ABSTRACT

This study is based on advanced telecommunication technology and provided in simplest

manner as possible so that the person going through this report can have a clear vision of
what I want to deliver.

With telecommunications technologies transforming the way we live and work, there is a
clear need to investigate on how are they able to provide us with such amazing things. We
must understand the way in which they are transforming the cities where people live and
work and communicate with people. With every decade, the use of new telecommunications
systems is progressing faster and becoming more widespread in society. Digital living will
include less and less dependence on being in a specific place at a specific time, and even the
transmission of place itself will start to become possible. The aim of this paper is to provide
an overview of the advancement in telecommunication technology which impacts our day to
day life. The paper focuses on smallest of the details possible like how the communication
started to how does a mobile communication takes place. It even emphasis on what type
battery management is done in telephone exchange to what does a telephone exchange means
.Possible further research needs are also identified in view of the lack of current and relevant
local information on the topic.

1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The time I spent in CTTC ( Central telecom training centre ) from 27 may to 21 June 2019
was a memorable one for me as it was rich in experience sharing and helped me discover my
potential. I have had so many rich experiences and opportunities that I personally believe will
forever shape and influence my professional life while fostering personal growth and
development.

In my desire to write this report, I have in no way any claim to come out with a perfect piece
of work. These few details lead me to realize that, like all human endeavours, this report is
not perfect and may contain errors and shortcomings. Thus, I remain open to all criticisms
and suggestions which could present me with new sources of inspiration as I develop in my
ability to research and learn.

This report would not have been possible without the contribution and collaboration of
others. My sincere gratitude:

To Almighty God who granted me health and long life, without which I could not have
finished this report;

To my parents for their continuous support;

To the principal of CTTC, Anand Prakash Singh for endorsing my application for training;

To the rest of the CTTC staff for their support and guidance which helped me to overcome
the challenges I faced during my training in CTTC.

To all of you, I extend my deepest gratitude.

2
LIST OF FIGURES
Chapter 2:

Fig 2(A). Digital switching system

Fig 2(B). Analog wave into digital wave

Chapter 3:

Fig 3(A). Analog wave into digital wave

Fig 3(B). PCM elements

Fig 3(C) .Sampled signal

Fig 3(D). Analog signal

Fig 3(g).Analog Signal Quantization

Fig 3(H). Quantized signal

Chapter 6:

Fig 6(A). GSM

Chapter 7:

Fig 7(A). Optical fibre communication

3
LIST OF TABLES
Chapter 6:

Table 8(A). Access techniques

Chapter 7:

Table 7(A). window with wavelength

4
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
1. Viz.: which are

2. i.e.: that is

3. CTTC: circle telecom training centre

4. PCM: pulse code modulation

5. LPF: low pass filter

6. SMPS: switch phone power supply

7. FDMA: Frequency Division Multiple Access

8. TDMA: Time Division Multiple Access

9. CDMA: Code Division multiple Access

10. B.T.S: Base Transcieve Station

11. B.S.C: Base station controller

12. M.S.C: Mobile Switching Centre

13. H LR: Home Location Register

14. V L R: Visitor Location Register

15. E I R: Equipment Identity Register

16. FTTH: fibre to the home

5
CONTENT
SLNO TITLE PAGE NO.

1 INTRODUCTION 7

2 TELECOM NETWORK 8

3 PULSE CODE MODULATION 11

4 BATTERY AND POWER 17

SUPPLY
5 TELEPHONE EXCHANGE 19

6. GSM & MOBILE 21

COMMUNICATION
7 FIBRE OPTICS 24
COMMUNICATION
10 BROADBAND SERVICES 27

12 CONCLUSION 29

13 REFERENCE 30

6
INTRODUCTION
* WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?
- It is the imparting or exchanging of information by speaking, writing, or using some other
medium or, means of sending or receiving information, such as telephone lines or computers.

* EVOLUTION OF COMMUNICATION
-Communication is the basis of our lives and we would in this day and age, be handicapped
without it. Everyday we are communicating with each other in some way or another, be it by
using words, actions or even expressions in conveying a message. We humans depend not
only on face-to-face communication but the kind that brings technology to the fore to bridge
that gap between people by mere seconds across vast distances.

Evolution of communication till present:-

1. Smoke signals

2. Carrier pigeon

3. Telegram

4. Radio

5. Optical fibre

6. Cell phone

7. Internet, till present.

Communication as you can see, is an important factor that governs our everyday lives. What
is needed most is the effectiveness of how we communicate.

7
2. TELECOM NETWORKS
The telephone is a telecommunication device that is used to transmit and receive
electronically or digitally encoded speech between two or more people conversing. It is one
of the most common household appliances in the world today. Most telephones operate
through transmission of electric signals over a complex telephone network which allows
almost any phone user to communicate with almost any other user.

Telecommunication networks carry information signals among entities, which are

geographically far apart. An entity may be a computer or human being, a facsimile machine,
a tele printer, a data terminal and so on. The entities are involved in the process of
information transfer that may be in the form of a telephone conversation (telephony) or a file
transfer between two computers or message transfer between two terminals etc.

The communication switching system enables the universal connectivity. The

universal connectivity is realized when any entity in one part of the world can communicate
with any other entity in another part of the world. In many ways telecommunication will acts
as a substitute for the increasingly expensive physical transportation. The telecommunication
links and switching were mainly designed for voice communication. With the appropriate
attachments/equipments, they can be used to transmit data.

Voice Signal Characteristics

Telecommunication is mainly concerned with the transmission of messages between two
distant points. The signal that contains the messages is usually converted into electrical waves
before transmission. Our voice is an analog signal, which has amplitude and frequency
characteristics.

Voice frequencies:- The range of frequencies used by a communication device determines the
communication channel, communicating devices, and bandwidth or information carrying
capacity. The most commonly used parameter that characterizes an electrical signal is its
bandwidth of analog signal or bit rate if it is a digital signal. In telephone system, the
frequencies it passes are restricted to between 300 to 3400 Hz.

In the field of telecommunications, a Telephone exchange or a Telephone switch is a

system of electronic components that connects telephone calls. A central office is the physical
building used to house inside plant equipment including telephone switches, which make
telephone calls "work" in the sense of making connections and relaying the speech
information.

Switching system fundamentals

Telecommunications switching systems generally perform three basic functions: they
transmit signals over the connection or over separate channels to convey the identity of the
called (and sometimes the calling) address (for example, the telephone number), and alert
(ring) the called station; they establish connections through a switching network for
conversational use during the entire call; and they process the signal information to control
and supervise the establishment and disconnection of the switching network connection.

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In some data or message switching when real-time communication is not needed, the
switching network is replaced by a temporary memory for the storage of messages. This type
of switching is known as store-and-forward switching

Implementation of Switching Network.

In an electronic exchange, the switching network is one of the largest sub-system in terms of
size of the equipment. Its main functions are Switching (setting up temporary connection
between two or more exchange terminations), Transmission of speech and signals between
these terminations, with reliable accuracy.

There are two types of electronic switching system. Viz. Space division and Time
Division.

Space Division switching System: In a space Division Switching system, a continuous

physical path is set up between input and output terminations. This path is separate for each
connection and is held for the entire duration of the call. Path for different connections is
independent of each other. Once a continuous path has been established, Signals are
interchanged between the two terminations. Such a switching network can employ either
metallic or electronic cross points. Previously, usage of metallic cross-points using reed
relays and all were favored. They have the advantage of compatibility with the existing line
and trunk signaling conditions in the network.

Time Division Switching System: In Time Division Switching, a number of calls share the
same path on time division sharing basis. The path is not separate for each connection, rather,
is shared sequentially for a fraction of a time by different calls. This process is repeated
periodically at a suitable high rate. The repetition rate is 8 KHz, i.e. once every 125
microseconds for transmitting speech on telephone network, without any appreciable
distortion. These samples are time multiplexed with staggered samples of other speech
channels, to enable sharing of one path by many calls. The Time Division Switching was
initially accomplished by Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) Switching. However, it still
could not overcome the performance limitations of signal distortion noise, cross-talk etc.
With the advent of Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), the PAM signals were converted into a
digital format overcoming the limitations of analog and PAM signals. PCM signals are
suitable for both transmission and switching. The PCM switching is popularly called Digital
Switching.

Digital Switching Systems

A Digital switching system, in general, is one in which signals are switched in digital form.
These signals may represent speech or data. The digital signals of several speech samples are
time multiplexed on a common media before being switched through the system.

To connect any two subscribers, it is necessary to interconnect the time-slots of the two
speech samples, which may be on same or different PCM highways. The digitalized speech
samples are switched in two modes, viz., Time Switching and Space Switching. This Time

9
 Division Multiplex Digital Switching System is popularly known as Digital Switching
System

Nx2
Mbps

links

Subs interface

Digital Switch
Other Trunks interface
exchanges

Other auxiliary inter faces

CONTROL
Such as, PROCESSOR
(a) Tone generator
(b) Frequency receives
(c) Conference call facility
(d) CCS# 7 Protocol Manager
(e) V 5.2 access manager Operation &
Fig2(A). Digital switching system Maintenance

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3. PULSE CODE MODULATION
Modulation is the process of varying one or more parameters of a carrier signal in
accordance with the instantaneous values of the message signal.

The message signal is the signal which is being transmitted for communication and the
carrier signal is a high frequency signal which has no data, but is used for long distance
transmission.

There are many modulation techniques, which are classified according to the type of
modulation employed. Of them all, the digital modulation technique used is Pulse Code
Modulation (PCM).

A signal is pulse code modulated to convert its analog information into a binary sequence,
i.e., 1s and 0s. The output of a PCM will resemble a binary sequence. The following figure
shows an example of PCM output with respect to instantaneous values of a given sine wave.

Fig 3(A). Analog wave into digital wave

Instead of a pulse train, PCM produces a series of numbers or digits, and hence this process
is called as digital. Each one of these digits, though in binary code, represent the
approximate amplitude of the signal sample at that instant.

In Pulse Code Modulation, the message signal is represented by a sequence of coded pulses.
This message signal is achieved by representing the signal in discrete form in both time and
amplitude.

Basic Elements of PCM

The transmitter section of a Pulse Code Modulator circuit consists of Sampling,
Quantizing and Encoding, which are performed in the analog-to-digital converter section.
The low pass filter prior to sampling prevents aliasing of the message signal.

11
The basic operations in the receiver section are regeneration of impaired signals,
decoding, and reconstruction of the quantized pulse train. Following is the block diagram
of PCM which represents the basic elements of both the transmitter and the receiver
sections.

Fig.3(B) PCM elements

Low Pass Filter

This filter eliminates the high frequency components present in the input analog signal
which is greater than the highest frequency of the message signal, to avoid aliasing of the
message signal.

Sampler
This is the technique which helps to collect the sample data at instantaneous values of
message signal, so as to reconstruct the original signal. The sampling rate must be greater
than twice the highest frequency component Wof the message signal, in accordance with the
sampling theorem.

Quantization
Quantizing is a process of reducing the excessive bits and confining the data. The sampled
output when given to Quantizer, reduces the redundant bits and compresses the value.

12
Encoder
The digitization of analog signal is done by the encoder. It designates each quantized level
by a binary code. The sampling done here is the sample-and-hold process. These three
sections (LPF, Sampler, and Quantizer) will act as an analog to digital converter. Encoding
minimizes the bandwidth used.

Regenerative Repeater
This section increases the signal strength. The output of the channel also has one
regenerative repeater circuit, to compensate the signal loss and reconstruct the signal, and
also to increase its strength.

Decoder
The decoder circuit decodes the pulse coded waveform to reproduce the original signal. This
circuit acts as the demodulator.

Reconstruction Filter
After the digital-to-analog conversion is done by the regenerative circuit and the decoder, a
low-pass filter is employed, called as the reconstruction filter to get back the original signal.

Hence, the Pulse Code Modulator circuit digitizes the given analog signal, codes it and
samples it, and then transmits it in an analog form. This whole process is repeated in a
reverse pattern to obtain the original signal.

Sampling is defined as, “The process of measuring the instantaneous values of continuous-
time signal in a discrete form.”

Sample is a piece of data taken from the whole data which is continuous in the time domain.

When a source generates an analog signal and if that has to be digitized,

having 1s and 0s i.e., High or Low, the signal has to be discretized in time. This
discretization of analog signal is called as Sampling.

The following figure indicates a continuous-time signal x (t) and a sampled signal xs (t).
When x (t) is multiplied by a periodic impulse train, the sampled signal xs (t) is obtained.

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 Fig. 3(C) Sampled signal

Sampling Rate
To discretize the signals, the gap between the samples should be fixed. That gap can be
termed as a sampling period Ts.
Sampling Frequency=1Ts=Sampling Frequency=1Ts=fs

Where,

 Ts is the sampling time

 fs is the sampling frequency or the sampling rate
Sampling frequency is the reciprocal of the sampling period. This sampling frequency, can
be simply called as Sampling rate. The sampling rate denotes the number of samples taken
per second, or for a finite set of values.

For an analog signal to be reconstructed from the digitized signal, the sampling rate should
be highly considered. The rate of sampling should be such that the data in the message
signal should neither be lost nor it should get over-lapped. Hence, a rate was fixed for this,
called as Nyquist rate.

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Nyquist Rate
Suppose that a signal is band-limited with no frequency components higher than W Hertz.
That means, W is the highest frequency. For such a signal, for effective reproduction of the
original signal, the sampling rate should be twice the highest frequency.

Which means,
fS=2WfS=2W

Where,

 fS is the sampling rate

 W is the highest frequency

This rate of sampling is called as Nyquist rate.

A theorem called, Sampling Theorem, was stated on the theory of this Nyquist rate.

Quantizing an Analog Signal

The analog-to-digital converters perform this type of function to create a series of digital
values out of the given analog signal. The following figure represents an analog signal. This
signal to get converted into digital, has to undergo sampling and quantizing.

Fig 3(D). Analog signal

The quantizing of an analog signal is done by discretizing the signal with a number of
quantization levels. Quantization is representing the sampled values of the amplitude by a
finite set of levels, which means converting a continuous-amplitude sample into a discrete-
time signal.

The following figure shows how an analog signal gets quantized. The blue line represents
analog signal while the brown one represents the

15
 Fig 3(g).Analog Signal Quantization

quantized signal.

Both sampling and quantization result in the loss of information. The quality of a Quantizer
output depends upon the number of quantization levels used. The discrete amplitudes of the
quantized output are called as representation levels or reconstruction levels. The spacing
between the two adjacent representation levels is called a quantum or step-size.

The following figure shows the resultant quantized signal which is the digital form for the

given analog signal.

Fig 3(H). Quantized signal

This is also called as Stair-case waveform, in accordance with its shape.

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4. BATTERY AND POWER SUPPLY
The Primary requirement of any Telephone System is that service shall be available to the
subscriber at all times. The electrical energy required for signaling, switching, speech
transmission etc. in telephone exchange is derived either directly or indirectly from the public
supply. In order to provide uninterrupted service, the exchange power supply system is
designed to give continuous energy to the system. So provision is also made for alternate
source of supply in the event of mains failure or public supply failure. This emergency energy
is derived from

1) Batteries of Secondary Cells.

2) A Combination of battery and prime mover Generator
sets.
Generally the lead acid type secondary cells are used in our Dept. Secondary cells are
electrolytic cells for generation of electric energy. These cells can be restored to its original
condition by passing a current in opposite direction to the flow of current in the cell during
the discharge.

SMPS POWER PLANT (SWITCH MODE POWER SUPPLY)

SMPS power plants have the major advantages of extremely small size, weight and floor
space requirement when compared to their thyristorised counterparts. They operate at very
high switching frequencies ( 20KHz to 200KHz ), thus having very little audible noise
because mains frequency magnetics is not used.

The disadvantages of such power supplies are mainly with regard to the complexity of
both the power and control circuit, making trouble shooting and repair extremely difficult by
ordinarily trained personnel. However, due to the possibility of modular design in this case,
repair can be carried out by replacement of modules within the power supply. Another major
problem with SMPS power supplies is that they generate very large amount of radio
frequency interference as well as disturbance on its out put bus, due to the high switching
frequency used at the various internal stages. This problem can be reduced through the use of
properly designed additional RFI filters at both its input and output.

GENERAL FEATURES OF POWER PLANT

->RECTIFIER:-The input diode bridge rectifier converts the supply sinusoidal AC voltage
waveform to unidirectional pulses of rectified sine wave. The bridge consists of four diodes
in case of single phase and six diodes in case of three phase.
->FILTER:-The bridge rectifier is followed by a filter capacitor bank to make the DC as
smooth as possible. Filter inductors are not used to reduce the size and weight of the system
.This DC bus voltage will be high corresponding almost to the peak of the input supply
voltage. Thus the DC voltage varies accordingly to the input supply variation.

17
->SWITCHING CONVERTER:-The high voltage DC bus is fed to the switching converter
stage which is the heart of the system. The fundamental concept is to covert the DC bus to
either a chopped train of unidirectional flat topped pulses or to an alternating wave form with
flat-topped pulses. In either case the pulse repetitive frequency is very high and the widths of
the pulses are presentable while the pulse magnitudes are equal to that of the DC bus.
->FERRITE CORE OR METAGLASS X-FORMER:-The unidirectional or alternating
pulses generated by the converter stage is fed to a specially designed transformer that can
handle these waveform and transform them at the secondary winding to a different magnitude
in voltage. Thus the high voltage pulses are reduced to a smaller magnitude while the
transformer size is very small due to the involvement of very high frequencies. However high
frequency has its own disadvantages in that. The core loss will increase exorbitantly in a
normal CARGO transformer while the copper loss will also increase significantly due to the
increase in effective resistance because of skin effect. Thus the core material is special -
usually Ferrite Metal glass, which is ceramic type of magnetic material that exhibits very low
losses at high frequencies To reduce the copper loss multi strand conductors are required
with the size of individual conductors restricted so that its full section effectively carries the
current even at high frequency.
->HIGH SPEED RECTIFIER:-The high frequency alternating waveform is rectified by a
high frequency compatible rectifier stage using either a bridge or center tap full wave
configuration . Even if the transformer output is unidirectional, a blocking rectifier stage is
essential at the output to prevent reverse polarity waveform generated by the transformer
calling flux ( at the end of the pulse ) from the reaching the output. An additional free
wheeling diode is required to permit the following filter inductor current a safe path during
the absence of the pulse.
->FILTER:-The scaled - down and rectified waveform is filtered by an inductor- capacitor
filter stage to extract a DC waveform as pure as possible. Due to the high switching
frequency involved the filter cut off frequency is large and hence its size will be very small.
->CONTROL:-The closed loop control system continuously monitors the output for any
deviation in performance and immediately takes suitable action through the control of the
pulse width generated by the switching converter operating at a fixed frequency. The
frequency cannot be changed since it will complicate the matter due to the presence of a
transformer and filter both designed at some predetermined frequency.
->SUPPRESSOR:- Additional networks have to be used at various stages of the power
circuit to suppress the RFI and other noise generated due to high frequency switching.
->MONITORING:-Protective devices and fault monitoring systems (including fault
annunciation systems) maintain the equipment safe. In case of any problem the systems may
go to a safe shutdown or otherwise of the system can withstand the situation only an alarm
will be raised to draw the attention of the user.

18
5. TELEPHONE EXCHANGE
-The place where the termination as well as switching equipments have been installed. Both
the section are interlinked and connectivity of the telephone of customers are made from the
termination section.

Types of telephone exchange:

1. Analog

2. Digital

-> Analog exchange/system :

The continuous charateristics of a system is analog system or sinusoidal characteristic of a
system is analog system.

This system seize to exist in current era.

Why?

- 1.Voice Quality was not synchronous.

2. At time only Physical channels were there.

3. Lack of channels.

-> Digital exchange/system :

Benefit over analog system/exchange:

1. Quality of speech is better with respect to analog systems.

2. Transportation of data is smooth without loss.

It is of two types:

1. Digital exchange based on underground cable (U/G/C) where customers telephone

connection are provided through underground cable.

2. Wireless Digital exchanges where mobile set is used (M.S).

- From digital exchange using underground cable it is connected to various places like any
road, underground cable etc.

-This category of digital exchange falls under MDF (Main distributive frame).

-Wires used for connection is optical fibre.

-Termination + Switching constitutes digital exchange.

19
Features of digital exchange:
1. Dynamic law facility
2. Hold on facility
3. Alarm facility
4. CLIP( calling line identification presentation)
5. Conference facility

Types of card used in digital exchange:

1. Termination card: To terminate the number of customers
2. Service card: Announcement and tone management
3. Control card: Controls the system

20
6. GSM AND MOBILE COMMUNICATION
Principle of Mobile Communication
Multiple Access methodology
The technique of dynamically sharing the finite limited radio spectrum by multiple users is
called Multiple Access Technique.
Generally there are three different types of multiple access technologies. They are

 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
 Code Division multiple Access (CDMA)
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA):
FDMA is a familiar method of allocating bandwidth, where a base station is allowed to
transmit on one or more number of preassigned carrier frequencies and a mobile unit
transmits on corresponding reverse channels.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
In a TDMA system each channel is split up into time segments, and a transmitter is given
exclusive use of one or more channels only during a particular time period.
Duplexing and Multiple Access Techniques in use:
No Name of System Multiple Access Duplexing
1 GSM FDMA-TDMA FDD
2 CDMA CDMA FDD
Table 6(A). Access techniques
FREQUENCY ALLOCATION
Two frequency bands have been allocated for the GSM system:
 The band 890-915 MHz and 1710-1785 MHz has been allocated for the uplink
direction (transmitting from the mobile station to the base station).
 The band 935-960 MHz and 1805-1880 MHz has been allocated for the downlink
direction (transmitting from the base station to the mobile station).

21
Architecture of GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication) :

Other
G
MSCs
OMC VLR
VLRs
B
D
BSS
A C

MS BTS BSC MSC HLR AUC

Un Abis

E F

Other Other
EIR
MSCs Networks

Fig6(A). GSM

It is made of three components:

1. B.T.S ( Base Transcieve Station)

2. B.S.C (Base station controller)

3. M.S.C (Mobile Switching Centre)

Mobile services Switching Centre (MSC)

Mobile-services Switching Center (MSC) performs the switching functions for all mobile
stations located in the geographic area covered by its assigned BSSs. Functions performed
include interfacing with the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) as well as with the
other MSCs and other system entities, such as the HLR, in the PLMN.
Functions of the MSC include:
 Call handling that copes with mobile nature of subscribers (e.g., paging)
 Management of required logical radio-link channel during calls
 Management of MSC-BSS signalling protocol
 Handling location registration and ensuring interworking between Mobile Station and
VLR

Home Location Register (HLR)

22
The Home Location Register (HLR) contains the identities of mobile subscribers (called
International Mobile Subscriber Identities or IMSIs), their service parameters, and their
location information.
In summary, the HLR contains:
 Identity of mobile subscriber
 ISDN directory number of mobile station
 Subscription information on teleservices and bearer services
 Service restrictions (if any)
 Supplementary services
 Location information for call routing
Visitor Location Register (VLR)
The Visitor Location Register (VLR) contains the subscriber parameters and location
information for all mobile subscribers currently located in the geographical area (i.e., cells)
controlled by that VLR.
In summary, the VLR contains:
 Identity of mobile subscriber
 Any temporary mobile subscriber identity
 ISDN directory number of mobile
 A directory number to route calls to a roaming station
 Location area where the mobile station is registered
 Copy of (part of) the subscriber data from the HLR
Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
The Equipment Identity Register (EIR) is accessed during the equipment validation
procedure when a mobile station accesses the system. It contains the identity of mobile
station equipment (called International Mobile Station Equipment Identity or IMEI) which
may be valid, suspect, or known to be fraudulent.
This contains:
 White or Valid list - List of valid MS equipment identities
 Grey or Monitored list - List of suspected mobiles under observation
 Black or prohibited list - List of mobiles for which service is barred.
Authentication Center (AUC)
The Authentication Center (AUC):
 Contains subscriber authentication data called Authentication Keys (Ki)
 Generates security related parameters needed to authorize service using Ki
 Generates unique data pattern called a Cipher Key (Kc) needed for encrypting user
speech and data

B.T.S ( Base Transcieve Station)

It sends as well as receive data.( it contains antenna and commonly referred as ‘tower’).
B.S.C (Base station controller)
It controls B.T.S i.e. all the data passing through the B.T.S.

23
7. FIBRE OPTICS COMMUNICATION
FIBRE OPTICS: The use and demand for optical fiber has grown tremendously and
optical-fiber applications are numerous. Telecommunication applications are widespread,
ranging from global networks to desktop computers. These involve the transmission of voice,
data, or video over distances of less than a meter to hundreds of kilometers, using one of a
few standard fiber designs in one of several cable designs.
Carriers use optical fiber to carry plain old telephone service (POTS) across their
nationwide networks. Local exchange carriers (LECs) use fiber to carry this same service
between central office switches at local levels, and sometimes as far as the neighborhood or
individual home (fiber to the home [FTTH]).

ADVANTAGES OF FIBRE OPTICS :

Fibre Optics has the following advantages :
• SPEED: Fiber optic networks operate at high speeds - up into the gigabits
• BANDWIDTH: large carrying capacity
• DISTANCE: Signals can be transmitted further without needing to be "refreshed" or
strengthened.
• RESISTANCE: Greater resistance to electromagnetic noise such as radios, motors or other
nearby cables.
• MAINTENANCE: Fiber optic cables costs much less to maintain.

Fiber Optic System:

Optical Fibre is new medium, in which information (voice, Data or Video) is transmitted
through a glass or plastic fibre, in the form of light, following the transmission sequence give
below:
(1) Information is encoded into Electrical Signals.
(2) Electrical Signals are converted into light Signals.
(3) Light Travels down the Fibre.
(4) A Detector Changes the Light Signals into Electrical Signals.
(5) Electrical Signals are decoded into Information.
- Inexpensive light sources available.
- Repeater spacing increases along with operating speeds because low loss
fibres are used at high data rates.

24
 Fig 7(A). Optical fibre communication
OPTICAL FIBRE PARAMETERS
Optical fiber systems have the following parameters.
(I) Wavelength.
(II) Frequency.
(III) Window.
(IV) Attenuation.
(V) Dispersion.
(VI) Bandwidth.

WAVELENGTH
It is a characteristics of light that is emitted from the light source and is measures in nano
meters (nm). In the visible spectrum, wavelength can be described as the colour of the light.
For example, Red Light has longer wavelength than Blue Light, Typical wavelength for fibre
use are 850nm, 1300nm and 1550nm all of which are invisible.
FREQUENCY
It is number of pulse per second emitted from a light source. Frequency is measured in units
of hertz (Hz). In terms of optical pulse 1Hz = 1 pulse/ sec.

WINDOW

25
 A narrow window is defined as the range of wavelengths at which a fibre best operates.
Typical windows are given below:

Window Operational Wavelength

800nm - 900nm 850nm

1250nm - 1350nm 1300nm

1500nm - 1600nm 1550nm

Table 7(A). window with wavelength

ATTENUATION
Attenuation is defined as the loss of optical power over a set distance, a fibre with lower
attenuation will allow more power to reach a receiver than fibre with higher attenuation.
Attenuation may be categorized as intrinsic or extrinsic.

BANDWIDTH
It is defined as the amount of information that a system can carry such that each pulse of light
is distinguishable by the receiver.
System bandwidth is measured in MHz or GHz. In general, when we say that a system has
bandwidth of 20 MHz, means that 20 million pulses of light per second will travel down the
fibre and each will be distinguishable by the receiver.
NUMBERICAL APERTURE
Numerical aperture (NA) is the "light - gathering ability" of a fibre. Light injected into the
fibre at angles greater than the critical angle will be propagated. The material NA relates to
the refractive indices of the core and cladding.
NA = n12 - n22
where n1 and n2 are refractive indices of core and cladding respectively.

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8. BROADBAND SERVICES
Definition of Broad Band
Broadband is often called high-speed Internet, because it usually has a high rate of data
transmission. In general, any connection to the customer of 256 kbit/s or more is considered
broadband.

TYPES OF BROADBAND CONNECTIONS

Broadband includes several high-speed transmission technologies such as:

 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)

 Cable Modem
 Fibre
 Wireless
 Satellite
 Broadband over Power lines (BPL)

The broadband technology you choose will depend on a number of factors. These may
include whether you are located in an urban or rural area, how broadband Internet access is
packaged with other services (like voice telephone and home entertainment), price and
availability.

Services available through Broadband

 High speed Internet Access: This is the always-on Internet access service with speed
ranging from 256 kbps to 8 Mbps.
 Bandwidth on Demand: This will facilitate customer to change bandwidth as per his
/ her requirement. For example a customer with 256 kbps can change to 1 Mbps
during the video Conferencing session.
 Multicasting: This is to provide video multicast services, video-on-demand etc. for
application in distance education, telemedicine etc.
 Dial VPN Service: This service allows remote users to access their private network
securely over the NIB-II infrastructure.
 Video and Audio Conferencing:
 Content based Services: Like Video on Demand, Interactive Gaming, Live and time
shifted TV
 Video on Demand: Customers can view any movie of their choice from a pool of
movies stored in a central server. The movies can be viewed either on a TV or a PC.
 Audio on Demand: It is a similar service where person can listen to any music of his
choice.
 TV channels through broadband connection: The TV channels may be available
in the broadband connection. In fact, there may be other new channels, particularly
the educational and scientific channels, depending on demand. Additional equipments
required in the customer's premises are

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  Set Top Box (STB) - The STB converts the digital IP based signal to a form
compatible with the TV set.
 PC and TV
The TV services envisaged are:

i. S-VOD: Subscription based Video Content, as in Pay Channels.

ii. Video-On-Demand
iii. N-VOD: Near Video-On-Demand. NVOD provides playouts on fixed
time bands which people can watch against payment.
iv. T-VOD: Transaction or Pay-Per-View service.
The video content will have Hindi, international and regional movies, music, soaps
and serials, sports, news, interactive gaming, e-learning and niche channels. "The
driver in entertainment will be on-demand movies, interactive gaming, broadband
Internet connectivity and e-learning,"

 Billing: To provide a means to bill for the aforesaid services by either time-based or
volume-based billing. It shall provide the customer with the option to select the
services through web server To provide both pre-paid and post-paid broadband
services
 IP Telephony
 Messaging: plain and feature rich,
 Multi-site MPLS VPN with Quality of Service (QoS) guarantees.
 Wi-Fi
 Web hosting & web co-location.
 Lease line service.

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CONCLUSION
From this report I came to know about various technologies that help in communication
between one individual to another or a company to another. Full details of telephone
exchange, switching section as well as different types of telephone exchanges are provided in
this report which helped me overcome the objective of this training. The source of power
supply (i.e. power plant ) for the exchange are also discussed which plays a vital role in
communication .I hope everyone who is going through this report gets the same amount of
information as well as the vision I wanted to share through this report.

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REFERENCES
 www.tutorialspoint.com/
 https://www.daenotes.com/electronics/communication-system/digital-telephone-exchange
 https://www.ukessays.com/essays/history/the-evolution-of-communication-
technology.php
 https://www.conferencecallsunlimited.com/history-of-communication-technology/
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunication
 https://www.britannica.com/technology/telecommunication

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