a need to know. investigating microbial physiology
about differences between bacteria Students may reach the multidi- or discussionat a town meetingmade
and viruses, and about biomedical mensional level if they continue their up of citizens trying to solve a local
technology. study of a subject, if their personal environmental health issue.
interest remains high, or if they are There have been a variety of rec-
Multidimensional biological lit- confronted with a problem related ommendations to promote scientific
eracy. This dimension of biological to the subject. For instance, a stu- literacy in undergraduate science
literacy representsa broad, detailed, dent may be functionally literate courses, moving students beyond the
and interconnected understanding about air pollution. If, however, he nominal and functional levels. They
of a subject in biology. Each area of or she faces the possibility of giving include downplaying facts in favor
biology, for example, has a history, up driving because automobile ex- of concepts and higher-order intel-
is influenced by a variety of social haust contributes to local air pollu- lectual skills (Holden 1989); pro-
and global issues, may incorporate tion, he or she may see a need to act viding more hands-on activities and
technology, and is related to con- on the problem, or at least to dis- spending less time on lecturing
ceptual schemes and major biologi- cover more information that will (Raloff 1988); teaching science us-
cal concepts. Students develop mul- help make an informed decision ing skills of observation, deduction,
tidimensional biological literacy as about driving. This realization may and analysis (National Research
they acquire a fuller understanding be followed by a willingness to in- Council 1990); and using methods
of a biological subject and its con- vestigate further the area of envi- of scientific inquiry and reasoning
nections to other subjects and disci- ronmental problems in general and (NCEE 1983, NSF 1989).
plines. Few professional biologists, lead to multidimensional under- If biological/scientific literacy is
not to mention students, fully standing in that area. truly a goal for all US students, then
achieve this level of literacy in all Students initially may not be will- we must understand that literacy is
areas of the discipline, hence our ing to organize and undertake a plan not an objective that can be achieved

556 BioScience Vol. 44 No. 8

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within the limited time of a semester help high school and college instruc- Holden, C. 1989. Radical reform for science
or school year or within the con- tors and curriculum developers pro- education. Science 243: 1133.
Jones, G. 1989. Biological literacy. Am.
fines of a textbook or lecture hall. duce contemporary biology pro- Biol. Teach. 51: 480-481.
We must expand our classroom to grams. Information about the guide Moore, J. A. 1983-1990. Science as a Way
include the world in which students can be obtained from BSCS, Colo- of Knowing. Vols. 1-7. American Society
live and provide students with the rado Springs, CO 80903. of Zoologists, Baltimore, MD.
National Commission on Excellence in Edu-
skills, background, and interest in cation (NCEE). 1983. A Nation at Risk:
science that will carry them through The Imperative for Educational Reform.
a life-long development of their bio- References cited US Department of Education, Washing-
logical literacy. Do we want stu- American Association for the Advancement ton, DC.
National Research Council. 1990. Fulfilling
dents simply to recognize scientific of Science (AAAS). 1989. Science for All
the Promise: Biology Education in the
information and memorize it, or do Americans. AAAS, Washington, DC.
Demastes, S. and J. H. Wandersee. 1992. Nation's Schools. National Academy
we want students to understand bi- Biological literacy in a college biology Press, Washington, DC.
ology and to use their skills and classroom. BioScience 42: 63-65. National Science Foundation (NSF). 1989.
knowledge to solve problems and Ewing, M. S., N. J. Campbell, and M. J. M. Report on the National Science Founda-
Brown. 1987. Improving student atti- tion Disciplinary Workshops on Under-
conduct further investigations? We
tudes toward biology by encouraging graduate Education. NSF, Washington,
must determine how best to help scientific literacy. Am. Biol. Teach. 49: DC.
students reach their maximal level 348-350. Raloff, J. 1988. U.S. education: failing in
of biological literacy. Flaste, R., ed. 1991. The New York Times science? Science News 133: 165-166.
Book of Science Literacy. Times Books,
New York.
Acknowledgments Gibbs, A. and A. E. Lawson. 1992. The Gordon E. Uno is a professor in the
nature of scientific thinking as reflected
This article was adapted from De- Botany and Microbiology Department,
by the work of biologists and by biology University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK
veloping Biological Literacy, prin- textbooks. Am. Biol. Teach.54: 137-151. 73019. Rodger W. Bybee is the associ-
Hazen, R. M. and J. Trefil. 1991. Science
cipal authors Gordon Uno and Matters. Doubleday Press, New York. ate director of the Biological Sciences
Rodger Bybee, published by the Bio- Hirsch, E. D. 1987. Cultural Literacy: What
Curriculum Study, Colorado Springs,
logical Sciences Curriculum Study. EveryAmericanShould Know. Houghton CO 80903. ?1994 American Institute
This 128-page guide is intended to Mifflin, Boston. of Biological Sciences.

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