Mathematics-II (MATH F112)

Linear Algebra

Jitender Kumar
Department of Mathematics
Birla Institute of Technology and Science Pilani
Pilani-333031

January 30, 2017

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 1 / 49
 Chapter 4
Finite Dimensional Vector Spaces

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 2 / 49
 Chapter 4
Finite Dimensional Vector Spaces

Section 4.1

Introduction to Vector Spaces

Examples of Vector Spaces
Elementary Properties of Vector Spaces

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 2 / 49
Vector Space: A nonempty set V together with two
operations vector addition (denoted as ⊕) and
scalar multiplication(denoted as ⊙) is said to be a
(real) vector space if for every u, v, w in V and for
every a, b ∈ R the following properties hold:

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 3 / 49
Vector Space: A nonempty set V together with two
operations vector addition (denoted as ⊕) and
scalar multiplication(denoted as ⊙) is said to be a
(real) vector space if for every u, v, w in V and for
every a, b ∈ R the following properties hold:
1
u⊕v∈V (Closed under vector addition)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 3 / 49
Vector Space: A nonempty set V together with two
operations vector addition (denoted as ⊕) and
scalar multiplication(denoted as ⊙) is said to be a
(real) vector space if for every u, v, w in V and for
every a, b ∈ R the following properties hold:
1
u⊕v∈V (Closed under vector addition)
2
u⊕v=v⊕u (Commutativity)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 3 / 49
Vector Space: A nonempty set V together with two
operations vector addition (denoted as ⊕) and
scalar multiplication(denoted as ⊙) is said to be a
(real) vector space if for every u, v, w in V and for
every a, b ∈ R the following properties hold:
1
u⊕v∈V (Closed under vector addition)
2
u⊕v=v⊕u (Commutativity)
3
(u ⊕ v) ⊕ w = u ⊕ (v ⊕ w) (Associativity)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 3 / 49
Vector Space: A nonempty set V together with two
operations vector addition (denoted as ⊕) and
scalar multiplication(denoted as ⊙) is said to be a
(real) vector space if for every u, v, w in V and for
every a, b ∈ R the following properties hold:
1
u⊕v∈V (Closed under vector addition)
2
u⊕v=v⊕u (Commutativity)
3
(u ⊕ v) ⊕ w = u ⊕ (v ⊕ w) (Associativity)
4
There exists an element 0 ∈ V, called a zero
vector, such that u ⊕ 0 = u (Existence of
additive identity)
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 3 / 49
 5
For each u ∈ V, there is an element −u ∈ V
such that u ⊕ (−u) = 0 (Existence of additive
inverse)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 4 / 49
 5
For each u ∈ V, there is an element −u ∈ V
such that u ⊕ (−u) = 0 (Existence of additive
inverse)
6
a ⊙ u ∈ V (Closed under scalar multiplication)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 4 / 49
 5
For each u ∈ V, there is an element −u ∈ V
such that u ⊕ (−u) = 0 (Existence of additive
inverse)
6
a ⊙ u ∈ V (Closed under scalar multiplication)
7
a ⊙ (u ⊕ v) = (a ⊙ u) ⊕ (a ⊙ v) (Distributivity)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 4 / 49
 5
For each u ∈ V, there is an element −u ∈ V
such that u ⊕ (−u) = 0 (Existence of additive
inverse)
6
a ⊙ u ∈ V (Closed under scalar multiplication)
7
a ⊙ (u ⊕ v) = (a ⊙ u) ⊕ (a ⊙ v) (Distributivity)
8
(a + b) ⊙ u = a ⊙ u ⊕ b ⊙ u (Distributivity)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 4 / 49
 5
For each u ∈ V, there is an element −u ∈ V
such that u ⊕ (−u) = 0 (Existence of additive
inverse)
6
a ⊙ u ∈ V (Closed under scalar multiplication)
7
a ⊙ (u ⊕ v) = (a ⊙ u) ⊕ (a ⊙ v) (Distributivity)
8
(a + b) ⊙ u = a ⊙ u ⊕ b ⊙ u (Distributivity)
9
(ab) ⊙ u = a ⊙ (b ⊙ u)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 4 / 49
 5
For each u ∈ V, there is an element −u ∈ V
such that u ⊕ (−u) = 0 (Existence of additive
inverse)
6
a ⊙ u ∈ V (Closed under scalar multiplication)
7
a ⊙ (u ⊕ v) = (a ⊙ u) ⊕ (a ⊙ v) (Distributivity)
8
(a + b) ⊙ u = a ⊙ u ⊕ b ⊙ u (Distributivity)
9
(ab) ⊙ u = a ⊙ (b ⊙ u)
10
1 ⊙ u = u.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 4 / 49
Note that the set V = {0} is a vector space with
respect to

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 5 / 49
Note that the set V = {0} is a vector space with
respect to
vector addition 0 ⊕ 0 = 0
scalar multiplication a ⊙ 0 = 0 for all a ∈ R

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 5 / 49
Note that the set V = {0} is a vector space with
respect to
vector addition 0 ⊕ 0 = 0
scalar multiplication a ⊙ 0 = 0 for all a ∈ R

The vector space V = {0} is called the trivial vector

space.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 5 / 49
Example 1: The set R of real numbers is a vector
space with respect to the following operations:
u ⊕ v = u + v (vector addition)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 6 / 49
Example 1: The set R of real numbers is a vector
space with respect to the following operations:
u ⊕ v = u + v (vector addition)
a ⊙ u = au (scalar multiplication)
for all a, u, v ∈ R.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 6 / 49
Example 1: The set R of real numbers is a vector
space with respect to the following operations:
u ⊕ v = u + v (vector addition)
a ⊙ u = au (scalar multiplication)
for all a, u, v ∈ R.

Question: Does the set R+ of positive real numbers

form a vector space under the above defined vector
addition and scalar multiplication?

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 6 / 49
Example 2: The set R+ of a positive real numbers is
a vector space with respect to the following
operations:
u ⊕ v = u.v (vector addition)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 7 / 49
Example 2: The set R+ of a positive real numbers is
a vector space with respect to the following
operations:
u ⊕ v = u.v (vector addition)
a ⊙ u = ua (scalar multiplication)
for all a ∈ R and u, v ∈ R+ .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 7 / 49
Example 3: The set R2 = {[x1, x2] | x1, x2 ∈ R} is a
vector space with respect to the following operations:

[x1, x2] ⊕ [y1, y2] = [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2] (vector addition)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 8 / 49
Example 3: The set R2 = {[x1, x2] | x1, x2 ∈ R} is a
vector space with respect to the following operations:

[x1, x2] ⊕ [y1, y2] = [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2] (vector addition)

a ⊙ [x1, x2] = [ax1, ax2] (scalar multiplication)
for all a ∈ R and [x1, x2], [y1, y2 ] ∈ R2 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 8 / 49
Example 3: The set R2 = {[x1, x2] | x1, x2 ∈ R} is a
vector space with respect to the following operations:

[x1, x2] ⊕ [y1, y2] = [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2] (vector addition)

a ⊙ [x1, x2] = [ax1, ax2] (scalar multiplication)
for all a ∈ R and [x1, x2], [y1, y2 ] ∈ R2 .
Question: Does R2 form a vector space under the
above defined vector addition and

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 8 / 49
Example 3: The set R2 = {[x1, x2] | x1, x2 ∈ R} is a
vector space with respect to the following operations:

[x1, x2] ⊕ [y1, y2] = [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2] (vector addition)

a ⊙ [x1, x2] = [ax1, ax2] (scalar multiplication)
for all a ∈ R and [x1, x2], [y1, y2 ] ∈ R2 .
Question: Does R2 form a vector space under the
above defined vector addition and the following
scalar multiplication

a ⊙ [x1, x2] = [0, ax2]

for all a ∈ R and [x1, x2] ∈ R2 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 8 / 49
Soln. of Example 3: Let u = [x1, x2], v = [y1, y2 ] and
w = [z1, z2 ] ∈ R2 and a, b ∈ R.
1
Closure Property:
u⊕v

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 9 / 49
Soln. of Example 3: Let u = [x1, x2], v = [y1, y2 ] and
w = [z1, z2 ] ∈ R2 and a, b ∈ R.
1
Closure Property:
u ⊕ v = [x1, x2] ⊕ [y1, y2]

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 9 / 49
Soln. of Example 3: Let u = [x1, x2], v = [y1, y2 ] and
w = [z1, z2 ] ∈ R2 and a, b ∈ R.
1
Closure Property:
u ⊕ v = [x1, x2] ⊕ [y1, y2] = [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ]

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 9 / 49
Soln. of Example 3: Let u = [x1, x2], v = [y1, y2 ] and
w = [z1, z2 ] ∈ R2 and a, b ∈ R.
1
Closure Property:
u ⊕ v = [x1, x2] ⊕ [y1, y2] = [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ]∈ R2 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 9 / 49
Soln. of Example 3: Let u = [x1, x2], v = [y1, y2 ] and
w = [z1, z2 ] ∈ R2 and a, b ∈ R.
1
Closure Property:
u ⊕ v = [x1, x2] ⊕ [y1, y2] = [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ]∈ R2 .
2
Commutative Property:
u⊕v

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 9 / 49
Soln. of Example 3: Let u = [x1, x2], v = [y1, y2 ] and
w = [z1, z2 ] ∈ R2 and a, b ∈ R.
1
Closure Property:
u ⊕ v = [x1, x2] ⊕ [y1, y2] = [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ]∈ R2 .
2
Commutative Property:
u ⊕ v = [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2]

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 9 / 49
Soln. of Example 3: Let u = [x1, x2], v = [y1, y2 ] and
w = [z1, z2 ] ∈ R2 and a, b ∈ R.
1
Closure Property:
u ⊕ v = [x1, x2] ⊕ [y1, y2] = [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ]∈ R2 .
2
Commutative Property:
u ⊕ v = [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2] = [y1 + x1, y2 + x2]

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 9 / 49
Soln. of Example 3: Let u = [x1, x2], v = [y1, y2 ] and
w = [z1, z2 ] ∈ R2 and a, b ∈ R.
1
Closure Property:
u ⊕ v = [x1, x2] ⊕ [y1, y2] = [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ]∈ R2 .
2
Commutative Property:
u ⊕ v = [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2] = [y1 + x1, y2 + x2]
(commutativity of R under addition)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 9 / 49
Soln. of Example 3: Let u = [x1, x2], v = [y1, y2 ] and
w = [z1, z2 ] ∈ R2 and a, b ∈ R.
1
Closure Property:
u ⊕ v = [x1, x2] ⊕ [y1, y2] = [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ]∈ R2 .
2
Commutative Property:
u ⊕ v = [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2] = [y1 + x1, y2 + x2]
(commutativity of R under addition)
= [y1 , y2]⊕[x1, x2] =

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 9 / 49
Soln. of Example 3: Let u = [x1, x2], v = [y1, y2 ] and
w = [z1, z2 ] ∈ R2 and a, b ∈ R.
1
Closure Property:
u ⊕ v = [x1, x2] ⊕ [y1, y2] = [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ]∈ R2 .
2
Commutative Property:
u ⊕ v = [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2] = [y1 + x1, y2 + x2]
(commutativity of R under addition)
= [y1 , y2]⊕[x1, x2] = v⊕u

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 9 / 49
Soln. of Example 3: Let u = [x1, x2], v = [y1, y2 ] and
w = [z1, z2 ] ∈ R2 and a, b ∈ R.
1
Closure Property:
u ⊕ v = [x1, x2] ⊕ [y1, y2] = [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ]∈ R2 .
2
Commutative Property:
u ⊕ v = [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2] = [y1 + x1, y2 + x2]
(commutativity of R under addition)
= [y1 , y2]⊕[x1, x2] = v⊕u
3
Associative Property:
(u ⊕ v) ⊕ w

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 9 / 49
Soln. of Example 3: Let u = [x1, x2], v = [y1, y2 ] and
w = [z1, z2 ] ∈ R2 and a, b ∈ R.
1
Closure Property:
u ⊕ v = [x1, x2] ⊕ [y1, y2] = [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ]∈ R2 .
2
Commutative Property:
u ⊕ v = [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2] = [y1 + x1, y2 + x2]
(commutativity of R under addition)
= [y1 , y2]⊕[x1, x2] = v⊕u
3
Associative Property:
(u ⊕ v) ⊕ w = [(x1 + y1 ) + z1 , (x2 + y2 ) + z2 ]

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 9 / 49
Soln. of Example 3: Let u = [x1, x2], v = [y1, y2 ] and
w = [z1, z2 ] ∈ R2 and a, b ∈ R.
1
Closure Property:
u ⊕ v = [x1, x2] ⊕ [y1, y2] = [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ]∈ R2 .
2
Commutative Property:
u ⊕ v = [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2] = [y1 + x1, y2 + x2]
(commutativity of R under addition)
= [y1 , y2]⊕[x1, x2] = v⊕u
3
Associative Property:
(u ⊕ v) ⊕ w = [(x1 + y1 ) + z1 , (x2 + y2 ) + z2 ]
= [x1 + (y1 + z1 ), x2 + (y2 + z2 )]

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 9 / 49
Soln. of Example 3: Let u = [x1, x2], v = [y1, y2 ] and
w = [z1, z2 ] ∈ R2 and a, b ∈ R.
1
Closure Property:
u ⊕ v = [x1, x2] ⊕ [y1, y2] = [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ]∈ R2 .
2
Commutative Property:
u ⊕ v = [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2] = [y1 + x1, y2 + x2]
(commutativity of R under addition)
= [y1 , y2]⊕[x1, x2] = v⊕u
3
Associative Property:
(u ⊕ v) ⊕ w = [(x1 + y1 ) + z1 , (x2 + y2 ) + z2 ]
= [x1 + (y1 + z1 ), x2 + (y2 + z2 )]
(associativity of R under addition)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 9 / 49
 = [x1, x2] ⊕ [y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 ]

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 10 / 49
 = [x1, x2] ⊕ [y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 ]
= [x1, x2] ⊕ ([y1, y2] ⊕ [z1 , z2])

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 10 / 49
 = [x1, x2] ⊕ [y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 ]
= [x1, x2] ⊕ ([y1, y2] ⊕ [z1 , z2])
= u ⊕ (v ⊕ w)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 10 / 49
 = [x1, x2] ⊕ [y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 ]
= [x1, x2] ⊕ ([y1, y2] ⊕ [z1 , z2])
= u ⊕ (v ⊕ w)
4
Existence of additive identity (zero vector):

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 10 / 49
 = [x1, x2] ⊕ [y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 ]
= [x1, x2] ⊕ ([y1, y2] ⊕ [z1 , z2])
= u ⊕ (v ⊕ w)
4
Existence of additive identity (zero vector): For
any u = [x1, x2] ∈ R2 there exists 0 = [0, 0] ∈ R2
such that

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 10 / 49
 = [x1, x2] ⊕ [y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 ]
= [x1, x2] ⊕ ([y1, y2] ⊕ [z1 , z2])
= u ⊕ (v ⊕ w)
4
Existence of additive identity (zero vector): For
any u = [x1, x2] ∈ R2 there exists 0 = [0, 0] ∈ R2
such that
u ⊕ 0=

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 10 / 49
 = [x1, x2] ⊕ [y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 ]
= [x1, x2] ⊕ ([y1, y2] ⊕ [z1 , z2])
= u ⊕ (v ⊕ w)
4
Existence of additive identity (zero vector): For
any u = [x1, x2] ∈ R2 there exists 0 = [0, 0] ∈ R2
such that
u ⊕ 0 = [x1, x2] ⊕ [0, 0]

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 10 / 49
 = [x1, x2] ⊕ [y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 ]
= [x1, x2] ⊕ ([y1, y2] ⊕ [z1 , z2])
= u ⊕ (v ⊕ w)
4
Existence of additive identity (zero vector): For
any u = [x1, x2] ∈ R2 there exists 0 = [0, 0] ∈ R2
such that
u ⊕ 0 = [x1, x2] ⊕ [0, 0] = [x1 + 0, x2 + 0]

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 10 / 49
 = [x1, x2] ⊕ [y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 ]
= [x1, x2] ⊕ ([y1, y2] ⊕ [z1 , z2])
= u ⊕ (v ⊕ w)
4
Existence of additive identity (zero vector): For
any u = [x1, x2] ∈ R2 there exists 0 = [0, 0] ∈ R2
such that
u ⊕ 0 = [x1, x2] ⊕ [0, 0] = [x1 + 0, x2 + 0]
= [x1, x2]

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 10 / 49
 = [x1, x2] ⊕ [y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 ]
= [x1, x2] ⊕ ([y1, y2] ⊕ [z1 , z2])
= u ⊕ (v ⊕ w)
4
Existence of additive identity (zero vector): For
any u = [x1, x2] ∈ R2 there exists 0 = [0, 0] ∈ R2
such that
u ⊕ 0 = [x1, x2] ⊕ [0, 0] = [x1 + 0, x2 + 0]
= [x1, x2]
=u

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 10 / 49
 = [x1, x2] ⊕ [y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 ]
= [x1, x2] ⊕ ([y1, y2] ⊕ [z1 , z2])
= u ⊕ (v ⊕ w)
4
Existence of additive identity (zero vector): For
any u = [x1, x2] ∈ R2 there exists 0 = [0, 0] ∈ R2
such that
u ⊕ 0 = [x1, x2] ⊕ [0, 0] = [x1 + 0, x2 + 0]
= [x1, x2]
=u
5
Existence of additive inverse:

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 10 / 49
 = [x1, x2] ⊕ [y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 ]
= [x1, x2] ⊕ ([y1, y2] ⊕ [z1 , z2])
= u ⊕ (v ⊕ w)
4
Existence of additive identity (zero vector): For
any u = [x1, x2] ∈ R2 there exists 0 = [0, 0] ∈ R2
such that
u ⊕ 0 = [x1, x2] ⊕ [0, 0] = [x1 + 0, x2 + 0]
= [x1, x2]
=u
5
Existence of additive inverse: For each
u = [x1, x2] ∈ R2 there exists −u = [−x1, −x2]
such that

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 10 / 49
 = [x1, x2] ⊕ [y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 ]
= [x1, x2] ⊕ ([y1, y2] ⊕ [z1 , z2])
= u ⊕ (v ⊕ w)
4
Existence of additive identity (zero vector): For
any u = [x1, x2] ∈ R2 there exists 0 = [0, 0] ∈ R2
such that
u ⊕ 0 = [x1, x2] ⊕ [0, 0] = [x1 + 0, x2 + 0]
= [x1, x2]
=u
5
Existence of additive inverse: For each
u = [x1, x2] ∈ R2 there exists −u = [−x1, −x2]
such that
u ⊕ (−u) = [x1, x2] ⊕ [−x1, −x2]

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 10 / 49
 = [x1, x2] ⊕ [y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 ]
= [x1, x2] ⊕ ([y1, y2] ⊕ [z1 , z2])
= u ⊕ (v ⊕ w)
4
Existence of additive identity (zero vector): For
any u = [x1, x2] ∈ R2 there exists 0 = [0, 0] ∈ R2
such that
u ⊕ 0 = [x1, x2] ⊕ [0, 0] = [x1 + 0, x2 + 0]
= [x1, x2]
=u
5
Existence of additive inverse: For each
u = [x1, x2] ∈ R2 there exists −u = [−x1, −x2]
such that
u ⊕ (−u) = [x1, x2] ⊕ [−x1, −x2]
= [x1 + (−x1), x2 + (−x2)]
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 10 / 49
 = [x1, x2] ⊕ [y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 ]
= [x1, x2] ⊕ ([y1, y2] ⊕ [z1 , z2])
= u ⊕ (v ⊕ w)
4
Existence of additive identity (zero vector): For
any u = [x1, x2] ∈ R2 there exists 0 = [0, 0] ∈ R2
such that
u ⊕ 0 = [x1, x2] ⊕ [0, 0] = [x1 + 0, x2 + 0]
= [x1, x2]
=u
5
Existence of additive inverse: For each
u = [x1, x2] ∈ R2 there exists −u = [−x1, −x2]
such that
u ⊕ (−u) = [x1, x2] ⊕ [−x1, −x2]
= [x1 + (−x1), x2 + (−x2)] = [0, 0]
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 10 / 49
 = [x1, x2] ⊕ [y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 ]
= [x1, x2] ⊕ ([y1, y2] ⊕ [z1 , z2])
= u ⊕ (v ⊕ w)
4
Existence of additive identity (zero vector): For
any u = [x1, x2] ∈ R2 there exists 0 = [0, 0] ∈ R2
such that
u ⊕ 0 = [x1, x2] ⊕ [0, 0] = [x1 + 0, x2 + 0]
= [x1, x2]
=u
5
Existence of additive inverse: For each
u = [x1, x2] ∈ R2 there exists −u = [−x1, −x2]
such that
u ⊕ (−u) = [x1, x2] ⊕ [−x1, −x2]
= [x1 + (−x1), x2 + (−x2)] = [0, 0] = 0
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 10 / 49
 6
Closure Property of scalar multiplication:

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 11 / 49
 6
Closure Property of scalar multiplication:
a⊙u

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 11 / 49
 6
Closure Property of scalar multiplication:
a ⊙ u = a ⊙ [x1, x2]

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 11 / 49
 6
Closure Property of scalar multiplication:
a ⊙ u = a ⊙ [x1, x2] = [ax1, ax2]

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 11 / 49
 6
Closure Property of scalar multiplication:
a ⊙ u = a ⊙ [x1, x2] = [ax1, ax2]∈ R2 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 11 / 49
 6
Closure Property of scalar multiplication:
a ⊙ u = a ⊙ [x1, x2] = [ax1, ax2]∈ R2 . Thus, R2 is
closed under scalar multiplication.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 11 / 49
 6
Closure Property of scalar multiplication:
a ⊙ u = a ⊙ [x1, x2] = [ax1, ax2]∈ R2 . Thus, R2 is
closed under scalar multiplication.
7
Distributivity over vector addition:

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 11 / 49
 6
Closure Property of scalar multiplication:
a ⊙ u = a ⊙ [x1, x2] = [ax1, ax2]∈ R2 . Thus, R2 is
closed under scalar multiplication.
7
Distributivity over vector addition:
a ⊙ (u ⊕ v)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 11 / 49
 6
Closure Property of scalar multiplication:
a ⊙ u = a ⊙ [x1, x2] = [ax1, ax2]∈ R2 . Thus, R2 is
closed under scalar multiplication.
7
Distributivity over vector addition:
a ⊙ (u ⊕ v) = a ⊙ ([x1, x2] ⊕ [y1, y2 ])

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 11 / 49
 6
Closure Property of scalar multiplication:
a ⊙ u = a ⊙ [x1, x2] = [ax1, ax2]∈ R2 . Thus, R2 is
closed under scalar multiplication.
7
Distributivity over vector addition:
a ⊙ (u ⊕ v) = a ⊙ ([x1, x2] ⊕ [y1, y2 ])
= a ⊙ [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ]

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 11 / 49
 6
Closure Property of scalar multiplication:
a ⊙ u = a ⊙ [x1, x2] = [ax1, ax2]∈ R2 . Thus, R2 is
closed under scalar multiplication.
7
Distributivity over vector addition:
a ⊙ (u ⊕ v) = a ⊙ ([x1, x2] ⊕ [y1, y2 ])
= a ⊙ [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ]
= [a(x1 + y1), a(x2 + y2)]

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 11 / 49
 6
Closure Property of scalar multiplication:
a ⊙ u = a ⊙ [x1, x2] = [ax1, ax2]∈ R2 . Thus, R2 is
closed under scalar multiplication.
7
Distributivity over vector addition:
a ⊙ (u ⊕ v) = a ⊙ ([x1, x2] ⊕ [y1, y2 ])
= a ⊙ [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ]
= [a(x1 + y1), a(x2 + y2)]
= [ax1 + ay1 , ax2 + ay2 ] (distributivity in R)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 11 / 49
 6
Closure Property of scalar multiplication:
a ⊙ u = a ⊙ [x1, x2] = [ax1, ax2]∈ R2 . Thus, R2 is
closed under scalar multiplication.
7
Distributivity over vector addition:
a ⊙ (u ⊕ v) = a ⊙ ([x1, x2] ⊕ [y1, y2 ])
= a ⊙ [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ]
= [a(x1 + y1), a(x2 + y2)]
= [ax1 + ay1 , ax2 + ay2 ] (distributivity in R)
= [ax1, ax2] ⊕ [ay1, ay2 ]

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 11 / 49
 6
Closure Property of scalar multiplication:
a ⊙ u = a ⊙ [x1, x2] = [ax1, ax2]∈ R2 . Thus, R2 is
closed under scalar multiplication.
7
Distributivity over vector addition:
a ⊙ (u ⊕ v) = a ⊙ ([x1, x2] ⊕ [y1, y2 ])
= a ⊙ [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ]
= [a(x1 + y1), a(x2 + y2)]
= [ax1 + ay1 , ax2 + ay2 ] (distributivity in R)
= [ax1, ax2] ⊕ [ay1, ay2 ]
= (a ⊙ [x1, x2]) ⊕ (a ⊙ [y1, y2])

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 11 / 49
 6
Closure Property of scalar multiplication:
a ⊙ u = a ⊙ [x1, x2] = [ax1, ax2]∈ R2 . Thus, R2 is
closed under scalar multiplication.
7
Distributivity over vector addition:
a ⊙ (u ⊕ v) = a ⊙ ([x1, x2] ⊕ [y1, y2 ])
= a ⊙ [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ]
= [a(x1 + y1), a(x2 + y2)]
= [ax1 + ay1 , ax2 + ay2 ] (distributivity in R)
= [ax1, ax2] ⊕ [ay1, ay2 ]
= (a ⊙ [x1, x2]) ⊕ (a ⊙ [y1, y2])
= (a ⊙ u) ⊕ (a ⊙ v)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 11 / 49
 8
Distributivity over scalar addition:

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 12 / 49
 8
Distributivity over scalar addition:
(a + b) ⊙ u = (a + b) ⊙ [x1, x2]

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 12 / 49
 8
Distributivity over scalar addition:
(a + b) ⊙ u = (a + b) ⊙ [x1, x2]
= [(a + b)x1, (a + b)x2]

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 12 / 49
 8
Distributivity over scalar addition:
(a + b) ⊙ u = (a + b) ⊙ [x1, x2]
= [(a + b)x1, (a + b)x2]
= [ax1 + bx1, ax2 + bx2] (distributivity in R)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 12 / 49
 8
Distributivity over scalar addition:
(a + b) ⊙ u = (a + b) ⊙ [x1, x2]
= [(a + b)x1, (a + b)x2]
= [ax1 + bx1, ax2 + bx2] (distributivity in R)
= [ax1, ax2] ⊕ [bx1, bx2]

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 12 / 49
 8
Distributivity over scalar addition:
(a + b) ⊙ u = (a + b) ⊙ [x1, x2]
= [(a + b)x1, (a + b)x2]
= [ax1 + bx1, ax2 + bx2] (distributivity in R)
= [ax1, ax2] ⊕ [bx1, bx2]
= (a ⊙ [x1, x2]) ⊕ (b ⊙ [x1, x2])

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 12 / 49
 8
Distributivity over scalar addition:
(a + b) ⊙ u = (a + b) ⊙ [x1, x2]
= [(a + b)x1, (a + b)x2]
= [ax1 + bx1, ax2 + bx2] (distributivity in R)
= [ax1, ax2] ⊕ [bx1, bx2]
= (a ⊙ [x1, x2]) ⊕ (b ⊙ [x1, x2])
= (a ⊙ u) ⊕ (b ⊙ u)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 12 / 49
 8
Distributivity over scalar addition:
(a + b) ⊙ u = (a + b) ⊙ [x1, x2]
= [(a + b)x1, (a + b)x2]
= [ax1 + bx1, ax2 + bx2] (distributivity in R)
= [ax1, ax2] ⊕ [bx1, bx2]
= (a ⊙ [x1, x2]) ⊕ (b ⊙ [x1, x2])
= (a ⊙ u) ⊕ (b ⊙ u)
9
(ab) ⊙ u

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 12 / 49
 8
Distributivity over scalar addition:
(a + b) ⊙ u = (a + b) ⊙ [x1, x2]
= [(a + b)x1, (a + b)x2]
= [ax1 + bx1, ax2 + bx2] (distributivity in R)
= [ax1, ax2] ⊕ [bx1, bx2]
= (a ⊙ [x1, x2]) ⊕ (b ⊙ [x1, x2])
= (a ⊙ u) ⊕ (b ⊙ u)
9
(ab) ⊙ u = (ab) ⊙ [x1, x2]

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 12 / 49
 8
Distributivity over scalar addition:
(a + b) ⊙ u = (a + b) ⊙ [x1, x2]
= [(a + b)x1, (a + b)x2]
= [ax1 + bx1, ax2 + bx2] (distributivity in R)
= [ax1, ax2] ⊕ [bx1, bx2]
= (a ⊙ [x1, x2]) ⊕ (b ⊙ [x1, x2])
= (a ⊙ u) ⊕ (b ⊙ u)
9
(ab) ⊙ u = (ab) ⊙ [x1, x2]
= [(ab)x1, (ab)x2]

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 12 / 49
 8
Distributivity over scalar addition:
(a + b) ⊙ u = (a + b) ⊙ [x1, x2]
= [(a + b)x1, (a + b)x2]
= [ax1 + bx1, ax2 + bx2] (distributivity in R)
= [ax1, ax2] ⊕ [bx1, bx2]
= (a ⊙ [x1, x2]) ⊕ (b ⊙ [x1, x2])
= (a ⊙ u) ⊕ (b ⊙ u)
9
(ab) ⊙ u = (ab) ⊙ [x1, x2]
= [(ab)x1, (ab)x2]
= [a(bx1), a(bx2)]

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 12 / 49
 8
Distributivity over scalar addition:
(a + b) ⊙ u = (a + b) ⊙ [x1, x2]
= [(a + b)x1, (a + b)x2]
= [ax1 + bx1, ax2 + bx2] (distributivity in R)
= [ax1, ax2] ⊕ [bx1, bx2]
= (a ⊙ [x1, x2]) ⊕ (b ⊙ [x1, x2])
= (a ⊙ u) ⊕ (b ⊙ u)
9
(ab) ⊙ u = (ab) ⊙ [x1, x2]
= [(ab)x1, (ab)x2]
= [a(bx1), a(bx2)]
(associativity of R under multiplication)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 12 / 49
 8
Distributivity over scalar addition:
(a + b) ⊙ u = (a + b) ⊙ [x1, x2]
= [(a + b)x1, (a + b)x2]
= [ax1 + bx1, ax2 + bx2] (distributivity in R)
= [ax1, ax2] ⊕ [bx1, bx2]
= (a ⊙ [x1, x2]) ⊕ (b ⊙ [x1, x2])
= (a ⊙ u) ⊕ (b ⊙ u)
9
(ab) ⊙ u = (ab) ⊙ [x1, x2]
= [(ab)x1, (ab)x2]
= [a(bx1), a(bx2)]
(associativity of R under multiplication)
= a ⊙ [bx1, bx2]

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 12 / 49
 8
Distributivity over scalar addition:
(a + b) ⊙ u = (a + b) ⊙ [x1, x2]
= [(a + b)x1, (a + b)x2]
= [ax1 + bx1, ax2 + bx2] (distributivity in R)
= [ax1, ax2] ⊕ [bx1, bx2]
= (a ⊙ [x1, x2]) ⊕ (b ⊙ [x1, x2])
= (a ⊙ u) ⊕ (b ⊙ u)
9
(ab) ⊙ u = (ab) ⊙ [x1, x2]
= [(ab)x1, (ab)x2]
= [a(bx1), a(bx2)]
(associativity of R under multiplication)
= a ⊙ [bx1, bx2]
= a ⊙ (b ⊙ [x1, x2])
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 12 / 49
 8
Distributivity over scalar addition:
(a + b) ⊙ u = (a + b) ⊙ [x1, x2]
= [(a + b)x1, (a + b)x2]
= [ax1 + bx1, ax2 + bx2] (distributivity in R)
= [ax1, ax2] ⊕ [bx1, bx2]
= (a ⊙ [x1, x2]) ⊕ (b ⊙ [x1, x2])
= (a ⊙ u) ⊕ (b ⊙ u)
9
(ab) ⊙ u = (ab) ⊙ [x1, x2]
= [(ab)x1, (ab)x2]
= [a(bx1), a(bx2)]
(associativity of R under multiplication)
= a ⊙ [bx1, bx2]
= a ⊙ (b ⊙ [x1, x2])
= a ⊙ (b ⊙ u)
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 12 / 49
 10
1⊙u=

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 13 / 49
 10
1 ⊙ u = 1 ⊙ [x1, x2] =

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 13 / 49
 10
1 ⊙ u = 1 ⊙ [x1, x2] = [1x1, 1x2] =

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 13 / 49
 10
1 ⊙ u = 1 ⊙ [x1, x2] = [1x1, 1x2] = [x1, x2] =

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 13 / 49
 10
1 ⊙ u = 1 ⊙ [x1, x2] = [1x1, 1x2] = [x1, x2] = u

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 13 / 49
 10
1 ⊙ u = 1 ⊙ [x1, x2] = [1x1, 1x2] = [x1, x2] = u.
Thus R2 is vector space under usual vector addition
and scalar multiplication.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 13 / 49
Example 4: The set Rn = {[x1, x2, . . . , xn] | xi ∈ R}
is a vector space with respect to the following
operations:
[x1, x2, . . . , xn] ⊕ [y1, y2, . . . , yn ]
= [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , . . . , xn + yn ] (vector addition)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 14 / 49
Example 4: The set Rn = {[x1, x2, . . . , xn] | xi ∈ R}
is a vector space with respect to the following
operations:
[x1, x2, . . . , xn] ⊕ [y1, y2, . . . , yn ]
= [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , . . . , xn + yn ] (vector addition)

a ⊙ [x1, x2, . . . , xn] = [ax1, ax2, . . . , axn] (scalar

multiplication)

for all a ∈ R and [x1, x2, . . . , xn], [y1, y2, . . . , yn] ∈ Rn .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 14 / 49
Example 5: The set

Mmn = {[aij ]m×n | aij ∈ R}

of all m × n matrices with real entries is a vector

space with respect to the following operations:
[aij ]m×n ⊕ [bij ]m×n = [aij + bij ]m×n (vector addition)

a ⊙ [aij ]m×n = [aaij ]m×n (scalar multiplication)

for all a ∈ R and [aij ]m×n, [bij ]m×n ∈ Mmn.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 15 / 49
Example 6: Let

Φ = {f | f : [0, 1] → R}

be the set of real-valued functions defined on [0, 1].

Define
f ⊕ g = f + g (vector addition),

and a ⊙ f = af (scalar multiplication),

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 16 / 49
Example 6: Let

Φ = {f | f : [0, 1] → R}

be the set of real-valued functions defined on [0, 1].

Define
f ⊕ g = f + g (vector addition),
where (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) ∀x ∈ [0, 1].

and a ⊙ f = af (scalar multiplication),

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 16 / 49
Example 6: Let

Φ = {f | f : [0, 1] → R}

be the set of real-valued functions defined on [0, 1].

Define
f ⊕ g = f + g (vector addition),
where (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) ∀x ∈ [0, 1].

and a ⊙ f = af (scalar multiplication),

where (af )(x) = af (x) ∀x ∈ [0, 1].

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 16 / 49
Example 6: Let

Φ = {f | f : [0, 1] → R}

be the set of real-valued functions defined on [0, 1].

Define
f ⊕ g = f + g (vector addition),
where (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) ∀x ∈ [0, 1].

and a ⊙ f = af (scalar multiplication),

where (af )(x) = af (x) ∀x ∈ [0, 1].

Then Φ is a vector space with respect to above

defined vector addition and scalar multiplication.
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 16 / 49
Example 7: Let P2 denote the set of all polynomials
of degree ≤ 2 with real coefficients. Define addition
and scalar multiplication in usual way i.e. if

p(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 and q(x) = b0 + b1x + b2 x2

are in P2 , then

p(x) ⊕ q(x) = (a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 )x + (a2 + b2)x2

c ⊙ p(x) = ca0 + ca1 x + ca2 x2.

Show that P2 is a vector space.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 17 / 49
In general, for any fixed natural number n, the set
Pn of all polynomials of degree less than or equal to
n is a vector space.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 18 / 49
In general, for any fixed natural number n, the set
Pn of all polynomials of degree less than or equal to
n is a vector space.

Question: Does the set of all polynomials of degree

7 form a vector space under the usual operation of
addition and scalar multiplication?

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 18 / 49
Example 8: The set P of all polynomials with real
coefficients is a vector space under the usual
operation of polynomial (term by term) addition and
scalar multiplication.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 19 / 49
Theorem: Let V be a vector space. Then for every
v ∈ V and α ∈ R, we have
α0 = 0
0v = 0
(−1)v = −v
If αv = 0, then α = 0 or v = 0.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 20 / 49
Section 4.2 (Subspaces)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 21 / 49
Section 4.2 (Subspaces)
Subspace: A nonempty subset W of a vector space
V is said to be a subspace of V if W is itself a vector
space with respect to the same operations (vector
addition and scalar multiplication) of V.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 21 / 49
Section 4.2 (Subspaces)
Subspace: A nonempty subset W of a vector space
V is said to be a subspace of V if W is itself a vector
space with respect to the same operations (vector
addition and scalar multiplication) of V.

Note that every vector space V has at least two

subspaces: {0} and V itself.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 21 / 49
Section 4.2 (Subspaces)
Subspace: A nonempty subset W of a vector space
V is said to be a subspace of V if W is itself a vector
space with respect to the same operations (vector
addition and scalar multiplication) of V.

Note that every vector space V has at least two

subspaces: {0} and V itself. The subspace {0} is
known as trivial subspace.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 21 / 49
Example: The set

W = [x, y] ∈ R2 | y = 0


forms a vector space with respect to usual vector

addition and scalar multiplication in R2 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 22 / 49
Example: The set

W = [x, y] ∈ R2 | y = 0


forms a vector space with respect to usual vector

addition and scalar multiplication in R2 . Thus, W is a
subspace of R2 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 22 / 49
Example: The set

W = [x, y] ∈ R2 | y = 0


forms a vector space with respect to usual vector

addition and scalar multiplication in R2 . Thus, W is a
subspace of R2 .

Question: Does the set

W = [x, y] ∈ R2 | x 6= y


form a subspace of R2 ?

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 22 / 49
Theorem: A nonempty subset W of a vector space
V is a subspace of V if and only if the following
conditions hold:

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 23 / 49
Theorem: A nonempty subset W of a vector space
V is a subspace of V if and only if the following
conditions hold:
u + v ∈ W for all u, v ∈ W .
au ∈ W for all a ∈ R, u ∈ W .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 23 / 49
Theorem: A nonempty subset W of a vector space
V is a subspace of V if and only if the following
conditions hold:
u + v ∈ W for all u, v ∈ W .
au ∈ W for all a ∈ R, u ∈ W .

Remark: If W is a subspace of a vector space V,

then 0 ∈ W .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 23 / 49
Exercise: Examine whether the following sets are
subspaces of R3 .

W1 = [x, y, z] ∈ R3 | x ≥ 0 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 24 / 49
Exercise: Examine whether the following sets are
subspaces of R3 .

W1 = [x, y, z] ∈ R3 | x ≥ 0 .

W2 = [x, y, z] ∈ R3 | x + y + z = 0 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 24 / 49
Exercise: Examine whether the following sets are
subspaces of R3 .

W1 = [x, y, z] ∈ R3 | x ≥ 0 .

W2 = [x, y, z] ∈ R3 | x + y + z = 0 .

W3 = [x, y, z] ∈ R3 | x = y 2 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 24 / 49
Exercise: Examine whether the following sets are
subspaces of R3 .

W1 = [x, y, z] ∈ R3 | x ≥ 0 .

W2 = [x, y, z] ∈ R3 | x + y + z = 0 .

W3 = [x, y, z] ∈ R3 | x = y 2 .

W4 = [x, y, z] ∈ R3 | x + y + z = 2 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 24 / 49
Exercise: Examine whether the following sets are
subspaces of R3 .

W1 = [x, y, z] ∈ R3 | x ≥ 0 .

W2 = [x, y, z] ∈ R3 | x + y + z = 0 .

W3 = [x, y, z] ∈ R3 | x = y 2 .

W4 = [x, y, z] ∈ R3 | x + y + z = 2 .

W5 = [x, y, z] ∈ R3 | x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 24 / 49
Exercise: Examine whether the following sets are
subspaces of M22.
W1 = {A ∈ M22 | A is singular}.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 25 / 49
Exercise: Examine whether the following sets are
subspaces of M22.
W1 = {A ∈ M22 | A is singular}.
W2 = {A ∈ M22 | A is nonsingular}.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 25 / 49
Exercise: Examine whether the following sets are
subspaces of M22.
W1 = {A ∈ M22 | A is singular}.
W2 = {A ∈ M22 | A is nonsingular}.
W3 = {A ∈ M22 | A is in RREF}.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 25 / 49
Exercise: Examine whether the following sets are
subspaces of M22.
W1 = {A ∈ M22 | A is singular}.
W2 = {A ∈ M22 | A is nonsingular}.
W3 = {A ∈ M22 | A is in RREF}.
W4 = {A ∈ M22 | A is symmetric}.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 25 / 49
Exercise: Examine whether the following sets are
subspaces of M22.
W1 = {A ∈ M22 | A is singular}.
W2 = {A ∈ M22 | A is nonsingular}.
W3 = {A ∈ M22 | A is in RREF}.
W4 = {A ∈ M22 | A is symmetric}.

W5 = A ∈ M22 | A2 = A .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 25 / 49
Exercise: Examine whether the following sets are
subspaces of Φ (see Example 6).

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 26 / 49
Exercise: Examine whether the following sets are
subspaces of Φ (see Example 6).
W1 = {f ∈ Φ | f (−x) = f (x) for all x ∈ [0, 1]}.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 26 / 49
Exercise: Examine whether the following sets are
subspaces of Φ (see Example 6).
W1 = {f ∈ Φ | f (−x) = f (x) for all x ∈ [0, 1]}.
W2 = {f ∈ Φ | f (−x) = −f (x) for all x ∈ [0, 1]}.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 26 / 49
Exercise: Examine whether the following sets are
subspaces of Φ (see Example 6).
W1 = {f ∈ Φ | f (−x) = f (x) for all x ∈ [0, 1]}.
W2 = {f ∈ Φ | f (−x) = −f (x) for all x ∈ [0, 1]}.
W3 = {f ∈ Φ | f (1) = 0}.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 26 / 49
Exercise: Examine whether the following sets are
subspaces of Φ (see Example 6).
W1 = {f ∈ Φ | f (−x) = f (x) for all x ∈ [0, 1]}.
W2 = {f ∈ Φ | f (−x) = −f (x) for all x ∈ [0, 1]}.
W3 = {f ∈ Φ | f (1) = 0}.
W4 = f ∈ Φ | f 12 = f (1) .


Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 26 / 49
Exercise: Examine whether the following sets are
subspaces of Φ (see Example 6).
W1 = {f ∈ Φ | f (−x) = f (x) for all x ∈ [0, 1]}.
W2 = {f ∈ Φ | f (−x) = −f (x) for all x ∈ [0, 1]}.
W3 = {f ∈ Φ | f (1) = 0}.
W4 = f ∈ Φ | f 12 = f (1) .


W5 = f ∈ Φ | f (1) = 12 .


Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 26 / 49
Result: Let W1 and W2 be two subspaces of vector
space V. Then

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 27 / 49
Result: Let W1 and W2 be two subspaces of vector
space V. Then
their intersection i.e. W1 ∩ W2 is a subspace of
V.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 27 / 49
Result: Let W1 and W2 be two subspaces of vector
space V. Then
their intersection i.e. W1 ∩ W2 is a subspace of
V.

their sum, defined as

W1 + W2 = {w1 + w2 | w1 ∈ W1 , w2 ∈ W2},

is a subspace of V.
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 27 / 49
Result: Let W1 and W2 be two subspaces of vector
space V. Then
their intersection i.e. W1 ∩ W2 is a subspace of
V.
their union W1 ∪ W2 need not be a subspace of
V.

their sum, defined as

W1 + W2 = {w1 + w2 | w1 ∈ W1 , w2 ∈ W2},

is a subspace of V.
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 27 / 49
Result: Let W1 and W2 be two subspaces of vector
space V. Then
their intersection i.e. W1 ∩ W2 is a subspace of
V.
their union W1 ∪ W2 need not be a subspace of
V.
W1 ∪ W2 is subspace of V if and only if either
W1 ⊂ W2 or W2 ⊂ W1.
their sum, defined as

W1 + W2 = {w1 + w2 | w1 ∈ W1 , w2 ∈ W2},

is a subspace of V.
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 27 / 49
Section 4.3 (Span)
Question: Given a subset S of a vector space V,
how to construct a subspace containing S?

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 28 / 49
Linear combination: Let V be a vector space and
v1, v2 , . . . , vk ∈ V. Then a vector v ∈ V is a linear
combination of v1 , v2, . . . , vk if

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 29 / 49
Linear combination: Let V be a vector space and
v1, v2 , . . . , vk ∈ V. Then a vector v ∈ V is a linear
combination of v1 , v2, . . . , vk if

v = a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + ak vk ; ai (1 ≤ i ≤ k) ∈ R

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 29 / 49
Linear combination: Let V be a vector space and
v1, v2 , . . . , vk ∈ V. Then a vector v ∈ V is a linear
combination of v1 , v2, . . . , vk if

v = a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + ak vk ; ai (1 ≤ i ≤ k) ∈ R

Example: The vector [3, 4] is a linear combination of

[1, 0] and [0, 1] in R2 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 29 / 49
Linear combination: Let V be a vector space and
v1, v2 , . . . , vk ∈ V. Then a vector v ∈ V is a linear
combination of v1 , v2, . . . , vk if

v = a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + ak vk ; ai (1 ≤ i ≤ k) ∈ R

Example: The vector [3, 4] is a linear combination of

[1, 0] and [0, 1] in R2 .
Note that
[3, 4] = 2[1, 1] + [1, 2].

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 29 / 49
Linear combination: Let V be a vector space and
v1, v2 , . . . , vk ∈ V. Then a vector v ∈ V is a linear
combination of v1 , v2, . . . , vk if

v = a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + ak vk ; ai (1 ≤ i ≤ k) ∈ R

Example: The vector [3, 4] is a linear combination of

[1, 0] and [0, 1] in R2 .
Note that
[3, 4] = 2[1, 1] + [1, 2].
Thus, [3, 4] is a linear combination of [1, 1] and [1, 2]
also.
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 29 / 49
Span of a set: Let S be a nonempty subset of a
vector space V. Then the span of S is the set of all
possible (finite) linear combinations of the vectors in
S and it is denoted by span(S)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 30 / 49
Span of a set: Let S be a nonempty subset of a
vector space V. Then the span of S is the set of all
possible (finite) linear combinations of the vectors in
S and it is denoted by span(S) i.e.

span(S) = {a1 v1 + · · · + ak vk | vi ∈ S, ai ∈ R, 1 ≤ i ≤ k}

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 30 / 49
Span of a set: Let S be a nonempty subset of a
vector space V. Then the span of S is the set of all
possible (finite) linear combinations of the vectors in
S and it is denoted by span(S) i.e.

span(S) = {a1 v1 + · · · + ak vk | vi ∈ S, ai ∈ R, 1 ≤ i ≤ k}

For a subset S = {[1, 0], [0, 1]} of R2 , we have

span(S)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 30 / 49
Span of a set: Let S be a nonempty subset of a
vector space V. Then the span of S is the set of all
possible (finite) linear combinations of the vectors in
S and it is denoted by span(S) i.e.

span(S) = {a1 v1 + · · · + ak vk | vi ∈ S, ai ∈ R, 1 ≤ i ≤ k}

For a subset S = {[1, 0], [0, 1]} of R2 , we have

span(S) = R2 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 30 / 49
Span of a set: Let S be a nonempty subset of a
vector space V. Then the span of S is the set of all
possible (finite) linear combinations of the vectors in
S and it is denoted by span(S) i.e.

span(S) = {a1 v1 + · · · + ak vk | vi ∈ S, ai ∈ R, 1 ≤ i ≤ k}

For a subset S = {[1, 0], [0, 1]} of R2 , we have

span(S) = R2 .
For a subset S = {[1, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 1]} of R3 ,
we have span(S)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 30 / 49
Span of a set: Let S be a nonempty subset of a
vector space V. Then the span of S is the set of all
possible (finite) linear combinations of the vectors in
S and it is denoted by span(S) i.e.

span(S) = {a1 v1 + · · · + ak vk | vi ∈ S, ai ∈ R, 1 ≤ i ≤ k}

For a subset S = {[1, 0], [0, 1]} of R2 , we have

span(S) = R2 .
For a subset S = {[1, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 1]} of R3 ,
we have span(S) = R3 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 30 / 49
Exercise: Let V = R3 and S = {[1, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0]}.
Find span(S).
Do [3, 2, 0] and [2, 5, 1] belong to span(S)?

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 31 / 49
Exercise: Let V = R3 and S = {[1, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0]}.
Find span(S).
Do [3, 2, 0] and [2, 5, 1] belong to span(S)?
Solution:
span(S) = {a[1, 0, 0] + b[0, 1, 0] | a, b ∈ R}

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 31 / 49
Exercise: Let V = R3 and S = {[1, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0]}.
Find span(S).
Do [3, 2, 0] and [2, 5, 1] belong to span(S)?
Solution:
span(S) = {a[1, 0, 0] + b[0, 1, 0] | a, b ∈ R}
= {[a, b, 0] | a, b ∈ R}

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 31 / 49
Exercise: Let V = R3 and S = {[1, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0]}.
Find span(S).
Do [3, 2, 0] and [2, 5, 1] belong to span(S)?
Solution:
span(S) = {a[1, 0, 0] + b[0, 1, 0] | a, b ∈ R}
= {[a, b, 0] | a, b ∈ R}

Clearly, [3, 2, 0] ∈ span(S) but [2, 5, 1] 6∈ span(S).

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 31 / 49
Exercise: Let V = R3 and S = {[1, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0]}.
Find span(S).
Do [3, 2, 0] and [2, 5, 1] belong to span(S)?
Solution:
span(S) = {a[1, 0, 0] + b[0, 1, 0] | a, b ∈ R}
= {[a, b, 0] | a, b ∈ R}

Clearly, [3, 2, 0] ∈ span(S) but [2, 5, 1] 6∈ span(S).

In this exercise note that span(S) is a subspace of
R3 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 31 / 49
Theorem: Let S be a nonempty subset of a vector
space V. Then span(S) is the smallest subspace of
V containing S.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 32 / 49
Theorem: Let S be a nonempty subset of a vector
space V. Then span(S) is the smallest subspace of
V containing S.

Convention: span(∅) = {0}.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 32 / 49
Row space of a matrix: Let A be an m × n matrix.
The row space of A, denoted by row(A), is the
subspace of Rn spanned by the rows of A.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 33 / 49
Row space of a matrix: Let A be an m × n matrix.
The row space of A, denoted by row(A), is the
subspace of Rn spanned by the rows of A.

Theorem: Let B be any matrix that is row equivalent

to a matrix A. Then row(B) = row(A).

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 33 / 49
Row space of a matrix: Let A be an m × n matrix.
The row space of A, denoted by row(A), is the
subspace of Rn spanned by the rows of A.

Theorem: Let B be any matrix that is row equivalent

to a matrix A. Then row(B) = row(A).

Corollary: For any matrix A, we have

row(A) = row (RREF(A)) .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 33 / 49
Exercise: Let V = R3 and

S = {[1, 3, −1], [2, 7, −3], [4, 8, −7]} .

Then find span(S) in simplified form.

Solution: To determine span(S) in simplified form
consider  
1 3 −1
A = 2 7 −3
4 8 −7

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 34 / 49
Exercise: Let V = R3 and

S = {[1, 3, −1], [2, 7, −3], [4, 8, −7]} .

Then find span(S) in simplified form.

Solution: To determine span(S) in simplified form
consider  
1 3 −1
A = 2 7 −3
4 8 −7

Note that span(S) = row(A) =

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 34 / 49
Exercise: Let V = R3 and

S = {[1, 3, −1], [2, 7, −3], [4, 8, −7]} .

Then find span(S) in simplified form.

Solution: To determine span(S) in simplified form
consider  
1 3 −1
A = 2 7 −3
4 8 −7

Note that span(S) = row(A) = row (RREF(A)) .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 34 / 49
Note that  
1 0 0
RREF(A) = 0 1 0
0 0 1

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 35 / 49
Note that  
1 0 0
RREF(A) = 0 1 0
0 0 1
row (RREF(A))
= {a[1, 0, 0] + b[0, 1, 0] + c[0, 0, 1] | a, b, c ∈ R}

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 35 / 49
Note that  
1 0 0
RREF(A) = 0 1 0
0 0 1
row (RREF(A))
= {a[1, 0, 0] + b[0, 1, 0] + c[0, 0, 1] | a, b, c ∈ R}

row (RREF(A)) = span(S) = {[a, b, c] | a, b, c ∈ R}

span(S) = R3

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 35 / 49
Simplified Span Method: Let S be a finite subset of
Rn containing k vectors, with k ≥ 2.
Step 1: Construct a matrix A of order k × n by using
the vectors in S as the rows of A.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 36 / 49
Simplified Span Method: Let S be a finite subset of
Rn containing k vectors, with k ≥ 2.
Step 1: Construct a matrix A of order k × n by using
the vectors in S as the rows of A. Then span(S) =
row(A).

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 36 / 49
Simplified Span Method: Let S be a finite subset of
Rn containing k vectors, with k ≥ 2.
Step 1: Construct a matrix A of order k × n by using
the vectors in S as the rows of A. Then span(S) =
row(A).
Step 2: Find RREF(A).

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 36 / 49
Simplified Span Method: Let S be a finite subset of
Rn containing k vectors, with k ≥ 2.
Step 1: Construct a matrix A of order k × n by using
the vectors in S as the rows of A. Then span(S) =
row(A).
Step 2: Find RREF(A).
Step 3: Then, the set of all linear combination of the
nonzero rows of RREF(A) gives a simplified form
for span(S).

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 36 / 49
Exercise: For a given vector space V and a subset
S of V, find a simplified general form of span(S)
using Simplified Span Method:

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 37 / 49
Exercise: For a given vector space V and a subset
S of V, find a simplified general form of span(S)
using Simplified Span Method:
1
V = R3 , S = {[1, 1, 1], [2, 1, 1], [1, 1, 2]}.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 37 / 49
Exercise: For a given vector space V and a subset
S of V, find a simplified general form of span(S)
using Simplified Span Method:
1
V = R3 , S = {[1, 1, 1], [2, 1, 1], [1, 1, 2]}.

2
V = P2 , S = x2 + x + 1, x + 1, 1 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 37 / 49
Exercise: For a given vector space V and a subset
S of V, find a simplified general form of span(S)
using Simplified Span Method:
1
V = R3 , S = {[1, 1, 1], [2, 1, 1], [1, 1, 2]}.

2
V = P2 , S = x2 + x + 1, x + 1, 1 .

3
V = P2 , S = x2 + 4x − 3, 2x2 + x + 5, 7x − 11 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 37 / 49
Exercise: For a given vector space V and a subset
S of V, find a simplified general form of span(S)
using Simplified Span Method:
1
V = R3 , S = {[1, 1, 1], [2, 1, 1], [1, 1, 2]}.

2
V = P2 , S = x2 + x + 1, x + 1, 1 .

3
V = P2 , S = x2 + 4x − 3, 2x2 + x + 5, 7x − 11 .
     
1 3 −2 −5 1 4
4
V = M22, S = , , .
−2 1 3 1 −3 4

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 37 / 49
Section 4.4 (Linear Independence)

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 38 / 49
Section 4.4 (Linear Independence)
Definition: A subset S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } of a vector
space V is said to be linearly dependent (LD) if there
exist real numbers a1 , a2 , . . . an not all zero such that
a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn = 0.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 38 / 49
Section 4.4 (Linear Independence)
Definition: A subset S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } of a vector
space V is said to be linearly dependent (LD) if there
exist real numbers a1 , a2 , . . . an not all zero such that
a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn = 0.
S is linearly independent (LI) if it not linearly
dependent

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 38 / 49
Section 4.4 (Linear Independence)
Definition: A subset S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } of a vector
space V is said to be linearly dependent (LD) if there
exist real numbers a1 , a2 , . . . an not all zero such that
a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn = 0.
S is linearly independent (LI) if it not linearly
dependent i.e. if
a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn = 0
Then
a1 = a2 = . . . = an = 0.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 38 / 49
 Examples

The subset S = {[1, 0], [0, 1]} of R2 is linearly

independent.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 39 / 49
 Examples

The subset S = {[1, 0], [0, 1]} of R2 is linearly

independent.
The subset S = {[1, 2], [5, 10]} of R2 is linearly
dependent.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 39 / 49
 Examples

The subset S = {[1, 0], [0, 1]} of R2 is linearly

independent.
The subset S = {[1, 2], [5, 10]} of R2 is linearly
dependent.
The subset S = {[1, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 1]} of R3 is
linearly independent.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 39 / 49
 The singleton set containing 0 ∈ V i.e. {0}

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 40 / 49
 The singleton set containing 0 ∈ V i.e. {0} is LD.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 40 / 49
 The singleton set containing 0 ∈ V i.e. {0} is LD.
For v 6= 0 of V, the set {v}

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 40 / 49
 The singleton set containing 0 ∈ V i.e. {0} is LD.
For v 6= 0 of V, the set {v} is LI.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 40 / 49
 The singleton set containing 0 ∈ V i.e. {0} is LD.
For v 6= 0 of V, the set {v} is LI.
Any set containing zero vector is

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 40 / 49
 The singleton set containing 0 ∈ V i.e. {0} is LD.
For v 6= 0 of V, the set {v} is LI.
Any set containing zero vector is linearly
dependent.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 40 / 49
 The singleton set containing 0 ∈ V i.e. {0} is LD.
For v 6= 0 of V, the set {v} is LI.
Any set containing zero vector is linearly
dependent.
Let S = {v1 , v2} be a set of nonzero vectors of
V. Then S is linearly dependent iff one of a
vector is scalar multiple of other.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 40 / 49
 The singleton set containing 0 ∈ V i.e. {0} is LD.
For v 6= 0 of V, the set {v} is LI.
Any set containing zero vector is linearly
dependent.
Let S = {v1 , v2} be a set of nonzero vectors of
V. Then S is linearly dependent iff one of a
vector is scalar multiple of other.
Let S be a finite set of nonzero vectors having at
least two elements. Then S is LD if and only if
some vector in S can be expressed as a linear
combination of the other vector in S.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 40 / 49
Exercise: For a given vector space V and a given
subset S of V, check the linear independence of S in
the following:
1
V = P2 , S = {1 + x + x2, 1 − x + 3x2, 1 + 3x − x2 }.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 41 / 49
Exercise: For a given vector space V and a given
subset S of V, check the linear independence of S in
the following:
1
V = P2 , S = {1 + x + x2, 1 − x + 3x2, 1 + 3x − x2 }.
2
V = P2 , S = {1 + x, x + x2, 1 + x2}.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 41 / 49
Exercise: For a given vector space V and a given
subset S of V, check the linear independence of S in
the following:
1
V = P2 , S = {1 + x + x2, 1 − x + 3x2, 1 + 3x − x2 }.
2
V = P2 , S = {1 + x, x + x2, 1 + x2}.
3
V = Pn , S = {1, x, x2, . . . , xn}.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 41 / 49
Exercise: For a given vector space V and a given
subset S of V, check the linear independence of S in
the following:
1
V = P2 , S = {1 + x + x2, 1 − x + 3x2, 1 + 3x − x2 }.
2
V = P2 , S = {1 + x, x + x2, 1 + x2}.
3
V = Pn , S = {1, x, x2, . . . , xn}.
4
V = Φ, S = {sin2 x, cos2 x, cos 2x}

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 41 / 49
Exercise: For a given vector space V and a given
subset S of V, check the linear independence of S in
the following:
1
V = P2 , S = {1 + x + x2, 1 − x + 3x2, 1 + 3x − x2 }.
2
V = P2 , S = {1 + x, x + x2, 1 + x2}.
3
V = Pn , S = {1, x, x2, . . . , xn}.
4
V = Φ, S = {sin2 x, cos2 x, cos 2x}
5
V = Φ, S = {sin x, cos x}

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 41 / 49
Exercise: For a given vector space V and a given
subset S of V, check the linear independence of S in
the following:
1
V = P2 , S = {1 + x + x2, 1 − x + 3x2, 1 + 3x − x2 }.
2
V = P2 , S = {1 + x, x + x2, 1 + x2}.
3
V = Pn , S = {1, x, x2, . . . , xn}.
4
V = Φ, S = {sin2 x, cos2 x, cos 2x}
5
V = Φ, S = {sin x, cos x}
       
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
6
V = M22, S = , , , .
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 41 / 49
Exercise: For a given vector space V and a given
subset S of V, check the linear independence of S in
the following:
1
V = P2 , S = {1 + x + x2, 1 − x + 3x2, 1 + 3x − x2 }.
2
V = P2 , S = {1 + x, x + x2, 1 + x2}.
3
V = Pn , S = {1, x, x2, . . . , xn}.
4
V = Φ, S = {sin2 x, cos2 x, cos 2x}
5
V = Φ, S = {sin x, cos x}
       
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
6
V = M22, S = , , , .
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
     
1 1 1 −1 2 0
7
V = M22, S = , , .
0 1 1 0 1 1
Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 41 / 49
Exercise: Show that

S = {[3, 1, −1], [−5, −2, 2], [2, 2, −1]}

is linearly independent subset of R3 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 42 / 49
Exercise: Show that

S = {[3, 1, −1], [−5, −2, 2], [2, 2, −1]}

is linearly independent subset of R3 .

Solution: Let a, b, c ∈ R such that

a[3, 1, −1] + b[−5, −2, 2] + c[2, 2, −1] = 0

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 42 / 49
Exercise: Show that

S = {[3, 1, −1], [−5, −2, 2], [2, 2, −1]}

is linearly independent subset of R3 .

Solution: Let a, b, c ∈ R such that

a[3, 1, −1] + b[−5, −2, 2] + c[2, 2, −1] = 0

[3a, a, −a] + [−5b, −2b, 2b] + [2c, 2c, −c] = [0, 0, 0]

[3a − 5b + 2c, a − 2b + 2c, −a + 2b − c] = [0, 0, 0]

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 42 / 49
To find a, b, c ∈ R, we need to solve the following
homogenous system:

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 43 / 49
To find a, b, c ∈ R, we need to solve the following
homogenous system:

3a − 5b + 2c = 0
a − 2b + 2c = 0
−a + 2b − c = 0

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 43 / 49
To find a, b, c ∈ R, we need to solve the following
homogenous system:

3a − 5b + 2c = 0
a − 2b + 2c = 0
−a + 2b − c = 0

To solve above homogenous system, write

augmented matrix
 
3 −5 2 0
[A|0] =  1 −2 2 0 
−1 2 −1 0

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 43 / 49
reduced row echelon form of [A|0] is
 
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0

Thus, we have a = 0, b = 0, c = 0.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 44 / 49
reduced row echelon form of [A|0] is
 
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0

Thus, we have a = 0, b = 0, c = 0. Hence, S is

linearly independent subset of R3 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 44 / 49
Independence Test Method: Let S be a finite set of
vectors in Rn . To check whether S is LI, perform the
following steps:

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 45 / 49
Independence Test Method: Let S be a finite set of
vectors in Rn . To check whether S is LI, perform the
following steps:
Step 1: Form a matrix A whose columns are the
vectors in S.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 45 / 49
Independence Test Method: Let S be a finite set of
vectors in Rn . To check whether S is LI, perform the
following steps:
Step 1: Form a matrix A whose columns are the
vectors in S.
Step 2: Find RREF(A).

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 45 / 49
Independence Test Method: Let S be a finite set of
vectors in Rn . To check whether S is LI, perform the
following steps:
Step 1: Form a matrix A whose columns are the
vectors in S.
Step 2: Find RREF(A).
Step 3: If there is a pivot in every column of A then
S is LI.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 45 / 49
Independence Test Method: Let S be a finite set of
vectors in Rn . To check whether S is LI, perform the
following steps:
Step 1: Form a matrix A whose columns are the
vectors in S.
Step 2: Find RREF(A).
Step 3: If there is a pivot in every column of A then
S is LI. Otherwise S is LD.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 45 / 49
Theorem: If S is any subset of Rn containing k
distinct vectors, where k > n, then S is linearly
dependent.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 46 / 49
Theorem: If S is any subset of Rn containing k
distinct vectors, where k > n, then S is linearly
dependent.

Exercise: Examine the linear independence of a

subset S = {[2, −5, 1], [1, 1, −1], [0, 2, −3], [2, 2, 6]} of
R3 .

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 46 / 49
Theorem: If S is any subset of Rn containing k
distinct vectors, where k > n, then S is linearly
dependent.

Exercise: Examine the linear independence of a

subset S = {[2, −5, 1], [1, 1, −1], [0, 2, −3], [2, 2, 6]} of
R3 .

Result: Let S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } be a linearly

independent subset of a vector space V. If v ∈ V
and v 6∈ span(S), then S1 = {v, v1 , v2, . . . , vn } is a
linearly independent set.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 46 / 49
Theorem: A nonempty finite subset S of a vector
space V is LI iff every vector v ∈ span(S) can be
expressed uniquely as a linear combination of the
elements of S.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 47 / 49
Definition: An infinite subset S of a vector space V
is linearly dependent if there is some finite subset T
of S such that T is linearly dependent.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 48 / 49
Definition: An infinite subset S of a vector space V
is linearly dependent if there is some finite subset T
of S such that T is linearly dependent.
Example: The subset

S = {A ∈ M22 | A is nonsingular}

of vector space M22 is linearly dependent.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 48 / 49
Definition: An infinite subset S of a vector space V
is linearly dependent if there is some finite subset T
of S such that T is linearly dependent.
Example: The subset

S = {A ∈ M22 | A is nonsingular}

of vector space M22 is linearly dependent.

Solution: Note that the finite subset T = {I2 , 2I2} of
S is linearly dependent

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 48 / 49
Definition: An infinite subset S of a vector space V
is linearly dependent if there is some finite subset T
of S such that T is linearly dependent.
Example: The subset

S = {A ∈ M22 | A is nonsingular}

of vector space M22 is linearly dependent.

Solution: Note that the finite subset T = {I2 , 2I2} of
S is linearly dependent as 2I2 is scalar multiple of I2.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 48 / 49
Definition: An infinite subset S of a vector space V
is linearly dependent if there is some finite subset T
of S such that T is linearly dependent.
Example: The subset

S = {A ∈ M22 | A is nonsingular}

of vector space M22 is linearly dependent.

Solution: Note that the finite subset T = {I2 , 2I2} of
S is linearly dependent as 2I2 is scalar multiple of I2.
Hence, S is linearly dependent.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 48 / 49
Definition: An infinite subset S of a vector space V
is linearly independent if every finite subset of S is
linearly independent.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 49 / 49
Definition: An infinite subset S of a vector space V
is linearly independent if every finite subset of S is
linearly independent.

Result: An infinite subset S of a vector space V is

linearly independent if and only if no vector in S is a
finite linear combination of other vector in S.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 49 / 49
Definition: An infinite subset S of a vector space V
is linearly independent if every finite subset of S is
linearly independent.

Result: An infinite subset S of a vector space V is

linearly independent if and only if no vector in S is a
finite linear combination of other vector in S.

Example: The subset S = {1, x, x2, x3, x4, . . .} of

vector space P is

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 49 / 49
Definition: An infinite subset S of a vector space V
is linearly independent if every finite subset of S is
linearly independent.

Result: An infinite subset S of a vector space V is

linearly independent if and only if no vector in S is a
finite linear combination of other vector in S.

Example: The subset S = {1, x, x2, x3, x4, . . .} of

vector space P is linearly independent.

Jitender Kumar (BITS PILANI) Mathematics-II (MATH F112) January 30, 2017 49 / 49