Python Tutorial

Python tutorial provides basic and advanced concepts of Python. Our Python tutorial is
designed for beginners and professionals.

Python is a simple, easy to learn, powerful, high level and object-oriented programming
language.

Python is an interpreted scripting language also. Guido Van Rossum is known as the
founder of python programming.

Our Python tutorial includes all topics of Python Programming such as installation, control
statements, Strings, Lists, Tuples, Dictionary, Modules, Exceptions, Date and Time, File
I/O, Programs, etc. There are also given Python interview questions to help you better
understand the Python Programming.

Python Introduction
Python is a general purpose, dynamic, high level and interpreted programming language.
It supports Object Oriented programming approach to develop applications. It is simple
and easy to learn and provides lots of high-level data structures.

Python is easy to learn yet powerful and versatile scripting language which makes it
attractive for Application Development.

Python's syntax and dynamic typing with its interpreted nature, makes it an ideal language
for scripting and rapid application development.

Python supports multiple programming pattern, including object oriented, imperative and
functional or procedural programming styles.

Python is not intended to work on special area such as web programming. That is why it
is known as multipurpose because it can be used with web, enterprise, 3D CAD etc.

We don't need to use data types to declare variable because it is dynamically typed so we
can write a=10 to assign an integer value in an integer variable.

Python makes the development and debugging fast because there is no compilation step
included in python development and edit-test-debug cycle is very fast.
 Python 2 vs. Python 3
In most of the programming languages, whenever a new version releases, it supports the
features and syntax of the existing version of the language, therefore, it is easier for the
projects built in the language to switch in the newer version. However, in the case of
python, the two versions python 2 and python are very much different from each other.

The two differences which can be pointed out here is

1. Python 2 uses print as a statement and used as print "something" to print some
string on the console. On the other hand, Python 3 uses print as a function and
used as print("something") to print something on the console.
2. Python 2 uses the function raw_input() to accept the user's input. It returns the
string representing the value which has typed by the user. To convert it into the
integer, we need to use the int() function in python. On the other hand, Python 3
uses input() function which automatically interpreted the type of input entered by
the user. However, we can cast this value to any type by using primitive functions
(int(), str(), etc.).
3. In python 2, the implicit string type is ASCII whereas, in python 3, the implicit
string type is Unicode.
4. Python 3 doesn't contain the xrange() function of python 2. The xrange() is the
variant of range() function which returns a xrange object that works similar to Java
iterator. The range() returns a list for example the function range(0,3) contains 0,
1, 2.
5. There is also a small change made in Exception handling in python 3. It defines a
keyword as which is necessary to be used. We will discuss it in Exception handling
section of this tutorial.
 Python Index

Python Tutorial Python Functions

o Python Introduction o Python Functions

o Python Features
Python Files I/O
o Python History
o Python Applications o Python Files I/O
o Python Install
Python Modules
o Python Path
o Python Example o Python Modules
o Execute Python
Python Exceptions
o Python Variables
o Python Keywords o Python Exceptions
o Python Literals
Python Date
o Python Operators
o Python Comments o Python Date

Control Statement Python OOPs

o Python If else o Python OOPs Concepts

o Python for loop o Python Object Class

o Python while loop o Python Constructors

o Python break o Python Inheritance

o Python continue
Python Programs
o Python pass
o Basic Python programs
Python Strings
o Python program to print "Hello

o Python Strings Python"

o Python program to do
Python Lists arithmetical operations
o Python program to find the area
o Python Lists
of a triangle
Python Tuples o Python program to solve
quadratic equation
o Python Tuples
o Python program to swap two
Python Dictionary variables
o Python program to generate a
o Python Dictionary random number
o Python program to convert o Program to Display Fibonacci
kilometers to miles Sequence Using Recursion
o Python program to convert o Python Program to Find Factorial
Celsius to Fahrenheit of Number Using Recursion
o Python program to display
Native Data Type Programs
calendar

Python programs with o Program to Add Two Matrices

conditions and loops o Program to Multiply Two Matrices
o Program to Transpose a Matrix
o Program to Check if a Number is
o Python Program to Sort Words in
Positive, Negative or Zero
Alphabetic Order
o Python Program to Check if a
o Python Program to Remove
Number is Odd or Even
Punctuation From a String
o Program to Check Leap Year
o Program to Check Prime Number Python Dictionary

o Python Program to Print all Prime

o Python Dictionary
Numbers in an Interval
o Dictionary clear() Method
o Python Program to Find the
Factorial of a Number o Dictionary copy() Method

o Python Program to Display the o Dictionary fromkeys() Method

multiplication Table o Dictionary get() Method
o Python Program to Print the o Dictionary len() Method
Fibonacci sequence o Dictionary items() Method
o Python Program to Check o Dictionary keys() Method
Armstrong Number
o Dictionary popitem() Method
o Python Program to Find Armstrong
o Dictionary pop() Method
Number in an Interval
o Dictionary setdefault() Method
o Python Program to Find the Sum
o Dictionary count() Method
of Natural Numbers
o Dictionary index() Method
Python Function Programs o Dictionary update() Method
o Dictionary values() Method
o Python Program to Find LCM
o Python Program to Find HCF Python Functions
o Program to Convert Decimal to
Binary, Octal and Hexadecimal o Python Functions

o Python Program To Find ASCII o chr() function

value of a character o complex() function
o Program to Make a Simple o delattr() function
Calculator o dir() function
o Program to Display Calendar o divmod() function
o enumerate() function o bin() Method
o dict() function o bool() Method
o filter() function o bytearray() Method
o hash() function o bytes() Method
o help() function o callable() Method
o min() function
Python Set Methods
o set() function
o hex() function o Python Set
o id() function o Set add() Method
o setattr() function o Set discard() Method
o slice() function o Set pop() Method
o sorted() function o Set remove() Method
o next() function
Python Strings
o input() function
o int() function o String capitalize() Method
o isinstance() function o String casefold() Method
o oct() function o String center() Method
o String count() Method
Python List
o String encode() Method
o Python List o String endswith() Method
o List append() Method o String expandtabs() Method
o List clear() Method o String find() Method
o List copy() Method o String format() Method
o List count() Method o String index() Method
o List extend() Method o String isalnum() Method
o List insert() Method o String isalpha() Method
o List index() Method o String isdecimal() Method
o List pop() Method o String isdigit() Method
o List remove() Method o String isidentifier() Method
o List reverse() Method o String islower() Method
o List sort() Method o String isnumeric() Method
o String isprintable() Method
Python Method
o String isspace() Method
o abs() Method o String istitle() Method
o all() Method o String isupper() Method
o any() Method o String join() Method
o ascii() Method o String ljust() Method
 o String lower() Method o String rstrip() Method
o String lstrip() Method o String splitlines() Method
o String partition() Method o String split() Method
o String replace() Method o String startswith() Method
o String rfind() Method o String swapcase() Method
o String rindex() Method o String translate() Method
o String rjust() Method o String upper() Method
o String rpartition() Method o String zfill() Method
o String rsplit() Method

Prerequisite
Before learning Python, you must have the basic knowledge of programming concepts.

Audience
Our Python tutorial is designed to help beginners and professionals.

Problem
We assure that you will not find any problem in this Python tutorial. But if there is any
mistake, please post the problem in contact form.
 Python Features
Python provides lots of features that are listed below.

1) Easy to Learn and Use

Python is easy to learn and use. It is developer-friendly and high level programming
language.

2) Expressive Language

Python language is more expressive means that it is more understandable and readable.

3) Interpreted Language

Python is an interpreted language i.e. interpreter executes the code line by line at a time.
This makes debugging easy and thus suitable for beginners.

4) Cross-platform Language

Python can run equally on different platforms such as Windows, Linux, Unix and Macintosh
etc. So, we can say that Python is a portable language.

5) Free and Open Source

Python language is freely available at address. The source-code is also available. Therefore
it is open source.

6) Object-Oriented Language

Python supports object oriented language and concepts of classes and objects come into
existence.

7) Extensible

It implies that other languages such as C/C++ can be used to compile the code and thus
it can be used further in our python code.

8) Large Standard Library

Python has a large and broad library and prvides rich set of module and functions for rapid
application development.
9) GUI Programming Support

Graphical user interfaces can be developed using Python.

10) Integrated

It can be easily integrated with languages like C, C++, JAVA etc.

Python History and Versions

o Python laid its foundation in the late 1980s.
o The implementation of Python was started in the December 1989 by Guido Van
Rossum at CWI in Netherland.
o In February 1991, van Rossum published the code (labelled version 0.9.0) to
alt.sources.
o In 1994, Python 1.0 was released with new features like: lambda, map, filter, and
reduce.
o Python 2.0 added new features like: list comprehensions, garbage collection
system.
o On December 3, 2008, Python 3.0 (also called "Py3K") was released. It was
designed to rectify fundamental flaw of the language.
o ABC programming language is said to be the predecessor of Python language which
was capable of Exception Handling and interfacing with Amoeba Operating System.
o Python is influenced by following programming languages:
o ABC language.
o Modula-3

Python Version List

Python programming language is being updated regularly with new features and supports.
There are lots of updations in python versions, started from 1994 to current release.
A list of python versions with its released date is given below.

Python Version Released Date

Python 1.0 January 1994

Python 1.5 December 31, 1997

Python 1.6 September 5, 2000

Python 2.0 October 16, 2000

Python 2.1 April 17, 2001

Python 2.2 December 21, 2001

Python 2.3 July 29, 2003

Python 2.4 November 30, 2004

Python 2.5 September 19, 2006

Python 2.6 October 1, 2008

Python 2.7 July 3, 2010

Python 3.0 December 3, 2008

Python 3.1 June 27, 2009

Python 3.2 February 20, 2011

Python 3.3 September 29, 2012

Python 3.4 March 16, 2014

Python 3.5 September 13, 2015

Python 3.6 December 23, 2016

Python 3.7 June 27, 2018

Python Applications
Python is known for its general purpose nature that makes it applicable in almost each
domain of software development. Python as a whole can be used in any sphere of
development.

Here, we are specifying applications areas where python can be applied.

1) Web Applications

We can use Python to develop web applications. It provides libraries to handle internet
protocols such as HTML and XML, JSON, Email processing, request, beautiful Soup, Feed
parser etc. It also provides Frameworks such as Django, Pyramid, Flask etc to design and
develop web based applications. Some important developments are: Python Wiki Engines,
Pocoo, Python Blog Software etc.

2) Desktop GUI Applications

Python provides Tk GUI library to develop user interface in python based application. Some
other useful toolkits wxWidgets, Kivy, pyqt that are useable on several platforms. The Kivy
is popular for writing multitouch applications.

3) Software Development

Python is helpful for software development process. It works as a support language and
can be used for build control and management, testing etc.

4) Scientific and Numeric

Python is popular and widely used in scientific and numeric computing. Some useful library
and package are SciPy, Pandas, IPython etc. SciPy is group of packages of engineering,
science and mathematics.

5) Business Applications

Python is used to build Bussiness applications like ERP and e-commerce systems. Tryton
is a high level application platform.

6) Console Based Application

We can use Python to develop console based applications. For example: IPython.

7) Audio or Video based Applications

Python is awesome to perform multiple tasks and can be used to develop multimedia
applications. Some of real applications are: TimPlayer, cplay etc.

8) 3D CAD Applications

To create CAD application Fandango is a real application which provides full features of
CAD.

9) Enterprise Applications

Python can be used to create applications which can be used within an Enterprise or an
Organization. Some real time applications are: OpenErp, Tryton, Picalo etc.
10) Applications for Images

Using Python several application can be developed for image. Applications developed are:
VPython, Gogh, imgSeek etc.

There are several such applications which can be developed using Python

How to Install Python (Environment Set-up)

In this section of the tutorial, we will discuss the installation of python on various
operating systems.
 Installation on Windows
Visit the link https://www.python.org/downloads/ to download the latest release of
Python. In this process, we will install Python 3.6.7 on our Windows operating system.

Double-click the executable file which is downloaded; the following window will open.
Select Customize installation and proceed.

The following window shows all the optional features. All the features need to be
installed and are checked by default; we need to click next to continue.
The following window shows a list of advanced options. Check all the options which you
want to install and click next. Here, we must notice that the first check-box (install for
all users) must be checked.

Now, we are ready to install python-3.6.7. Let's install it.

Now, try to run python on the command prompt. Type the command python in case
of python2 or python3 in case of python3. It will show an error as given in the below
image. It is because we haven't set the path.
To set the path of python, we need to the right click on "my computer" and go to
Properties → Advanced → Environment Variables.
Add the new path variable in the user variable section.

Type PATH as the variable name and set the path to the installation directory of the
python shown in the below image.
Now, the path is set, we are ready to run python on our local system. Restart CMD,
and type python again. It will open the python interpreter shell where we can execute
the python statements.
 Installation on Mac
To install python3 on MacOS, visit the link https://www.javatpoint.com/how-to-install-
python-on-mac and follow the instructions given in the tutorial.

Installation on CentOS
To install Python3 on CentOS, visit the link https://www.javatpoint.com/how-to-install-
python-on-centos and follow the instructions given in the tutorial.

Installation on Ubuntu
To install Python3 on Ubuntu, visit the link https://www.javatpoint.com/how-to-install-
python-in-ubuntu and follow the instructions given in the tutorial.

First Python Program

In this Section, we will discuss the basic syntax of python by using which, we will run a
simple program to print hello world on the console.

Python provides us the two ways to run a program:

o Using Interactive interpreter prompt

o Using a script file

Let's discuss each one of them in detail.

Interactive interpreter prompt

Python provides us the feature to execute the python statement one by one at the
interactive prompt. It is preferable in the case where we are concerned about the output
of each line of our python program.

To open the interactive mode, open the terminal (or command prompt) and type python
(python3 in case if you have python2 and python3 both installed on your system).

It will open the following prompt where we can execute the python statement and check
their impact on the console.
Let's run a python statement to print the traditional hello world on the console. Python3
provides print() function to print some message on the console. We can pass the message
as a string into this function. Consider the following image.

Here, we get the message "Hello World !" printed on the console.

Using a script file

Interpreter prompt is good to run the individual statements of the code. However, we
cannot write the code every-time on the terminal.

We need to write our code into a file which can be executed later. For this purpose, open
an editor like notepad, create a file named first.py (python used .py extension) and write
the following code in it.

Print ("hello world"); #here, we have used print() function to print the message on the c
onsole.

To run this file named as first.py, we need to run the following command on the
terminal.

$ python3 first.py
Hence, we get our output as the message Hello World ! is printed on the console.

Get Started with PyCharm

In our first program, we have used gedit on our CentOS as an editor. On Windows, we
have an alternative like notepad or notepad++ to edit the code. However, these editors
are not used as IDE for python since they are unable to show the syntax related
suggestions.

JetBrains provides the most popular and a widely used cross-platform IDE PyCharm to
run the python programs.

PyCharm installation
As we have already stated, PyCharm is a cross-platform IDE, and hence it can be installed
on a variety of the operating systems. In this section of the tutorial, we will cover the
installation process of PyCharm on Windows, MacOS, CentOS, and Ubuntu.

Windows
Installing PyCharm on Windows is very simple. To install PyCharm on Windows operating
system, visit the link https://www.jetbrains.com/pycharm/download/download-
thanks.html?platform=windows to download the executable installer. Double clickthe
installer (.exe) file and install PyCharm by clicking next at each step.

CentOS
To install PyCharm on CentOS, visit the link https://www.javatpoint.com/how-to-install-
pycharm-on-centos. The link will guide you to install PyCharm on the CentOS.
MacOS
To install PyCharm on MacOS, visit the link https://www.javatpoint.com/how-to-install-
pycharm-on-mac. The link will guide you to install PyCharm on the MacOS.

Ubuntu
To install PyCharm on Ubuntu, visit the link https://www.javatpoint.com/how-to-install-
pycharm-in-ubuntu. The link will guide you to install PyCharm on Ubuntu.

In the upcoming section of the tutorial, we will use PyCharm to edit the python code.
 Python Variables
Variable is a name which is used to refer memory location. Variable also known as identifier
and used to hold value.

In Python, we don't need to specify the type of variable because Python is a type infer
language and smart enough to get variable type.

Variable names can be a group of both letters and digits, but they have to begin with a
letter or an underscore.

It is recommended to use lowercase letters for variable name. Rahul and rahul both are
two different variables.

Identifier Naming
Variables are the example of identifiers. An Identifier is used to identify the literals used
in the program. The rules to name an identifier are given below.

o The first character of the variable must be an alphabet or underscore ( _ ).

o All the characters except the first character may be an alphabet of lower-case(a-
z), upper-case (A-Z), underscore or digit (0-9).
o Identifier name must not contain any white-space, or special character (!, @, #,
%, ^, &, *).
o Identifier name must not be similar to any keyword defined in the language.
o Identifier names are case sensitive for example my name, and MyName is not the
same.
o Examples of valid identifiers : a123, _n, n_9, etc.
o Examples of invalid identifiers: 1a, n%4, n 9, etc.
 Declaring Variable and Assigning Values
Python does not bound us to declare variable before using in the application. It allows us
to create variable at required time.

We don't need to declare explicitly variable in Python. When we assign any value to the
variable that variable is declared automatically.

The equal (=) operator is used to assign value to a variable.

Eg:

Output:

1. >>>
2. 10
3. ravi
4. 20000.67
5. >>>

Multiple Assignment
Python allows us to assign a value to multiple variables in a single statement which is also
known as multiple assignment.

We can apply multiple assignments in two ways either by assigning a single value to
multiple variables or assigning multiple values to multiple variables. Lets see given
examples.

1. Assigning single value to multiple variables

Eg:
1. x=y=z=50
2. print iple
3. print y
4. print z

Output:

1. >>>
2. 50
3. 50
4. 50
5. >>>

2.Assigning multiple values to multiple variables:

Eg:

1. a,b,c=5,10,15
2. print a
3. print b
4. print c

Output:

1. >>>
2. 5
3. 10
4. 15
5. >>>

The values will be assigned in the order in which variables appears.

 Basic Fundamentals:
This section contains the basic fundamentals of Python like :

i)Tokens and their types.

ii) Comments

a)Tokens:

o Tokens can be defined as a punctuator mark, reserved words and each individual
word in a statement.
o Token is the smallest unit inside the given program.

There are following tokens in Python:

o Keywords.
o Identifiers.
o Literals.
o Operators.

Tuples:
o Tuple is another form of collection where different type of data can be stored.
o It is similar to list where data is separated by commas. Only the difference is that
list uses square bracket and tuple uses parenthesis.
o Tuples are enclosed in parenthesis and cannot be changed.

Eg:

1. >>> tuple=('rahul',100,60.4,'deepak')
2. >>> tuple1=('sanjay',10)
3. >>> tuple
4. ('rahul', 100, 60.4, 'deepak')
5. >>> tuple[2:]
6. (60.4, 'deepak')
7. >>> tuple1[0]
8. 'sanjay'
9. >>> tuple+tuple1
10. ('rahul', 100, 60.4, 'deepak', 'sanjay', 10)
11. >>>
 Dictionary:
o Dictionary is a collection which works on a key-value pair.
o It works like an associated array where no two keys can be same.
o Dictionaries are enclosed by curly braces ({}) and values can be retrieved by
square bracket([]).

Eg:

1. >>> dictionary={'name':'charlie','id':100,'dept':'it'}
2. >>> dictionary
3. {'dept': 'it', 'name': 'charlie', 'id': 100}
4. >>> dictionary.keys()
5. ['dept', 'name', 'id']
6. >>> dictionary.values()
7. ['it', 'charlie', 100]
8. >>>

Python Data Types

 Variables can hold values of different data types. Python is a dynamically typed language
hence we need not define the type of the variable while declaring it. The interpreter
implicitly binds the value with its type.

Python enables us to check the type of the variable used in the program. Python provides
us the type() function which returns the type of the variable passed.

Consider the following example to define the values of different data types and checking
its type.

1. A=10
2. b="Hi Python"
3. c = 10.5
4. print(type(a));
5. print(type(b));
6. print(type(c));

Output:

<type 'int'>
<type 'str'>
<type 'float'>

Standard data types

A variable can hold different types of values. For example, a person's name must be stored
as a string whereas its id must be stored as an integer.

Python provides various standard data types that define the storage method on each of
them. The data types defined in Python are given below.

1. Numbers
2. String
3. List
4. Tuple
5. Dictionary

In this section of the tutorial, we will give a brief introduction of the above data types. We
will discuss each one of them in detail later in this tutorial.

Numbers
Number stores numeric values. Python creates Number objects when a number is assigned
to a variable. For example;

1. a = 3 , b = 5 #a and b are number objects

 Python supports 4 types of numeric data.

1. int (signed integers like 10, 2, 29, etc.)

2. long (long integers used for a higher range of values like 908090800L, -
0x1929292L, etc.)
3. float (float is used to store floating point numbers like 1.9, 9.902, 15.2, etc.)
4. complex (complex numbers like 2.14j, 2.0 + 2.3j, etc.)

Python allows us to use a lower-case L to be used with long integers. However, we must
always use an upper-case L to avoid confusion.

A complex number contains an ordered pair, i.e., x + iy where x and y denote the real and
imaginary parts respectively).

String
The string can be defined as the sequence of characters represented in the quotation
marks. In python, we can use single, double, or triple quotes to define a string.

String handling in python is a straightforward task since there are various inbuilt functions
and operators provided.

In the case of string handling, the operator + is used to concatenate two strings as the
operation "hello"+" python" returns "hello python".

The operator * is known as repetition operator as the operation "Python " *2 returns
"Python Python ".

The following example illustrates the string handling in python.

1. str1 = 'hello javatpoint'#string str1

2. str2 = ' how are you' #string str2
3. print (str1[0:2]) #printing first two character using slice operator
4. print (str1[4]) #printing 4th character of the string
5. print (str1*2) #printing the string twice
6. print (str1 + str2) #printing the concatenation of str1 and str2

Output:

he
o
hello javatpointhello javatpoint
hello javatpoint how are you
 List
Lists are similar to arrays in C. However; the list can contain data of different types. The
items stored in the list are separated with a comma (,) and enclosed within square brackets
[].

We can use slice [:] operators to access the data of the list. The concatenation operator
(+) and repetition operator (*) works with the list in the same way as they were working
with the strings.

Consider the following example.

1. l = [1, "hi", "python", 2]

2. print (l[3:]);
3. print (l[0:2]);
4. print (l);
5. print (l + l);
6. print (l * 3);

Output:

[2]
[1, 'hi']
[1, 'hi', 'python', 2]
[1, 'hi', 'python', 2, 1, 'hi', 'python', 2]
[1, 'hi', 'python', 2, 1, 'hi', 'python', 2, 1, 'hi', 'python', 2]

Tuple
A tuple is similar to the list in many ways. Like lists, tuples also contain the collection of
the items of different data types. The items of the tuple are separated with a comma (,)
and enclosed in parentheses ().

A tuple is a read-only data structure as we can't modify the size and value of the items of
a tuple.

Let's see a simple example of the tuple.

1. t = ("hi", "python", 2)
2. print (t[1:]);
3. print (t[0:1]);
4. print (t);
5. print (t + t);
6. print (t * 3);
7. print (type(t))
8. t[2] = "hi";

Output:

('python', 2)
('hi',)
 ('hi', 'python', 2)
('hi', 'python', 2, 'hi', 'python', 2)
('hi', 'python', 2, 'hi', 'python', 2, 'hi', 'python', 2)
<type 'tuple'>
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "main.py", line 8, in <module>
t[2] = "hi";
TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

Dictionary
Dictionary is an ordered set of a key-value pair of items. It is like an associative array or
a hash table where each key stores a specific value. Key can hold any primitive data type
whereas value is an arbitrary Python object.

The items in the dictionary are separated with the comma and enclosed in the curly braces
{}.

Consider the following example.

1. d = {1:'Jimmy', 2:'Alex', 3:'john', 4:'mike'};

2. print("1st name is "+d[1]);
3. print("2nd name is "+ d[4]);
4. print (d);
5. print (d.keys());
6. print (d.values());

Output:

1st name is Jimmy

2nd name is mike
{1: 'Jimmy', 2: 'Alex', 3: 'john', 4: 'mike'}
[1, 2, 3, 4]
['Jimmy', 'Alex', 'john', 'mike']

Python Keywords
Python Keywords are special reserved words which convey a special meaning to the
compiler/interpreter. Each keyword have a special meaning and a specific operation. These
keywords can't be used as variable. Following is the List of Python Keywords.
 True False None and as

asset def class continue break

else finally elif del except

global for if from import

raise try or return pass

nonlocal in not is lambda

Python Literals
Literals can be defined as a data that is given in a variable or constant.

Python support the following literals:

I. String literals:

String literals can be formed by enclosing a text in the quotes. We can use both single as
well as double quotes for a String.

Eg:

"Aman" , '12345'

Types of Strings:

There are two types of Strings supported in Python:

a).Single line String- Strings that are terminated within a single line are known as Single
line Strings.

Eg:

1. >>> text1='hello'

b).Multi line String- A piece of text that is spread along multiple lines is known as Multiple
line String.

There are two ways to create Multiline Strings:

1). Adding black slash at the end of each line.

Eg:

1. >>> text1='hello\
2. user'
3. >>> text1
4. 'hellouser'
5. >>>

2).Using triple quotation marks:-

Eg:

1. >>> str2='''''welcome
2. to
3. SSSIT'''
4. >>> print str2
5. welcome
6. to
7. SSSIT
8. >>>

II.Numeric literals:

Numeric Literals are immutable. Numeric literals can belong to following four different
numerical types.

Int(signed Long(long float(floating Complex(complex)

integers) integers) point)

Numbers( can Integers of Real numbers In the form of a+bj

be both unlimited size with both where a forms the real
positive and followed by integer and part and b forms the
negative) with lowercase or fractional part imaginary part of
no fractional uppercase L eg: eg: -26.2 complex number. eg:
part.eg: 100 87032845L 3.14j

III. Boolean literals:

A Boolean literal can have any of the two values: True or False.

IV. Special literals.

Python contains one special literal i.e., None.

None is used to specify to that field that is not created. It is also used for end of lists in
Python.

Eg:
1. >>> val1=10
2. >>> val2=None
3. >>> val1
4. 10
5. >>> val2
6. >>> print val2
7. None
8. >>>

V.Literal Collections.

Collections such as tuples, lists and Dictionary are used in Python.

List:

o List contain items of different data types. Lists are mutable i.e., modifiable.
o The values stored in List are separated by commas(,) and enclosed within a square
brackets([]). We can store different type of data in a List.
o Value stored in a List can be retrieved using the slice operator([] and [:]).
o The plus sign (+) is the list concatenation and asterisk(*) is the repetition operator.

Eg:

1. >>> list=['aman',678,20.4,'saurav']
2. >>> list1=[456,'rahul']
3. >>> list
4. ['aman', 678, 20.4, 'saurav']
5. >>> list[1:3]
6. [678, 20.4]
7. >>> list+list1
8. ['aman', 678, 20.4, 'saurav', 456, 'rahul']
9. >>> list1*2
10. [456, 'rahul', 456, 'rahul']
11. >>>

Python Operators
The operator can be defined as a symbol which is responsible for a particular operation
between two operands. Operators are the pillars of a program on which the logic is built
in a particular programming language. Python provides a variety of operators described
as follows.

o Arithmetic operators o Bitwise Operators

o Comparison operators o Membership Operators
o Assignment Operators o Identity Operators
o Logical Operators

Arithmetic operators
Arithmetic operators are used to perform arithmetic operations between two operands. It
includes +(addition), - (subtraction), *(multiplication), /(divide), %(reminder), //(floor
division), and exponent (**).

Consider the following table for a detailed explanation of arithmetic operators.

Operator Description

+ (Addition) It is used to add two operands. For example, if a = 20, b = 10 => a+b = 30

- (Subtraction) It is used to subtract the second operand from the first operand. If the first operand
is less than the second operand, the value result negative. For example, if a = 20, b
= 10 => a ? b = 10

/ (divide) It returns the quotient after dividing the first operand by the second operand. For
example, if a = 20, b = 10 => a/b = 2

* It is used to multiply one operand with the other. For example, if a = 20, b = 10 =>
(Multiplication) a * b = 200

% (reminder) It returns the reminder after dividing the first operand by the second operand. For
example, if a = 20,b = 10 => a%b = 0

** (Exponent) It is an exponent operator represented as it calculates the first operand power to

second operand.

// (Floor division) It gives the floor value of the quotient produced by dividing the two operands.

Comparison operator
Comparison operators are used to comparing the value of the two operands and returns
boolean true or false accordingly. The comparison operators are described in the following
table.

Operator Description

== If the value of two operands is equal, then the condition becomes true.

!= If the value of two operands is not equal then the condition becomes true.

<= If the first operand is less than or equal to the second operand, then the
condition becomes true.

>= If the first operand is greater than or equal to the second operand, then
the condition becomes true.

<> If the value of two operands is not equal, then the condition becomes true.

> If the first operand is greater than the second operand, then the condition
becomes true.

< If the first operand is less than the second operand, then the condition
becomes true.

Python assignment operators

The assignment operators are used to assign the value of the right expression to the left
operand. The assignment operators are described in the following table.

Operator Description

= It assigns the the value of the right expression to the left operand.

+= It increases the value of the left operand by the value of the right operand and
assign the modified value back to left operand. For example, if a = 10, b = 20
=> a+ = b will be equal to a = a+ b and therefore, a = 30.

-= It decreases the value of the left operand by the value of the right operand
and assign the modified value back to left operand. For example, if a = 20, b
= 10 => a- = b will be equal to a = a- b and therefore, a = 10.

*= It multiplies the value of the left operand by the value of the right operand
and assign the modified value back to left operand. For example, if a = 10, b
= 20 => a* = b will be equal to a = a* b and therefore, a = 200.

%= It divides the value of the left operand by the value of the right operand and
assign the reminder back to left operand. For example, if a = 20, b = 10 =>
a % = b will be equal to a = a % b and therefore, a = 0.

**= a**=b will be equal to a=a**b, for example, if a = 4, b =2, a**=b will assign
4**2 = 16 to a.

//= A//=b will be equal to a = a// b, for example, if a = 4, b = 3, a//=b will assign
4//3 = 1 to a.

Bitwise operator
 The bitwise operators perform bit by bit operation on the values of the two operands.

For example,

1. if a = 7;
2. b = 6;
3. then, binary (a) = 0111
4. binary (b) = 0011
5.
6. hence, a & b = 0011
7. a | b = 0111
8. a ^ b = 0100
9. ~ a = 1000

Operator Description

& (binary If both the bits at the same place in two operands are 1, then 1 is
and) copied to the result. Otherwise, 0 is copied.

| (binary or) The resulting bit will be 0 if both the bits are zero otherwise the
resulting bit will be 1.

^ (binary The resulting bit will be 1 if both the bits are different otherwise the
xor) resulting bit will be 0.

~ (negation) It calculates the negation of each bit of the operand, i.e., if the bit is
0, the resulting bit will be 1 and vice versa.

<< (left The left operand value is moved left by the number of bits present
shift) in the right operand.

>> (right The left operand is moved right by the number of bits present in the
shift) right operand.

Logical Operators
The logical operators are used primarily in the expression evaluation to make a decision.
Python supports the following logical operators.

Operator Description

and If both the expression are true, then the condition will be true. If a and b
are the two expressions, a → true, b → true => a and b → true.

or If one of the expressions is true, then the condition will be true. If a and b
are the two expressions, a → true, b → false => a or b → true.

not If an expression a is true then not (a) will be false and vice versa.

Membership Operators
Python membership operators are used to check the membership of value inside a data
structure. If the value is present in the data structure, then the resulting value is true
otherwise it returns false.

Operator Description

in It is evaluated to be true if the first operand is found in the second operand

(list, tuple, or dictionary).

not in It is evaluated to be true if the first operand is not found in the second
operand (list, tuple, or dictionary).

Identity Operators

Operator Description

is It is evaluated to be true if the reference present at both sides point to the

same object.

is not It is evaluated to be true if the reference present at both side do not point
to the same object.

Operator Precedence
The precedence of the operators is important to find out since it enables us to know which
operator should be evaluated first. The precedence table of the operators in python is
given below.

Operator Description

** The exponent operator is given priority over all the others used
in the expression.

~+- The negation, unary plus and minus.

* / % // The multiplication, divide, modules, reminder, and floor division.

+- Binary plus and minus

>> << Left shift and right shift

& Binary and.

^| Binary xor and or

<= < > >= Comparison operators (less then, less then equal to, greater
then, greater then equal to).

<> == != Equality operators.

= %= /= //= -= Assignment operators

+=
*= **=

is is not Identity operators

in not in Membership operators

not or and Logical operators

Python Comments
 Comments in Python can be used to explain any program code. It can also be used to
hide the code as well.

Comments are the most helpful stuff of any program. It enables us to understand the
way, a program works. In python, any statement written along with # symbol is known
as a comment. The interpreter does not interpret the comment.

Comment is not a part of the program, but it enhances the interactivity of the program
and makes the program readable.

Python supports two types of comments:

1) Single Line Comment:

In case user wants to specify a single line comment, then comment must start with ?#?

Eg:

1. # This is single line comment.

2. print "Hello Python"

Output:

Hello Python

2) Multi Line Comment:

Multi lined comment can be given inside triple quotes.

eg:

1. ''''' This
2. Is
3. Multipline comment'''

eg:

1. #single line comment

2. print "Hello Python"
3. '''''This is
4. multiline comment'''

Output:

Hello Python

Python If-else statements

Decision making is the most important aspect of almost all the programming languages.
As the name implies, decision making allows us to run a particular block of code for a
particular decision. Here, the decisions are made on the validity of the particular
conditions. Condition checking is the backbone of decision making.

In python, decision making is performed by the following statements.

Statement Description

If Statement The if statement is used to test a specific condition. If the condition

is true, a block of code (if-block) will be executed.

If - else The if-else statement is similar to if statement except the fact that,
Statement it also provides the block of the code for the false case of the
condition to be checked. If the condition provided in the if
statement is false, then the else statement will be executed.

Nested if Nested if statements enable us to use if ? else statement inside an

Statement outer if statement.

Indentation in Python
For the ease of programming and to achieve simplicity, python doesn't allow the use of
parentheses for the block level code. In Python, indentation is used to declare a block. If
two statements are at the same indentation level, then they are the part of the same
block.

Generally, four spaces are given to indent the statements which are a typical amount of
indentation in python.

Indentation is the most used part of the python language since it declares the block of
code. All the statements of one block are intended at the same level indentation. We will
see how the actual indentation takes place in decision making and other stuff in python.

The if statement
 The if statement is used to test a particular condition and if the condition is true, it executes
a block of code known as if-block. The condition of if statement can be any valid logical
expression which can be either evaluated to true or false.

The syntax of the if-statement is given below.

1. if expression:
2. statement
Example 1
1. num = int(input("enter the number?"))
2. if num%2 == 0:
3. print("Number is even")

Output:

enter the number?10

Number is even

Example 2 : Program to print the largest of the three

numbers.
1. a = int(input("Enter a? "));
2. b = int(input("Enter b? "));
3. c = int(input("Enter c? "));
4. if a>b and a>c:
5. print("a is largest");
6. if b>a and b>c:
7. print("b is largest");
8. if c>a and c>b:
9. print("c is largest");

Output:

Enter a? 100
Enter b? 120
Enter c? 130
c is largest

The if-else statement

The if-else statement provides an else block combined with the if statement which is
executed in the false case of the condition.

If the condition is true, then the if-block is executed. Otherwise, the else-block is executed.

The syntax of the if-else statement is given below.

1. if condition:
2. #block of statements
3. else:
4. #another block of statements (else-block)
 Example 1 : Program to check whether a person is eligible
to vote or not.
1. age = int (input("Enter your age? "))
2. if age>=18:
3. print("You are eligible to vote !!");
4. else:
5. print("Sorry! you have to wait !!");

Output:

Enter your age? 90

You are eligible to vote !!
Example 2: Program to check whether a number is even or
not.
1. num = int(input("enter the number?"))
2. if num%2 == 0:
3. print("Number is even...")
4. else:
5. print("Number is odd...")

Output:

enter the number?10

Number is even

The elif statement

The elif statement enables us to check multiple conditions and execute the specific block
of statements depending upon the true condition among them. We can have any number
of elif statements in our program depending upon our need. However, using elif is optional.
 The elif statement works like an if-else-if ladder statement in C. It must be succeeded by
an if statement.

The syntax of the elif statement is given below.

1. if expression 1:
2. # block of statements
3.
4. elif expression 2:
5. # block of statements
6.
7. elif expression 3:
8. # block of statements
9.
10. else:
11. # block of statements

Example 1
1. number = int(input("Enter the number?"))
2. if number==10:
3. print("number is equals to 10")
4. elif number==50:
5. print("number is equal to 50");
6. elif number==100:
7. print("number is equal to 100");
8. else:
9. print("number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100");

Output:

Enter the number?15

number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100
Example 2
1. marks = int(input("Enter the marks? "))
2. f marks > 85 and marks <= 100:
3. print("Congrats ! you scored grade A ...")
4. lif marks > 60 and marks <= 85:
5. print("You scored grade B + ...")
6. lif marks > 40 and marks <= 60:
7. print("You scored grade B ...")
8. lif (marks > 30 and marks <= 40):
9. print("You scored grade C ...")
10. lse:
11. print("Sorry you are fail ?")

Python Loops
The flow of the programs written in any programming language is sequential by default.
Sometimes we may need to alter the flow of the program. The execution of a specific code
may need to be repeated several numbers of times.
For this purpose, The programming languages provide various types of loops which are
capable of repeating some specific code several numbers of times. Consider the following
diagram to understand the working of a loop statement.

Why we use loops in python?

The looping simplifies the complex problems into the easy ones. It enables us to alter the
flow of the program so that instead of writing the same code again and again, we can
repeat the same code for a finite number of times. For example, if we need to print the
first 10 natural numbers then, instead of using the print statement 10 times, we can print
inside a loop which runs up to 10 iterations.

Advantages of loops
There are the following advantages of loops in Python.

1. It provides code re-usability.

2. Using loops, we do not need to write the same code again and again.
3. Using loops, we can traverse over the elements of data structures (array or linked
lists).

There are the following loop statements in Python.

Loop Description
Statement
 for loop The for loop is used in the case where we need to execute some part
of the code until the given condition is satisfied. The for loop is also
called as a per-tested loop. It is better to use for loop if the number
of iteration is known in advance.

while loop The while loop is to be used in the scenario where we don't know the
number of iterations in advance. The block of statements is executed
in the while loop until the condition specified in the while loop is
satisfied. It is also called a pre-tested loop.

do-while The do-while loop continues until a given condition satisfies. It is also
loop called post tested loop. It is used when it is necessary to execute the
loop at least once (mostly menu driven programs).

Python for loop

The for loop in Python is used to iterate the statements or a part of the program several
times. It is frequently used to traverse the data structures like list, tuple, or dictionary.

The syntax of for loop in python is given below.

1. for iterating_var in sequence:

2. statement(s)

Example
1. i=1
2. n=int(input("Enter the number up to which you want to print the natural numbers?"))
3. for i in range(0,10):
4. print(i,end = ' ')

Output:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Python for loop example : printing the table of the given number
1. i=1;
2. num = int(input("Enter a number:"));
3. for i in range(1,11):
4. print("%d X %d = %d"%(num,i,num*i));

Output:

Enter a number:10
10 X 1 = 10
10 X 2 = 20
10 X 3 = 30
10 X 4 = 40
10 X 5 = 50
10 X 6 = 60
10 X 7 = 70
10 X 8 = 80
10 X 9 = 90
10 X 10 = 100

Nested for loop in python

Python allows us to nest any number of for loops inside a for loop. The inner loop is
executed n number of times for every iteration of the outer loop. The syntax of the nested
for loop in python is given below.

1. for iterating_var1 in sequence:

2. for iterating_var2 in sequence:
3. #block of statements
4. #Other statements

Example 1
1. n = int(input("Enter the number of rows you want to print?"))
2. i,j=0,0
3. for i in range(0,n):
4. print()
5. for j in range(0,i+1):
6. print("*",end="")

Output:

Enter the number of rows you want to print?5

*
**
***
****
*****

Using else statement with for loop

Unlike other languages like C, C++, or Java, python allows us to use the else statement
with the for loop which can be executed only when all the iterations are exhausted. Here,
we must notice that if the loop contains any of the break statement then the else statement
will not be executed.

Example 1
1. for i in range(0,5):
2. print(i)
3. else:print("for loop completely exhausted, since there is no break.");

In the above example, for loop is executed completely since there is no break statement
in the loop. The control comes out of the loop and hence the else block is executed.

Output:

0
1
2
3
4

for loop completely exhausted, since there is no break.

Example 2
1. for i in range(0,5):
2. print(i)
3. break;
4. else:print("for loop is exhausted");
5. print("The loop is broken due to break statement...came out of loop")

In the above example, the loop is broken due to break statement therefore the else
statement will not be executed. The statement present immediate next to else block will
be executed.

Output:

The loop is broken due to break statement...came out of loop

Python while loop

The while loop is also known as a pre-tested loop. In general, a while loop allows a part
of the code to be executed as long as the given condition is true.

It can be viewed as a repeating if statement. The while loop is mostly used in the case
where the number of iterations is not known in advance.
 The syntax is given below.

1. while expression:
2. statements

Here, the statements can be a single statement or the group of statements. The expression
should be any valid python expression resulting into true or false. The true is any non-
zero value.

Example 1
1. i=1;
2. while i<=10:
3. print(i);
4. i=i+1;
 Output:

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Example 2
1. i=1
2. number=0
3. b=9
4. number = int(input("Enter the number?"))
5. while i<=10:
6. print("%d X %d = %d \n"%(number,i,number*i));
7. i = i+1;

Output:

Enter the number?10

10 X 1 = 10

10 X 2 = 20

10 X 3 = 30

10 X 4 = 40

10 X 5 = 50

10 X 6 = 60

10 X 7 = 70

10 X 8 = 80

10 X 9 = 90

10 X 10 = 100

Infinite while loop

If the condition given in the while loop never becomes false then the while loop will never
terminate and result into the infinite while loop.
 Any non-zero value in the while loop indicates an always-true condition whereas 0
indicates the always-false condition. This type of approach is useful if we want our program
to run continuously in the loop without any disturbance.

Example 1
1. while (1):
2. print("Hi! we are inside the infinite while loop");

Output:

Hi! we are inside the infinite while loop

(infinite times)

Example 2
1. var = 1
2. while var != 2:
3. i = int(input("Enter the number?"))
4. print ("Entered value is %d"%(i))

Output:

Enter the number?102

Entered value is 102
Enter the number?102
Entered value is 102
Enter the number?103
Entered value is 103
Enter the number?103
(infinite loop)

Using else with Python while loop

Python enables us to use the while loop with the while loop also. The else block is executed
when the condition given in the while statement becomes false. Like for loop, if the while
 loop is broken using break statement, then the else block will not be executed and the
statement present after else block will be executed.

Consider the following example.

1. i=1;
2. while i<=5:
3. print(i)
4. i=i+1;
5. else:print("The while loop exhausted");

Output:

1
2
3
4
5
The while loop exhausted

Example 2
1. i=1;
2. while i<=5:
3. print(i)
4. i=i+1;
5. if(i==3):
6. break;
7. else:print("The while loop exhausted");

Output:

1
2

Python break statement

The break is a keyword in python which is used to bring the program control out of the
loop. The break statement breaks the loops one by one, i.e., in the case of nested loops,
 it breaks the inner loop first and then proceeds to outer loops. In other words, we can say
that break is used to abort the current execution of the program and the control goes to
the next line after the loop.

The break is commonly used in the cases where we need to break the loop for a given
condition.

The syntax of the break is given below.

1. #loop statements
2. break;
Example 1
Example 2
1. list =[1,2,3,4]
2. count = 1; 1. str = "python"
3. for i in list: 2. for i in str:
4. if i == 4: 3. if i == 'o':
5. print("item matched") 4. break
6. count = count + 1; 5. print(i);
7. break
Output:
8. print("found at",count,"location");
p
Output: y
t
item matched h
found at 2 location

Example 3: break statement with while loop

1. i = 0;
2. while 1:
3. print(i," ",end=""),
4. i=i+1;
5. if i == 10:
6. break;
7. print("came out of while loop");

Output:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 came out of while loop

Example 3
1. n=2
2. while 1:
3. i=1;
4. while i<=10:
5. print("%d X %d = %d\n"%(n,i,n*i));
6. i = i+1;
7. choice = int(input("Do you want to continue printing the table, press 0 for no?"))
8. if choice == 0:
9. break;
10. n=n+1

Output:

2 X 1 = 2

2 X 2 = 4

2 X 3 = 6

2 X 4 = 8

2 X 5 = 10

2 X 6 = 12

2 X 7 = 14

2 X 8 = 16

2 X 9 = 18

2 X 10 = 20

Do you want to continue printing the table, press 0 for no?1

3 X 1 = 3

3 X 2 = 6

3 X 3 = 9

3 X 4 = 12

3 X 5 = 15

3 X 6 = 18

3 X 7 = 21

3 X 8 = 24

3 X 9 = 27

3 X 10 = 30

Do you want to continue printing the table, press 0 for no?0

Python continue Statement

 The continue statement in python is used to bring the program control to the beginning of
the loop. The continue statement skips the remaining lines of code inside the loop and
start with the next iteration. It is mainly used for a particular condition inside the loop so
that we can skip some specific code for a particular condition.

The syntax of Python continue statement is given below.

1. #loop statements
2. continue;
3. #the code to be skipped

Example 1
1. i = 0;
2. while i!=10:
3. print("%d"%i);
4. continue;
5. i=i+1;

Output:

infinite loop

Example 2
1. i=1; #initializing a local variable
2. #starting a loop from 1 to 10
3. for i in range(1,11):
4. if i==5:
5. continue;
6. print("%d"%i);

Output:

1
2
3
4
6
7
8
9
10

Pass Statement
 The pass statement is a null operation since nothing happens when it is executed. It is
used in the cases where a statement is syntactically needed but we don't want to use any
executable statement at its place.

For example, it can be used while overriding a parent class method in the subclass but
don't want to give its specific implementation in the subclass.

Pass is also used where the code will be written somewhere but not yet written in the
program file.

The syntax of the pass statement is given below.

Example
1. list = [1,2,3,4,5]
2. flag = 0
3. for i in list:
4. print("Current element:",i,end=" ");
5. if i==3:
6. pass;
7. print("\nWe are inside pass block\n");
8. flag = 1;
9. if flag==1:
10. print("\nCame out of pass\n");
11. flag=0;

Output:

Current element: 1 Current element: 2 Current element: 3

We are inside pass block

Came out of pass

Current element: 4 Current element: 5

Python String
 Till now, we have discussed numbers as the standard data types in python. In this section of
the tutorial, we will discuss the most popular data type in python i.e., string.

In python, strings can be created by enclosing the character or the sequence of characters in the
quotes. Python allows us to use single quotes, double quotes, or triple quotes to create the
string.

Consider the following example in python to create a string.

1. str = "Hi Python !"

Here, if we check the type of the variable str using a python script

1. print(type(str)), then it will print string (str).

In python, strings are treated as the sequence of strings which means that python doesn't support
the character data type instead a single character written as 'p' is treated as the string of length
1.

Strings indexing and splitting

Like other languages, the indexing of the python strings starts from 0. For example, The string
"HELLO" is indexed as given in the below figure.

As shown in python, the slice operator [] is used to access the individual characters of the
string. However, we can use the : (colon) operator in python to access the substring. Consider
the following example.
 Here, we must notice that the upper range given in the slice operator is always exclusive i.e.,
if str = 'python' is given, then str[1:3] will always include str[1] = 'p', str[2] = 'y', str[3] = 't' and
nothing else.

Reassigning strings
Updating the content of the strings is as easy as assigning it to a new string. The string object
doesn't support item assignment i.e., A string can only be replaced with a new string since its
content cannot be partially replaced. Strings are immutable in python.

Consider the following example.

Example 1
1. str = "HELLO"
2. str[0] = "h"
3. print(str)

Output:

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "12.py", line 2, in <module>
str[0] = "h";
TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment

However, in example 1, the string str can be completely assigned to a new content as specified
in the following example.

Example 2
1. str = "HELLO"
2. print(str)
3. str = "hello"
4. print(str)

Output:

HELLO
hello

String Operators

Operator Description

+ It is known as concatenation operator used to join the strings given either side
of the operator.

* It is known as repetition operator. It concatenates the multiple copies of the

same string.

[] It is known as slice operator. It is used to access the sub-strings of a particular

string.

[:] It is known as range slice operator. It is used to access the characters from
the specified range.

in It is known as membership operator. It returns if a particular sub-string is

present in the specified string.

not in It is also a membership operator and does the exact reverse of in. It returns
true if a particular substring is not present in the specified string.

r/R It is used to specify the raw string. Raw strings are used in the cases where
we need to print the actual meaning of escape characters such as
"C://python". To define any string as a raw string, the character r or R is
followed by the string.

% It is used to perform string formatting. It makes use of the format specifiers

used in C programming like %d or %f to map their values in python. We will
discuss how formatting is done in python.

Example
Consider the following example to understand the real use of Python operators.
1. str = "Hello"
2. str1 = " world"
3. print(str*3) # prints HelloHelloHello
4. print(str+str1)# prints Hello world
5. print(str[4]) # prints o
6. print(str[2:4]); # prints ll
7. print('w' in str) # prints false as w is not present in str
8. print('wo' not in str1) # prints false as wo is present in str1.
9. print(r'C://python37') # prints C://python37 as it is written
10. print("The string str : %s"%(str)) # prints The string str : Hello

Output:

HelloHelloHello
Hello world
o
ll
False
False
C://python37
The string str : Hello

Python Formatting operator

Python allows us to use the format specifiers used in C's printf statement. The format specifiers
in python are treated in the same way as they are treated in C. However, Python provides an
additional operator % which is used as an interface between the format specifiers and their
values. In other words, we can say that it binds the format specifiers to the values.

Consider the following example.

1. Integer = 10;
2. Float = 1.290
3. String = "Ayush"
4. print("Hi I am Integer ... My value is %d\nHi I am float ... My value is %f
\nHi I am string ... My value is %s"%(Integer,Float,String));

Output:

Hi I am Integer ... My value is 10

Hi I am float ... My value is 1.290000
Hi I am string ... My value is Ayush

Built-in String functions

Python provides various in-built functions that are used for string handling. Many String fun
Method Description

capitalize() It capitalizes the first character of the String.

This function is deprecated in python3

casefold() It returns a version of s suitable for case-less

comparisons.

center(width ,fillchar) It returns a space padded string with the

original string centred with equal number of
left and right spaces.

count(string,begin,end) It counts the number of occurrences of a

substring in a String between begin and end
index.

decode(encoding = 'UTF8', errors = Decodes the string using codec registered for
'strict') encoding.

encode() Encode S using the codec registered for

encoding. Default encoding is 'utf-8'.

endswith(suffix It returns a Boolean value if the string

,begin=0,end=len(string)) terminates with given suffix between begin
and end.

expandtabs(tabsize = 8) It defines tabs in string to multiple spaces.

The default space value is 8.

find(substring ,beginIndex, It returns the index value of the string where

endIndex) substring is found between begin index and
end index.

format(value) It returns a formatted version of S, using the

passed value.

index(subsring, beginIndex, It throws an exception if string is not found. It

endIndex) works same as find() method.

isalnum() It returns true if the characters in the string

are alphanumeric i.e., alphabets or numbers
 and there is at least 1 character. Otherwise, it
returns false.

isalpha() It returns true if all the characters are

alphabets and there is at least one character,
otherwise False.

isdecimal() It returns true if all the characters of the string

are decimals.

isdigit() It returns true if all the characters are digits

and there is at least one character, otherwise
False.

isidentifier() It returns true if the string is the valid

identifier.

islower() It returns true if the characters of a string are

in lower case, otherwise false.

isnumeric() It returns true if the string contains only

numeric characters.

isprintable() It returns true if all the characters of s are

printable or s is empty, false otherwise.

isupper() It returns false if characters of a string are in

Upper case, otherwise False.

isspace() It returns true if the characters of a string are

white-space, otherwise false.

istitle() It returns true if the string is titled properly

and false otherwise. A title string is the one in
which the first character is upper-case
whereas the other characters are lower-case.

isupper() It returns true if all the characters of the

string(if exists) is true otherwise it returns
false.
join(seq) It merges the strings representation of the
given sequence.

len(string) It returns the length of a string.

ljust(width[,fillchar]) It returns the space padded strings with the

original string left justified to the given width.

lower() It converts all the characters of a string to

Lower case.

lstrip() It removes all leading whitespaces of a string

and can also be used to remove particular
character from leading.

partition() It searches for the separator sep in S, and

returns the part before it, the separator itself,
and the part after it. If the separator is not
found, return S and two empty strings.

maketrans() It returns a translation table to be used in

translate function.

replace(old,new[,count]) It replaces the old sequence of characters with

the new sequence. The max characters are
replaced if max is given.

rfind(str,beg=0,end=len(str)) It is similar to find but it traverses the string

in backward direction.

rindex(str,beg=0,end=len(str)) It is same as index but it traverses the string

in backward direction.

rjust(width,[,fillchar]) Returns a space padded string having original

string right justified to the number of
characters specified.

rstrip() It removes all trailing whitespace of a string

and can also be used to remove particular
character from trailing.
rsplit(sep=None, maxsplit = -1) It is same as split() but it processes the string
from the backward direction. It returns the list
of words in the string. If Separator is not
specified then the string splits according to
the white-space.

split(str,num=string.count(str)) Splits the string according to the delimiter str.

The string splits according to the space if the
delimiter is not provided. It returns the list of
substring concatenated with the delimiter.

splitlines(num=string.count('\n')) It returns the list of strings at each line with

newline removed.

startswith(str,beg=0,end=len(str)) It returns a Boolean value if the string starts

with given str between begin and end.

strip([chars]) It is used to perform lstrip() and rstrip() on

the string.

swapcase() It inverts case of all characters in a string.

title() It is used to convert the string into the title-

case i.e., The string meEruT will be
converted to Meerut.

translate(table,deletechars = '') It translates the string according to the

translation table passed in the function .

upper() It converts all the characters of a string to

Upper Case.

zfill(width) Returns original string leftpadded with zeros

to a total of width characters; intended for
numbers, zfill() retains any sign given (less
one zero).

rpartition()
 Python List
List in python is implemented to store the sequence of various type of data. However,
python contains six data types that are capable to store the sequences but the most
common and reliable type is list.

A list can be defined as a collection of values or items of different types. The items in the
list are separated with the comma (,) and enclosed with the square brackets [].

A list can be defined as follows.

1. L1 = ["John", 102, "USA"]

2. L2 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
3. L3 = [1, "Ryan"]

If we try to print the type of L1, L2, and L3 then it will come out to be a list.

Lets consider a proper example to define a list and printing its values.

1. emp = ["John", 102, "USA"]

2. Dep1 = ["CS",10];
3. Dep2 = ["IT",11];
4. HOD_CS = [10,"Mr. Holding"]
5. HOD_IT = [11, "Mr. Bewon"]
6. print("printing employee data...");
7. print("Name : %s, ID: %d, Country: %s"%(emp[0],emp[1],emp[2]))
8. print("printing departments...");
9. print("Department 1:\nName: %s, ID: %d\nDepartment 2:\nName: %s, ID: %s"%(De
p1[0],Dep2[1],Dep2[0],Dep2[1]));
10. print("HOD Details ....");
11. print("CS HOD Name: %s, Id: %d"%(HOD_CS[1],HOD_CS[0]));
12. print("IT HOD Name: %s, Id: %d"%(HOD_IT[1],HOD_IT[0]));
13. print(type(emp),type(Dep1),type(Dep2),type(HOD_CS),type(HOD_IT));

Output:

printing employee data...

Name : John, ID: 102, Country: USA
printing departments...
Department 1:
Name: CS, ID: 11
Department 2:
Name: IT, ID: 11
HOD Details ....
CS HOD Name: Mr. Holding, Id: 10
IT HOD Name: Mr. Bewon, Id: 11
<class 'list'> <class 'list'> <class 'list'> <class 'list'> <class 'list'>
 List indexing and splitting
The indexing are processed in the same way as it happens with the strings. The elements
of the list can be accessed by using the slice operator [].

The index starts from 0 and goes to length - 1. The first element of the list is stored at the
0th index, the second element of the list is stored at the 1st index, and so on.

Consider the following example.

Unlike other languages, python provides us the flexibility to use the negative indexing
also. The negative indices are counted from the right. The last element (right most) of the
list has the index -1, its adjacent left element is present at the index -2 and so on until
the left most element is encountered.
 Updating List values
Lists are the most versatile data structures in python since they are immutable and their
values can be updated by using the slice and assignment operator.

Python also provide us the append() method which can be used to add values to the string.

Consider the following example to update the values inside the list.

1. List = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
2. print(List)
3. List[2] = 10;
4. print(List)
5. List[1:3] = [89, 78]
6. print(List)

Output:

[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
[1, 2, 10, 4, 5, 6]
[1, 89, 78, 4, 5, 6]

The list elements can also be deleted by using the del keyword. Python also provides us
the remove() method if we do not know which element is to be deleted from the list.

Consider the following example to delete the list elements.

1. List = [0,1,2,3,4]
2. print(List)
3. del List[0]
4. print(List)
5. del List[3]
6. print(List)
 Output:

[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
[1, 2, 3, 4]
[1, 2, 3]

Python List Operations

The concatenation (+) and repetition (*) operator work in the same way as they were
working with the strings.

Lets see how the list responds to various operators.

1. Consider a List l1 = [1, 2, 3, 4], and l2 = [5, 6, 7, 8]

Operator Description Example

Repetition The repetition operator enables the list L1*2 = [1, 2, 3, 4,

elements to be repeated multiple times. 1, 2, 3, 4]

Concatenation It concatenates the list mentioned on l1+l2 = [1, 2, 3,

either side of the operator. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]

Membership It returns true if a particular item exists in print(2 in l1)

a particular list otherwise false. prints True.

Iteration The for loop is used to iterate over the list for i in l1:
elements. print(i)
Output
1
2
3
4

Length It is used to get the length of the list len(l1) = 4

 Iterating a List
A list can be iterated by using a for - in loop. A simple list containing four strings can be
iterated as follows.

1. List = ["John", "David", "James", "Jonathan"]

2. for i in List: #i will iterate over the elements of the List and contains each element in ea
ch iteration.
3. print(i);

Output:

John
David
James
Jonathan

Adding elements to the list

Python provides append() function by using which we can add an element to the list.
However, the append() method can only add the value to the end of the list.

Consider the following example in which, we are taking the elements of the list from the
user and printing the list on the console.

1. l =[];
2. n = int(input("Enter the number of elements in the list")); #Number of elements will be
entered by the user
3. for i in range(0,n): # for loop to take the input
4. l.append(input("Enter the item?")); # The input is taken from the user and added to t
he list as the item
5. print("printing the list items....");
6. for i in l: # traversal loop to print the list items
7. print(i, end = " ");

Output:

Enter the number of elements in the list 5

Enter the item?1
Enter the item?2
Enter the item?3
Enter the item?4
Enter the item?5
printing the list items....
1 2 3 4 5

Removing elements from the list

1. List = [0,1,2,3,4]
2. print("printing original list: ");
3. for i in List:
4. print(i,end=" ")
5. List.remove(0)
6. print("\nprinting the list after the removal of first element...")
7. for i in List:
8. print(i,end=" ")

Output:

printing original list:

0 1 2 3 4
printing the list after the removal of first element...
1 2 3 4

Python List Built-in functions

Python provides the following built-in functions which can be used with the lists.

SN Function Description

1 cmp(list1, list2) It compares the elements of both the lists.

2 len(list) It is used to calculate the length of the list.

3 max(list) It returns the maximum element of the list.

 4 min(list) It returns the minimum element of the list.

5 list(seq) It converts any sequence to the list.

Python List built-in methods

SN Function Description

1 list.append(obj) The element represented by the object obj is added to

the list.

2 list.clear() It removes all the elements from the list.

3 List.copy() It returns a shallow copy of the list.

4 list.count(obj) It returns the number of occurrences of the specified

object in the list.

5 list.extend(seq) The sequence represented by the object seq is

extended to the list.

6 list.index(obj) It returns the lowest index in the list that object

appears.

7 list.insert(index, The object is inserted into the list at the specified index.
obj)

8 list.pop(obj=list[- It removes and returns the last object of the list.

1])
 9 list.remove(obj) It removes the specified object from the list.

10 list.reverse() It reverses the list.

11 list.sort([func]) It sorts the list by using the specified compare function

if given.

Python Tuple
Python Tuple is used to store the sequence of immutable python objects. Tuple is similar
to lists since the value of the items stored in the list can be changed whereas the tuple is
immutable and the value of the items stored in the tuple can not be changed.

A tuple can be written as the collection of comma-separated values enclosed with the small
brackets. A tuple can be defined as follows.

1. T1 = (101, "Ayush", 22)

2. T2 = ("Apple", "Banana", "Orange")

Example
1. tuple1 = (10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60)
2. print(tuple1)
3. count = 0
4. for i in tuple1:
5. print("tuple1[%d] = %d"%(count, i));

Output:

(10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60)

tuple1[0] = 10
tuple1[0] = 20
tuple1[0] = 30
tuple1[0] = 40
tuple1[0] = 50
tuple1[0] = 60
 Example 2
1. tuple1 = tuple(input("Enter the tuple elements ..."))
2. print(tuple1)
3. count = 0
4. for i in tuple1:
5. print("tuple1[%d] = %s"%(count, i));

Output:

Enter the tuple elements ...12345

('1', '2', '3', '4', '5')
tuple1[0] = 1
tuple1[0] = 2
tuple1[0] = 3
tuple1[0] = 4
tuple1[0] = 5

However, if we try to reassign the items of a tuple, we would get an error as the tuple
object doesn't support the item assignment.

An empty tuple can be written as follows.

1. T3 = ()

The tuple having a single value must include a comma as given below.

1. T4 = (90,)

A tuple is indexed in the same way as the lists. The items in the tuple can be accessed by
using their specific index value.

ADVERTISEMENT

We will see all these aspects of tuple in this section of the tutorial.

Tuple indexing and splitting

The indexing and slicing in tuple are similar to lists. The indexing in the tuple starts from
0 and goes to length(tuple) - 1.

The items in the tuple can be accessed by using the slice operator. Python also allows us
to use the colon operator to access multiple items in the tuple.

Consider the following image to understand the indexing and slicing in detail.
 Unlike lists, the tuple items cannot be deleted by using the del keyword as tuples are
immutable. To delete an entire tuple, we can use the del keyword with the tuple name.

Consider the following example.

1. tuple1 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
2. print(tuple1)
3. del tuple1[0]
4. print(tuple1)
5. del tuple1
6. print(tuple1)

Output:

(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "tuple.py", line 4, in <module>
print(tuple1)
NameError: name 'tuple1' is not defined

Like lists, the tuple elements can be accessed in both the directions. The right most
element (last) of the tuple can be accessed by using the index -1. The elements from left
to right are traversed using the negative indexing.

Consider the following example.

1. tuple1 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
2. print(tuple1[-1])
3. print(tuple1[-4])

Output:

5
2

Basic Tuple operations

The operators like concatenation (+), repetition (*), Membership (in) works in the same
way as they work with the list. Consider the following table for more detail.

Let's say Tuple t = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) and Tuple t1 = (6, 7, 8, 9) are declared.

Operator Description Example

Repetition The repetition operator enables the T1*2 = (1, 2, 3, 4,

tuple elements to be repeated multiple 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
times.

Concatenation It concatenates the tuple mentioned on T1+T2 = (1, 2, 3, 4,

either side of the operator. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9)

Membership It returns true if a particular item exists print (2 in T1)

in the tuple otherwise false. prints True.
 Iteration The for loop is used to iterate over the for i in T1:
tuple elements. print(i)
Output
1
2
3
4
5

Length It is used to get the length of the tuple. len(T1) = 5

Python Tuple inbuilt functions

SN Function Description

1 cmp(tuple1, It compares two tuples and returns true if tuple1 is greater

tuple2) than tuple2 otherwise false.

2 len(tuple) It calculates the length of the tuple.

3 max(tuple) It returns the maximum element of the tuple.

4 min(tuple) It returns the minimum element of the tuple.

 5 tuple(seq) It converts the specified sequence to the tuple.

Where use tuple

Using tuple instead of list is used in the following scenario.

1. Using tuple instead of list gives us a clear idea that tuple data is constant and must not
be changed.

2. Tuple can simulate dictionary without keys. Consider the following nested structure
which can be used as a dictionary.

1. [(101, "John", 22), (102, "Mike", 28), (103, "Dustin", 30)]

3. Tuple can be used as the key inside dictionary due to its immutable nature.

List VS Tuple

SN List Tuple

1 The literal syntax of list is shown by The literal syntax of the tuple is shown by
the []. the ().

2 The List is mutable. The tuple is immutable.

3 The List has the variable length. The tuple has the fixed length.

4 The list provides more functionality The tuple provides less functionality than
than tuple. the list.
 5 The list Is used in the scenario in The tuple is used in the cases where we
which we need to store the simple need to store the read-only collections
collections with no constraints where i.e., the value of the items can not be
the value of the items can be changed. It can be used as the key inside
changed. the dictionary.

Nesting List and tuple

We can store list inside tuple or tuple inside the list up to any number of level.

Lets see an example of how can we store the tuple inside the list.

1. Employees = [(101, "Ayush", 22), (102, "john", 29), (103, "james", 45), (104, "Ben", 34
)]
2. print("----Printing list----");
3. for i in Employees:
4. print(i)
5. Employees[0] = (110, "David",22)
6. print();
7. print("----Printing list after modification----");
8. for i in Employees:
9. print(i)

Output:

----Printing list----
(101, 'Ayush', 22)
(102, 'john', 29)
(103, 'james', 45)
(104, 'Ben', 34)

----Printing list after modification----

(110, 'David', 22)

(102, 'john', 29)
(103, 'james', 45)
(104, 'Ben', 34)

Python Set
The set in python can be defined as the unordered collection of various items enclosed
within the curly braces. The elements of the set can not be duplicate. The elements of the
python set must be immutable.

Unlike other collections in python, there is no index attached to the elements of the set,
i.e., we cannot directly access any element of the set by the index. However, we can print
them all together or we can get the list of elements by looping through the set.

Creating a set
 The set can be created by enclosing the comma separated items with the curly braces.
Python also provides the set method which can be used to create the set by the passed
sequence.

Example 1: using curly braces

1. Days = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday", "Friday", "Saturday", "Sunday
"}
2. print(Days)
3. print(type(Days))
4. print("looping through the set elements ... ")
5. for i in Days:
6. print(i)

Output:

{'Friday', 'Tuesday', 'Monday', 'Saturday', 'Thursday', 'Sunday',

'Wednesday'}
<class 'set'>
looping through the set elements ...
Friday
Tuesday
Monday
Saturday
Thursday
Sunday
Wednesday

Example 2: using set() method

1. Days = set(["Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday", "Friday", "Saturday", "Sun
day"])
2. print(Days)
3. print(type(Days))
4. print("looping through the set elements ... ")
5. for i in Days:
6. print(i)

Output:

{'Friday', 'Wednesday', 'Thursday', 'Saturday', 'Monday', 'Tuesday',

'Sunday'}
<class 'set'>
looping through the set elements ...
Friday
Wednesday
Thursday
Saturday
Monday
Tuesday
Sunday
 Python Set operations
In the previous example, we have discussed about how the set is created in python.
However, we can perform various mathematical operations on python sets like union,
intersection, difference, etc.

Adding items to the set

Python provides the add() method which can be used to add some particular item to the
set. Consider the following example.

Example:
1. Months = set(["January","February", "March", "April", "May", "June"])
2. print("\nprinting the original set ... ")
3. print(Months)
4. print("\nAdding other months to the set...");
5. Months.add("July");
6. Months.add("August");
7. print("\nPrinting the modified set...");
8. print(Months)
9. print("\nlooping through the set elements ... ")
10. for i in Months:
11. print(i)

Output:

printing the original set ...

{'February', 'May', 'April', 'March', 'June', 'January'}

Adding other months to the set...

Printing the modified set...

{'February', 'July', 'May', 'April', 'March', 'August', 'June', 'January'}

looping through the set elements ...

February
July
May
April
March
August
June
January

To add more than one item in the set, Python provides the update() method.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. Months = set(["January","February", "March", "April", "May", "June"])
2. print("\nprinting the original set ... ")
3. print(Months)
4. print("\nupdating the original set ... ")
5. Months.update(["July","August","September","October"]);
6. print("\nprinting the modified set ... ")
7. print(Months);

Output:

printing the original set ...

{'January', 'February', 'April', 'May', 'June', 'March'}

updating the original set ...

printing the modified set ...

{'January', 'February', 'April', 'August', 'October', 'May', 'June', 'July',
'September', 'March'}

Removing items from the set

Python provides discard() method which can be used to remove the items from the set.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. Months = set(["January","February", "March", "April", "May", "June"])
2. print("\nprinting the original set ... ")
3. print(Months)
4. print("\nRemoving some months from the set...");
5. Months.discard("January");
6. Months.discard("May");
7. print("\nPrinting the modified set...");
8. print(Months)
9. print("\nlooping through the set elements ... ")
10. for i in Months:
11. print(i)

Output:

printing the original set ...

{'February', 'January', 'March', 'April', 'June', 'May'}

Removing some months from the set...

Printing the modified set...

{'February', 'March', 'April', 'June'}

looping through the set elements ...

 February
March
April
June

Python also provide the remove() method to remove the items from the set. Consider the
following example to remove the items using remove() method.

Example
1. Months = set(["January","February", "March", "April", "May", "June"])
2. print("\nprinting the original set ... ")
3. print(Months)
4. print("\nRemoving some months from the set...");
5. Months.remove("January");
6. Months.remove("May");
7. print("\nPrinting the modified set...");
8. print(Months)

Output:

printing the original set ...

{'February', 'June', 'April', 'May', 'January', 'March'}

Removing some months from the set...

Printing the modified set...

{'February', 'June', 'April', 'March'}

We can also use the pop() method to remove the item. However, this method will always
remove the last item.

Consider the following example to remove the last item from the set.

1. Months = set(["January","February", "March", "April", "May", "June"])

2. print("\nprinting the original set ... ")
3. print(Months)
4. print("\nRemoving some months from the set...");
5. Months.pop();
6. Months.pop();
7. print("\nPrinting the modified set...");
8. print(Months)

Output:

printing the original set ...

{'June', 'January', 'May', 'April', 'February', 'March'}

Removing some months from the set...

Printing the modified set...

 {'May', 'April', 'February', 'March'}

Python provides the clear() method to remove all the items from the set.

Consider the following example.

1. Months = set(["January","February", "March", "April", "May", "June"])

2. print("\nprinting the original set ... ")
3. print(Months)
4. print("\nRemoving all the items from the set...");
5. Months.clear()
6. print("\nPrinting the modified set...")
7. print(Months)

Output:

printing the original set ...

{'January', 'May', 'June', 'April', 'March', 'February'}

Removing all the items from the set...

Printing the modified set...

set()

Difference between discard() and remove()

Despite the fact that discard() and remove() method both perform the same task, There
is one main difference between discard() and remove().

If the key to be deleted from the set using discard() doesn't exist in the set, the python
will not give the error. The program maintains its control flow.

On the other hand, if the item to be deleted from the set using remove() doesn't exist in
the set, the python will give the error.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. Months = set(["January","February", "March", "April", "May", "June"])
2. print("\nprinting the original set ... ")
3. print(Months)
4. print("\nRemoving items through discard() method...");
5. Months.discard("Feb"); #will not give an error although the key feb is not available in th
e set
6. print("\nprinting the modified set...")
7. print(Months)
8. print("\nRemoving items through remove() method...");
9. Months.remove("Jan") #will give an error as the key jan is not available in the set.
10. print("\nPrinting the modified set...")
11. print(Months)

Output:

printing the original set ...

{'March', 'January', 'April', 'June', 'February', 'May'}

Removing items through discard() method...

printing the modified set...

{'March', 'January', 'April', 'June', 'February', 'May'}

Removing items through remove() method...

Traceback (most recent call last):
File "set.py", line 9, in
Months.remove("Jan")
KeyError: 'Jan'

Union of two Sets

The union of two sets are calculated by using the or (|) operator. The union of the two
sets contains the all the items that are present in both the sets.

Consider the following example to calculate the union of two sets.

Example 1 : using union | operator

1. Days1 = {"Monday","Tuesday","Wednesday","Thursday"}
2. Days2 = {"Friday","Saturday","Sunday"}
3. print(Days1|Days2) #printing the union of the sets

Output:

{'Friday', 'Sunday', 'Saturday', 'Tuesday', 'Wednesday', 'Monday',

'Thursday'}

Python also provides the union() method which can also be used to calculate the union
of two sets. Consider the following example.

Example 2: using union() method

1. Days1 = {"Monday","Tuesday","Wednesday","Thursday"}
2. Days2 = {"Friday","Saturday","Sunday"}
3. print(Days1.union(Days2)) #printing the union of the sets

Output:

{'Friday', 'Monday', 'Tuesday', 'Thursday', 'Wednesday', 'Sunday',

'Saturday'}
 Intersection of two sets
The & (intersection) operator is used to calculate the intersection of the two sets in python.
The intersection of the two sets are given as the set of the elements that common in both
sets.

Consider the following example.

Example 1: using & operator

1. set1 = {"Ayush","John", "David", "Martin"}
2. set2 = {"Steve","Milan","David", "Martin"}
3. print(set1&set2) #prints the intersection of the two sets

Output:

{'Martin', 'David'}

Example 2: using intersection() method

1. set1 = {"Ayush","John", "David", "Martin"}
2. set2 = {"Steave","Milan","David", "Martin"}
3. print(set1.intersection(set2)) #prints the intersection of the two sets

Output:

{'Martin', 'David'}

The intersection_update() method

The intersection_update() method removes the items from the original set that are not
present in both the sets (all the sets if more than one are specified).

The Intersection_update() method is different from intersection() method since it modifies

the original set by removing the unwanted items, on the other hand, intersection() method
returns a new set.

Consider the following example.

1. a = {"ayush", "bob", "castle"}

2. b = {"castle", "dude", "emyway"}
3. c = {"fuson", "gaurav", "castle"}
4.
5. a.intersection_update(b, c)
6.
7. print(a)

Output:
 {'castle'}

Difference of two sets

The difference of two sets can be calculated by using the subtraction (-) operator. The
resulting set will be obtained by removing all the elements from set 1 that are present in
set 2.

Consider the following example.

Example 1 : using subtraction ( - ) operator

1. Days1 = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday"}
2. Days2 = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Sunday"}
3. print(Days1-Days2) #{"Wednesday", "Thursday" will be printed}

Output:

{'Thursday', 'Wednesday'}

Example 2 : using difference() method

1. Days1 = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday"}
2. Days2 = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Sunday"}
3. print(Days1.difference(Days2)) # prints the difference of the two sets Days1 and Days2

Output:

{'Thursday', 'Wednesday'}

Set comparisons
Python allows us to use the comparison operators i.e., <, >, <=, >= , == with the sets
by using which we can check whether a set is subset, superset, or equivalent to other set.
The boolean true or false is returned depending upon the items present inside the sets.

Consider the following example.

1. Days1 = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday"}

2. Days2 = {"Monday", "Tuesday"}
3. Days3 = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Friday"}
4.
5. #Days1 is the superset of Days2 hence it will print true.
6. print (Days1>Days2)
7.
8. #prints false since Days1 is not the subset of Days2
9. print (Days1<Days2)
10.
11. #prints false since Days2 and Days3 are not equivalent
12. print (Days2 == Days3)

Output:

True
False
False

FrozenSets
The frozen sets are the immutable form of the normal sets, i.e., the items of the frozen
set can not be changed and therefore it can be used as a key in dictionary.

The elements of the frozen set can not be changed after the creation. We cannot change
or append the content of the frozen sets by using the methods like add() or remove().

The frozenset() method is used to create the frozenset object. The iterable sequence is
passed into this method which is converted into the frozen set as a return type of the
method.

Consider the following example to create the frozen set.

1. Frozenset = frozenset([1,2,3,4,5])
2. print(type(Frozenset))
3. print("\nprinting the content of frozen set...")
4. for i in Frozenset:
5. print(i);
6. Frozenset.add(6) #gives an error since we cannot change the content of Frozenset after
creation

Output:

<class 'frozenset'>

printing the content of frozen set...

1
2
3
4
5
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "set.py", line 6, in <module>
Frozenset.add(6) #gives an error since we can change the content of
Frozenset after creation
AttributeError: 'frozenset' object has no attribute 'add'

Frozenset for the dictionary

 If we pass the dictionary as the sequence inside the frozenset() method, it will take only
the keys from the dictionary and returns a frozenset that contains the key of the dictionary
as its elements.

Consider the following example.

1. Dictionary = {"Name":"John", "Country":"USA", "ID":101}

2. print(type(Dictionary))
3. Frozenset = frozenset(Dictionary); #Frozenset will contain the keys of the dictionary
4. print(type(Frozenset))
5. for i in Frozenset:
6. print(i)

Output:

<class 'dict'>
<class 'frozenset'>
Name
Country
ID

Python Built-in set methods

Python contains the following methods to be used with the sets.

SN Method Description

1 add(item) It adds an item to the set. It has no

effect if the item is already present in
the set.

2 clear() It deletes all the items from the set.

3 copy() It returns a shallow copy of the set.

4 difference_update(....) It modifies this set by removing all the

items that are also present in the
specified sets.
5 discard(item) It removes the specified item from the
set.

6 intersection() It returns a new set that contains only

the common elements of both the sets.
(all the sets if more than two are
specified).

7 intersection_update(....) It removes the items from the original

set that are not present in both the sets
(all the sets if more than one are
specified).

8 Isdisjoint(....) Return True if two sets have a null

intersection.

9 Issubset(....) Report whether another set contains

this set.

10 Issuperset(....) Report whether this set contains

another set.

11 pop() Remove and return an arbitrary set

element that is the last element of the
set. Raises KeyError if the set is empty.

12 remove(item) Remove an element from a set; it must

be a member. If the element is not a
member, raise a KeyError.

13 symmetric_difference(....) Remove an element from a set; it must

be a member. If the element is not a
member, raise a KeyError.

14 symmetric_difference_update(....) Update a set with the symmetric

difference of itself and another.

15 union(....) Return the union of sets as a new set.

(i.e. all elements that are in either set.)

16 update() Update a set with the union of itself and

others.
 Python Dictionary
Dictionary is used to implement the key-value pair in python. The dictionary is the data type
in python which can simulate the real-life data arrangement where some specific value exists
for some particular key.

In other words, we can say that a dictionary is the collection of key-value pairs where the value
can be any python object whereas the keys are the immutable python object, i.e., Numbers,
string or tuple.

Dictionary simulates Java hash-map in python.

Creating the dictionary

The dictionary can be created by using multiple key-value pairs enclosed with the small
brackets () and separated by the colon (:). The collections of the key-value pairs are enclosed
within the curly braces {}.

The syntax to define the dictionary is given below.

1. Dict = {"Name": "Ayush","Age": 22}

In the above dictionary Dict, The keys Name, and Age are the string that is an immutable
object.
 Let's see an example to create a dictionary and printing its content.

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"GO

OGLE"}
2. print(type(Employee))
3. print("printing Employee data .... ")
4. print(Employee)

Output

<class 'dict'>
printing Employee data ....
{'Age': 29, 'salary': 25000, 'Name': 'John', 'Company': 'GOOGLE'}

Accessing the dictionary values

We have discussed how the data can be accessed in the list and tuple by using the indexing.

However, the values can be accessed in the dictionary by using the keys as keys are unique in
the dictionary.

The dictionary values can be accessed in the following way.

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"GO

OGLE"}
2. print(type(Employee))
3. print("printing Employee data .... ")
4. print("Name : %s" %Employee["Name"])
5. print("Age : %d" %Employee["Age"])
6. print("Salary : %d" %Employee["salary"])
7. print("Company : %s" %Employee["Company"])

Output:

<class 'dict'>
printing Employee data ....
Name : John
Age : 29
Salary : 25000
Company : GOOGLE
 Python provides us with an alternative to use the get() method to access the dictionary values.
It would give the same result as given by the indexing.

Updating dictionary values

The dictionary is a mutable data type, and its values can be updated by using the specific keys.

Let's see an example to update the dictionary values.

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"GO

OGLE"}
2. print(type(Employee))
3. print("printing Employee data .... ")
4. print(Employee)
5. print("Enter the details of the new employee....");
6. Employee["Name"] = input("Name: ");
7. Employee["Age"] = int(input("Age: "));
8. Employee["salary"] = int(input("Salary: "));
9. Employee["Company"] = input("Company:");
10. print("printing the new data");
11. print(Employee)

Output:

<class 'dict'>
printing Employee data ....
{'Name': 'John', 'salary': 25000, 'Company': 'GOOGLE', 'Age': 29}
Enter the details of the new employee....
Name: David
Age: 19
Salary: 8900
Company:JTP
printing the new data
{'Name': 'David', 'salary': 8900, 'Company': 'JTP', 'Age': 19}

Deleting elements using del keyword

The items of the dictionary can be deleted by using the del keyword as given below.

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"GO

OGLE"}
2. print(type(Employee))
3. print("printing Employee data .... ")
4. print(Employee)
5. print("Deleting some of the employee data")
6. del Employee["Name"]
7. del Employee["Company"]
8. print("printing the modified information ")
9. print(Employee)
10. print("Deleting the dictionary: Employee");
11. del Employee
12. print("Lets try to print it again ");
13. print(Employee)

Output:

<class 'dict'>
printing Employee data ....
{'Age': 29, 'Company': 'GOOGLE', 'Name': 'John', 'salary': 25000}
Deleting some of the employee data
printing the modified information
{'Age': 29, 'salary': 25000}
Deleting the dictionary: Employee
Lets try to print it again
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "list.py", line 13, in <module>
print(Employee)
NameError: name 'Employee' is not defined

Iterating Dictionary
A dictionary can be iterated using the for loop as given below.

Example 1
# for loop to print all the keys of a dictionary

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"GO

OGLE"}
2. for x in Employee:
3. print(x);

Output:

Name
Company
salary
Age

Example 2
#for loop to print all the values of the dictionary

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"GO

OGLE"}
2. for x in Employee:
3. print(Employee[x]);

Output:

29
GOOGLE
John
25000

Example 3
#for loop to print the values of the dictionary by using values() method.

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"GO

OGLE"}
2. for x in Employee.values():
3. print(x);

Output:

GOOGLE
25000
John
29

Example 4
#for loop to print the items of the dictionary by using items() method.

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"GO

OGLE"}
2. for x in Employee.items():
3. print(x);

Output:

('Name', 'John')
('Age', 29)
('salary', 25000)
('Company', 'GOOGLE')

Properties of Dictionary keys

1. In the dictionary, we cannot store multiple values for the same keys. If we pass more than
one values for a single key, then the value which is last assigned is considered as the value of
the key.

Consider the following example.

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "Salary":25000,"Company":"GO
OGLE","Name":"Johnn"}
2. for x,y in Employee.items():
3. print(x,y)

Output:

Salary 25000
Company GOOGLE
Name Johnn
Age 29

2. In python, the key cannot be any mutable object. We can use numbers, strings, or tuple as
the key but we can not use any mutable object like the list as the key in the dictionary.

Consider the following example.

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"GO

OGLE",[100,201,301]:"Department ID"}
2. for x,y in Employee.items():
3. print(x,y)

Output:

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "list.py", line 1, in
Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29,
"salary":25000,"Company":"GOOGLE",[100,201,301]:"Department ID"}
TypeError: unhashable type: 'list'

Built-in Dictionary functions

The built-in python dictionary methods along with the description are given below.

SN Function Description

1 cmp(dict1, It compares the items of both the dictionary and returns true
dict2) if the first dictionary values are greater than the second
dictionary, otherwise it returns false.

2 len(dict) It is used to calculate the length of the dictionary.

3 str(dict) It converts the dictionary into the printable string

representation.

4 type(variable) It is used to print the type of the passed variable.

 Built-in Dictionary methods
The built-in python dictionary methods along with the description are given below.

SN Method Description

1 dic.clear() It is used to delete all the items of the

dictionary.

2 dict.copy() It returns a shallow copy of the

dictionary.

3 dict.fromkeys(iterable, value = Create a new dictionary from the

None, /) iterable with the values equal to
value.

4 dict.get(key, default = "None") It is used to get the value specified for

the passed key.

5 dict.has_key(key) It returns true if the dictionary

contains the specified key.

6 dict.items() It returns all the key-value pairs as a

tuple.

7 dict.keys() It returns all the keys of the

dictionary.

8 dict.setdefault(key,default= It is used to set the key to the default

"None") value if the key is not specified in the
dictionary

9 dict.update(dict2) It updates the dictionary by adding

the key-value pair of dict2 to this
dictionary.

10 dict.values() It returns all the values of the

dictionary.

len()

popItem()
 pop()

count()

index()

Python Functions
Functions are the most important aspect of an application. A function can be defined as
the organized block of reusable code which can be called whenever required.

Python allows us to divide a large program into the basic building blocks known as function.
The function contains the set of programming statements enclosed by {}. A function can
be called multiple times to provide reusability and modularity to the python program.

In other words, we can say that the collection of functions creates a program. The function
is also known as procedure or subroutine in other programming languages.

Python provide us various inbuilt functions like range() or print(). Although, the user can
create its functions which can be called user-defined functions.

Advantage of functions in python

There are the following advantages of C functions.

o By using functions, we can avoid rewriting same logic/code again and again in a
program.
o We can call python functions any number of times in a program and from any place
in a program.
o We can track a large python program easily when it is divided into multiple
functions.
 o Reusability is the main achievement of python functions.
o However, Function calling is always overhead in a python program.

Creating a function
In python, we can use def keyword to define the function. The syntax to define a function
in python is given below.

1. def my_function():
2. function-suite
3. return <expression>

The function block is started with the colon (:) and all the same level block statements
remain at the same indentation.

A function can accept any number of parameters that must be the same in the definition
and function calling.

Function calling
In python, a function must be defined before the function calling otherwise the python
interpreter gives an error. Once the function is defined, we can call it from another function
or the python prompt. To call the function, use the function name followed by the
parentheses.

A simple function that prints the message "Hello Word" is given below.

1. def hello_world():
2. print("hello world")
3.
4. hello_world()

Output:

hello world

Parameters in function
The information into the functions can be passed as the parameters. The parameters are
specified in the parentheses. We can give any number of parameters, but we have to
separate them with a comma.

Consider the following example which contains a function that accepts a string as the
parameter and prints it.
 Example 1
1. #defining the function
2. def func (name):
3. print("Hi ",name);
4.
5. #calling the function
6. func("Ayush")

Example 2
1. #python function to calculate the sum of two variables
2. #defining the function
3. def sum (a,b):
4. return a+b;
5.
6. #taking values from the user
7. a = int(input("Enter a: "))
8. b = int(input("Enter b: "))
9.
10. #printing the sum of a and b
11. print("Sum = ",sum(a,b))

Output:

Enter a: 10
Enter b: 20
Sum = 30

Call by reference in Python

In python, all the functions are called by reference, i.e., all the changes made to the
reference inside the function revert back to the original value referred by the reference.

However, there is an exception in the case of mutable objects since the changes made to
the mutable objects like string do not revert to the original string rather, a new string
object is made, and therefore the two different objects are printed.

Example 1 Passing Immutable Object (List)

1. #defining the function
2. def change_list(list1):
3. list1.append(20);
4. list1.append(30);
5. print("list inside function = ",list1)
6.
7. #defining the list
8. list1 = [10,30,40,50]
9.
10. #calling the function
11. change_list(list1);
12. print("list outside function = ",list1);

Output:

list inside function = [10, 30, 40, 50, 20, 30]

list outside function = [10, 30, 40, 50, 20, 30]

Example 2 Passing Mutable Object (String)

1. #defining the function
2. def change_string (str):
3. str = str + " Hows you";
4. print("printing the string inside function :",str);
5.
6. string1 = "Hi I am there"
7.
8. #calling the function
9. change_string(string1)
10.
11. print("printing the string outside function :",string1)

Output:

printing the string inside function : Hi I am there Hows you

printing the string outside function : Hi I am there

Types of arguments
There may be several types of arguments which can be passed at the time of function
calling.

1. Required arguments
2. Keyword arguments
3. Default arguments
4. Variable-length arguments

Required Arguments
Till now, we have learned about function calling in python. However, we can provide the
arguments at the time of function calling. As far as the required arguments are concerned,
these are the arguments which are required to be passed at the time of function calling
 with the exact match of their positions in the function call and function definition. If either
of the arguments is not provided in the function call, or the position of the arguments is
changed, then the python interpreter will show the error.

Consider the following example.

Example 1
1. #the argument name is the required argument to the function func
2. def func(name):
3. message = "Hi "+name;
4. return message;
5. name = input("Enter the name?")
6. print(func(name))

Output:

Enter the name?John

Hi John

Example 2
1. #the function simple_interest accepts three arguments and returns the simple interest a
ccordingly
2. def simple_interest(p,t,r):
3. return (p*t*r)/100
4. p = float(input("Enter the principle amount? "))
5. r = float(input("Enter the rate of interest? "))
6. t = float(input("Enter the time in years? "))
7. print("Simple Interest: ",simple_interest(p,r,t))

Output:

Enter the principle amount? 10000

Enter the rate of interest? 5
Enter the time in years? 2
Simple Interest: 1000.0

Example 3
1. #the function calculate returns the sum of two arguments a and b
2. def calculate(a,b):
3. return a+b
4. calculate(10) # this causes an error as we are missing a required arguments b.
 Output:

TypeError: calculate() missing 1 required positional argument: 'b'

Keyword arguments
Python allows us to call the function with the keyword arguments. This kind of function
call will enable us to pass the arguments in the random order.

The name of the arguments is treated as the keywords and matched in the function calling
and definition. If the same match is found, the values of the arguments are copied in the
function definition.

Consider the following example.

Example 1
1. #function func is called with the name and message as the keyword arguments
2. def func(name,message):
3. print("printing the message with",name,"and ",message)
4. func(name = "John",message="hello") #name and message is copied with the values Jo
hn and hello respectively

Output:

printing the message with John and hello

Example 2 providing the values in different order at the calling

1. #The function simple_interest(p, t, r) is called with the keyword arguments the order of
arguments doesn't matter in this case
2. def simple_interest(p,t,r):
3. return (p*t*r)/100
4. print("Simple Interest: ",simple_interest(t=10,r=10,p=1900))

Output:

Simple Interest: 1900.0

If we provide the different name of arguments at the time of function call, an error will be
thrown.

Consider the following example.

Example 3
1. #The function simple_interest(p, t, r) is called with the keyword arguments.
2. def simple_interest(p,t,r):
3. return (p*t*r)/100
4.
5. print("Simple Interest: ",simple_interest(time=10,rate=10,principle=1900)) # doesn't fi
nd the exact match of the name of the arguments (keywords)

Output:

TypeError: simple_interest() got an unexpected keyword argument 'time'

The python allows us to provide the mix of the required arguments and keyword
arguments at the time of function call. However, the required argument must not be given
after the keyword argument, i.e., once the keyword argument is encountered in the
function call, the following arguments must also be the keyword arguments.

Consider the following example.

Example 4
1. def func(name1,message,name2):
2. print("printing the message with",name1,",",message,",and",name2)
3. func("John",message="hello",name2="David") #the first argument is not the keyword ar
gument

Output:

printing the message with John , hello ,and David

The following example will cause an error due to an in-proper mix of keyword and required
arguments being passed in the function call.

Example 5
1. def func(name1,message,name2):
2. print("printing the message with",name1,",",message,",and",name2)
3. func("John",message="hello","David")

Output:

SyntaxError: positional argument follows keyword argument

Default Arguments
Python allows us to initialize the arguments at the function definition. If the value of any
of the argument is not provided at the time of function call, then that argument can be
initialized with the value given in the definition even if the argument is not specified at the
function call.

Example 1
1. def printme(name,age=22):
2. print("My name is",name,"and age is",age)
3. printme(name = "john") #the variable age is not passed into the function however the d
efault value of age is considered in the function

Output:

My name is john and age is 22

Example 2
1. def printme(name,age=22):
2. print("My name is",name,"and age is",age)
3. printme(name = "john") #the variable age is not passed into the function however the d
efault value of age is considered in the function
4. printme(age = 10,name="David") #the value of age is overwritten here, 10 will be print
ed as age

Output:

My name is john and age is 22

My name is David and age is 10

Variable length Arguments

In the large projects, sometimes we may not know the number of arguments to be passed
in advance. In such cases, Python provides us the flexibility to provide the comma
separated values which are internally treated as tuples at the function call.

However, at the function definition, we have to define the variable with * (star) as
*<variable - name >.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. def printme(*names):
2. print("type of passed argument is ",type(names))
3. print("printing the passed arguments...")
4. for name in names:
5. print(name)
6. printme("john","David","smith","nick")

Output:

type of passed argument is

printing the passed arguments...
john
 David
smith
nick

Scope of variables
The scopes of the variables depend upon the location where the variable is being declared.
The variable declared in one part of the program may not be accessible to the other parts.

In python, the variables are defined with the two types of scopes.

1. Global variables
2. Local variables

The variable defined outside any function is known to have a global scope whereas the
variable defined inside a function is known to have a local scope.

Consider the following example.

Example 1
1. def print_message():
2. message = "hello !! I am going to print a message." # the variable message is local t
o the function itself
3. print(message)
4. print_message()
5. print(message) # this will cause an error since a local variable cannot be accessible her
e.

Output:

hello !! I am going to print a message.

File "/root/PycharmProjects/PythonTest/Test1.py", line 5, in
print(message)
NameError: name 'message' is not defined

Example 2
1. def calculate(*args):
2. sum=0
3. for arg in args:
4. sum = sum +arg
5. print("The sum is",sum)
6. sum=0
7. calculate(10,20,30) #60 will be printed as the sum
8. print("Value of sum outside the function:",sum) # 0 will be printed

Output:

The sum is 60
Value of sum outside the function: 0

Python Lambda Functions

Python allows us to not declare the function in the standard manner, i.e., by using the def
keyword. Rather, the anonymous functions are declared by using lambda keyword.
However, Lambda functions can accept any number of arguments, but they can return
only one value in the form of expression.

The anonymous function contains a small piece of code. It simulates inline functions of C
and C++, but it is not exactly an inline function.

The syntax to define an Anonymous function is given below.

1. lambda arguments : expression

Example 1
1. x = lambda a:a+10 # a is an argument and a+10 is an expression which got evaluated
and returned.
2. print("sum = ",x(20))

Output:

sum = 30

Example 2
 Multiple arguments to Lambda function

1. x = lambda a,b:a+b # a and b are the arguments and a+b is the expression which gets
evaluated and returned.
2. print("sum = ",x(20,10))

Output:

sum = 30

Why use lambda functions?

The main role of the lambda function is better described in the scenarios when we use
them anonymously inside another function. In python, the lambda function can be used
as an argument to the higher order functions as arguments. Lambda functions are also
used in the scenario where we need a Consider the following example.

Example 1
1. #the function table(n) prints the table of n
2. def table(n):
3. return lambda a:a*n; # a will contain the iteration variable i and a multiple of n is r
eturned at each function call
4. n = int(input("Enter the number?"))
5. b = table(n) #the entered number is passed into the function table. b will contain a lamb
da function which is called again and again with the iteration variable i
6. for i in range(1,11):
7. print(n,"X",i,"=",b(i)); #the lambda function b is called with the iteration variable i,

Output:

Enter the number?10

10 X 1 = 10
10 X 2 = 20
10 X 3 = 30
10 X 4 = 40
10 X 5 = 50
10 X 6 = 60
10 X 7 = 70
10 X 8 = 80
10 X 9 = 90
10 X 10 = 100

Example 2
Use of lambda function with filter

1. #program to filter out the list which contains odd numbers

2. List = {1,2,3,4,10,123,22}
3. Oddlist = list(filter(lambda x:(x%3 == 0),List)) # the list contains all the items of the li
st for which the lambda function evaluates to true
4. print(Oddlist)

Output:

[3, 123]

Example 3
Use of lambda function with map

1. #program to triple each number of the list using map

2. List = {1,2,3,4,10,123,22}
3. new_list = list(map(lambda x:x*3,List)) # this will return the triple of each item of the l
ist and add it to new_list
4. print(new_list)

Output:

[3, 6, 9, 12, 30, 66, 369]

Python File Handling

Till now, we were taking the input from the console and writing it back to the console to
interact with the user.

Sometimes, it is not enough to only display the data on the console. The data to be
displayed may be very large, and only a limited amount of data can be displayed on the
console, and since the memory is volatile, it is impossible to recover the programmatically
generated data again and again.

However, if we need to do so, we may store it onto the local file system which is volatile
and can be accessed every time. Here, comes the need of file handling.

In this section of the tutorial, we will learn all about file handling in python including,
creating a file, opening a file, closing a file, writing and appending the file, etc.

Opening a file
Python provides the open() function which accepts two arguments, file name and access
mode in which the file is accessed. The function returns a file object which can be used to
perform various operations like reading, writing, etc.

The syntax to use the open() function is given below.

1. file object = open(<file-name>, <access-mode>, <buffering>)

The files can be accessed using various modes like read, write, or append. The following
are the details about the access mode to open a file.
SN Access Description
mode

1 r It opens the file to read-only. The file pointer exists at the

beginning. The file is by default open in this mode if no access mode
is passed.

2 rb It opens the file to read only in binary format. The file pointer exists
at the beginning of the file.

3 r+ It opens the file to read and write both. The file pointer exists at
the beginning of the file.

4 rb+ It opens the file to read and write both in binary format. The file
pointer exists at the beginning of the file.

5 w It opens the file to write only. It overwrites the file if previously

exists or creates a new one if no file exists with the same name.
The file pointer exists at the beginning of the file.

6 wb It opens the file to write only in binary format. It overwrites the file
if it exists previously or creates a new one if no file exists with the
same name. The file pointer exists at the beginning of the file.

7 w+ It opens the file to write and read both. It is different from r+ in the
sense that it overwrites the previous file if one exists whereas r+
doesn't overwrite the previously written file. It creates a new file if
no file exists. The file pointer exists at the beginning of the file.

8 wb+ It opens the file to write and read both in binary format. The file
pointer exists at the beginning of the file.

9 a It opens the file in the append mode. The file pointer exists at the
end of the previously written file if exists any. It creates a new file
if no file exists with the same name.

10 ab It opens the file in the append mode in binary format. The pointer
exists at the end of the previously written file. It creates a new file
in binary format if no file exists with the same name.
 11 a+ It opens a file to append and read both. The file pointer remains at
the end of the file if a file exists. It creates a new file if no file exists
with the same name.

12 ab+ It opens a file to append and read both in binary format. The file
pointer remains at the end of the file.

Let's look at the simple example to open a file named "file.txt" (stored in the same directory)
in read mode and printing its content on the console.

Example
1. #opens the file file.txt in read mode
2. fileptr = open("file.txt","r")
3.
4. if fileptr:
5. print("file is opened successfully")

Output:

<class '_io.TextIOWrapper'>
file is opened successfully

The close() method

Once all the operations are done on the file, we must close it through our python script using
the close() method. Any unwritten information gets destroyed once the close() method is called
on a file object.

We can perform any operation on the file externally in the file system is the file is opened in
python, hence it is good practice to close the file once all the operations are done.

The syntax to use the close() method is given below.

1. fileobject.close()

Consider the following example.

Example
1. # opens the file file.txt in read mode
2. fileptr = open("file.txt","r")
3.
4. if fileptr:
5. print("file is opened successfully")
6.
7. #closes the opened file
8. fileptr.close()

Reading the file

To read a file using the python script, the python provides us the read() method. The read()
method reads a string from the file. It can read the data in the text as well as binary format.

The syntax of the read() method is given below.

1. fileobj.read(<count>)

Here, the count is the number of bytes to be read from the file starting from the beginning of
the file. If the count is not specified, then it may read the content of the file until the end.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. #open the file.txt in read mode. causes error if no such file exists.
2. fileptr = open("file.txt","r");
3.
4. #stores all the data of the file into the variable content
5. content = fileptr.read(9);
6.
7. # prints the type of the data stored in the file
8. print(type(content))
9.
10. #prints the content of the file
11. print(content)
12.
13. #closes the opened file
14. fileptr.close()

Output:

<class 'str'>
Hi, I am
 Read Lines of the file
Python facilitates us to read the file line by line by using a function readline(). The readline()
method reads the lines of the file from the beginning, i.e., if we use the readline() method two
times, then we can get the first two lines of the file.

Consider the following example which contains a function readline() that reads the first line of
our file "file.txt" containing three lines.

Example
1. #open the file.txt in read mode. causes error if no such file exists.
2. fileptr = open("file.txt","r");
3.
4. #stores all the data of the file into the variable content
5. content = fileptr.readline();
6.
7. # prints the type of the data stored in the file
8. print(type(content))
9.
10. #prints the content of the file
11. print(content)
12.
13. #closes the opened file
14. fileptr.close()

Output:

<class 'str'>
Hi, I am the file and being used as

Looping through the file

By looping through the lines of the file, we can read the whole file.

Example
1. #open the file.txt in read mode. causes an error if no such file exists.
2.
3.
4. fileptr = open("file.txt","r");
5.
6. #running a for loop
7. for i in fileptr:
8. print(i) # i contains each line of the file
 Output:

Hi, I am the file and being used as

an example to read a
file in python.

Writing the file

To write some text to a file, we need to open the file using the open method with one of the
following access modes.

a: It will append the existing file. The file pointer is at the end of the file. It creates a new file
if no file exists.

w: It will overwrite the file if any file exists. The file pointer is at the beginning of the file.

Consider the following example.

Example 1
1. #open the file.txt in append mode. Creates a new file if no such file exists
.
2. fileptr = open("file.txt","a");
3.
4. #appending the content to the file
5. fileptr.write("Python is the modern day language. It makes things so simp
le.")
6.
7.
8. #closing the opened file
9. fileptr.close();

Now, we can see that the content of the file is modified.

File.txt:

1. Hi, I am the file and being used as

2. an example to read a
3. file in python.
4. Python is the modern day language. It makes things so simple.
 Example 2
1. #open the file.txt in write mode.
2. fileptr = open("file.txt","w");
3.
4. #overwriting the content of the file
5. fileptr.write("Python is the modern day language. It makes things so simp
le.")
6.
7.
8. #closing the opened file
9. fileptr.close();

Now, we can check that all the previously written content of the file is overwritten with the
new text we have passed.

File.txt:

1. Python is the modern day language. It makes things so simple.

Creating a new file

The new file can be created by using one of the following access modes with the function
open(). x: it creates a new file with the specified name. It causes an error a file exists with the
same name.

a: It creates a new file with the specified name if no such file exists. It appends the content to
the file if the file already exists with the specified name.

w: It creates a new file with the specified name if no such file exists. It overwrites the existing
file.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. #open the file.txt in read mode. causes error if no such file exists.
2. fileptr = open("file2.txt","x");
3.
4. print(fileptr)
5.
6. if fileptr:
7. print("File created successfully");

Output:
 File created successfully

Using with statement with files

The with statement was introduced in python 2.5. The with statement is useful in the case of
manipulating the files. The with statement is used in the scenario where a pair of statements is
to be executed with a block of code in between.

The syntax to open a file using with statement is given below.

1. with open(<file name>, <access mode>) as <file-pointer>:

2. #statement suite

The advantage of using with statement is that it provides the guarantee to close the file
regardless of how the nested block exits.

It is always suggestible to use the with statement in the case of file s because, if the break,
return, or exception occurs in the nested block of code then it automatically closes the file. It
doesn't let the file to be corrupted.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. with open("file.txt",'r') as f:
2. content = f.read();
3. print(content)

Output:

Python is the modern day language. It makes things so simple.

File Pointer positions

Python provides the tell() method which is used to print the byte number at which the file
pointer exists. Consider the following example.

Example
1. # open the file file2.txt in read mode
2. fileptr = open("file2.txt","r")
3.
4. #initially the filepointer is at 0
5. print("The filepointer is at byte :",fileptr.tell())
6.
7. #reading the content of the file
8. content = fileptr.read();
9.
10. #after the read operation file pointer modifies. tell() returns the loc
ation of the fileptr.
11.
12. print("After reading, the filepointer is at:",fileptr.tell())

Output:

The filepointer is at byte : 0

After reading, the filepointer is at 26

Modifying file pointer position

In the real world applications, sometimes we need to change the file pointer location externally
since we may need to read or write the content at various locations.

For this purpose, the python provides us the seek() method which enables us to modify the file
pointer position externally.

The syntax to use the seek() method is given below.

1. <file-ptr>.seek(offset[, from)

The seek() method accepts two parameters:

offset: It refers to the new position of the file pointer within the file.

from: It indicates the reference position from where the bytes are to be moved. If it is set to 0,
the beginning of the file is used as the reference position. If it is set to 1, the current position
of the file pointer is used as the reference position. If it is set to 2, the end of the file pointer is
used as the reference position.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. # open the file file2.txt in read mode
2. fileptr = open("file2.txt","r")
3.
4. #initially the filepointer is at 0
5. print("The filepointer is at byte :",fileptr.tell())
6.
7. #changing the file pointer location to 10.
8. fileptr.seek(10);
9.
10. #tell() returns the location of the fileptr.
11. print("After reading, the filepointer is at:",fileptr.tell())
 Output:

The filepointer is at byte : 0

After reading, the filepointer is at 10

Python os module
The os module provides us the functions that are involved in file processing operations like
renaming, deleting, etc.

Let's look at some of the os module functions.

Renaming the file

The os module provides us the rename() method which is used to rename the specified file to
a new name. The syntax to use the rename() method is given below.

1. rename(?current-name?, ?new-name?)

Example
1. import os;
2.
3. #rename file2.txt to file3.txt
4. os.rename("file2.txt","file3.txt")

Removing the file

The os module provides us the remove() method which is used to remove the specified file.
The syntax to use the remove() method is given below.

1. remove(?file-name?)

Example
1. import os;
2.
3. #deleting the file named file3.txt
4. os.remove("file3.txt")

Creating the new directory

The mkdir() method is used to create the directories in the current working directory. The
syntax to create the new directory is given below.
1. mkdir(?directory name?)

Example
1. import os;
2.
3. #creating a new directory with the name new
4. os.mkdir("new")

Changing the current working directory

The chdir() method is used to change the current working directory to a specified directory.

The syntax to use the chdir() method is given below.

1. chdir("new-directory")

Example
1. import os;
2.
3. #changing the current working directory to new
4.
5. os.chdir("new")

The getcwd() method

This method returns the current working directory.

The syntax to use the getcwd() method is given below.

1. os.getcwd()

Example
1. import os;
2.
3. #printing the current working directory
4. print(os.getcwd())

Deleting directory
The rmdir() method is used to delete the specified directory.

The syntax to use the rmdir() method is given below.

1. os.rmdir(?directory name?)

Example
1. import os;
2.
3. #removing the new directory
4. os.rmdir("new")

Writing python output to the files

In python, there are the requirements to write the output of a python script to a file.

The check_call() method of module subprocess is used to execute a python script and write
the output of that script to a file.

The following example contains two python scripts. The script file1.py executes the script
file.py and writes its output to the text file output.txt

file.py:

1. temperatures=[10,-20,-289,100]
2. def c_to_f(c):
3. if c< -273.15:
4. return "That temperature doesn't make sense!"
5. else:
6. f=c*9/5+32
7. return f
8. for t in temperatures:
9. print(c_to_f(t))

file.py:

1. import subprocess
2.
3. with open("output.txt", "wb") as f:
4. subprocess.check_call(["python", "file.py"], stdout=f)

Output:

50
-4
That temperature doesn't make sense!
212

The file related methods

The file object provides the following methods to manipulate the files on various operating
systems.

SN Method Description

1 file.close() It closes the opened file. The file once closed, it

can't be read or write any more.

2 File.fush() It flushes the internal buffer.

3 File.fileno() It returns the file descriptor used by the

underlying implementation to request I/O from
the OS.

4 File.isatty() It returns true if the file is connected to a TTY

device, otherwise returns false.

5 File.next() It returns the next line from the file.

6 File.read([size]) It reads the file for the specified size.

7 File.readline([size]) It reads one line from the file and places the file
pointer to the beginning of the new line.

8 File.readlines([sizehint]) It returns a list containing all the lines of the file.

It reads the file until the EOF occurs using
readline() function.

9 File.seek(offset[,from) It modifies the position of the file pointer to a

specified offset with the specified reference.

10 File.tell() It returns the current position of the file pointer

within the file.

11 File.truncate([size]) It truncates the file to the optional specified size.

12 File.write(str) It writes the specified string to a file

13 File.writelines(seq) It writes a sequence of the strings to a file.

 Python Modules
A python module can be defined as a python program file which contains a python code
including python functions, class, or variables. In other words, we can say that our python
code file saved with the extension (.py) is treated as the module. We may have a runnable
code inside the python module.

Modules in Python provides us the flexibility to organize the code in a logical way.

To use the functionality of one module into another, we must have to import the specific
module.

Example
In this example, we will create a module named as file.py which contains a function func
that contains a code to print some message on the console.

Let's create the module named as file.py.

1. #displayMsg prints a message to the name being passed.

2. def displayMsg(name)
3. print("Hi "+name);

Here, we need to include this module into our main module to call the method displayMsg()
defined in the module named file.

Loading the module in our python code

 We need to load the module in our python code to use its functionality. Python provides
two types of statements as defined below.

1. The import statement

2. The from-import statement

The import statement

The import statement is used to import all the functionality of one module into another.
Here, we must notice that we can use the functionality of any python source file by
importing that file as the module into another python source file.

We can import multiple modules with a single import statement, but a module is loaded
once regardless of the number of times, it has been imported into our file.

The syntax to use the import statement is given below.

1. import module1,module2,........ module n

Hence, if we need to call the function displayMsg() defined in the file file.py, we have to
import that file as a module into our module as shown in the example below.

Example:
1. import file;
2. name = input("Enter the name?")
3. file.displayMsg(name)

Output:

Enter the name?John

Hi John

The from-import statement

Instead of importing the whole module into the namespace, python provides the flexibility
to import only the specific attributes of a module. This can be done by using from? import
statement. The syntax to use the from-import statement is given below.

1. from < module-name> import <name 1>, <name 2>..,<name n>

Consider the following module named as calculation which contains three functions as
summation, multiplication, and divide.

calculation.py:

1. #place the code in the calculation.py

2. def summation(a,b):
3. return a+b
4. def multiplication(a,b):
5. return a*b;
6. def divide(a,b):
7. return a/b;

Main.py:

1. from calculation import summation

2. #it will import only the summation() from calculation.py
3. a = int(input("Enter the first number"))
4. b = int(input("Enter the second number"))
5. print("Sum = ",summation(a,b)) #we do not need to specify the module name while acc
essing summation()

Output:

Enter the first number10

Enter the second number20
Sum = 30

The from...import statement is always better to use if we know the attributes to be

imported from the module in advance. It doesn't let our code to be heavier. We can also
import all the attributes from a module by using *.

Consider the following syntax.

1. from <module> import *

Renaming a module
Python provides us the flexibility to import some module with a specific name so that we
can use this name to use that module in our python source file.

The syntax to rename a module is given below.

1. import <module-name> as <specific-name>

Example
1. #the module calculation of previous example is imported in this example as cal.
2. import calculation as cal;
3. a = int(input("Enter a?"));
4. b = int(input("Enter b?"));
5. print("Sum = ",cal.summation(a,b))

Output:

Enter a?10
Enter b?20
 Sum = 30

Using dir() function

The dir() function returns a sorted list of names defined in the passed module. This list
contains all the sub-modules, variables and functions defined in this module.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. import json
2.
3. List = dir(json)
4.
5. print(List)

Output:

['JSONDecoder', 'JSONEncoder', '__all__', '__author__', '__builtins__',

'__cached__', '__doc__',
'__file__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__', '__path__', '__spec__',
'__version__',
'_default_decoder', '_default_encoder', 'decoder', 'dump', 'dumps',
'encoder', 'load', 'loads', 'scanner']

The reload() function

As we have already stated that, a module is loaded once regardless of the number of times
it is imported into the python source file. However, if you want to reload the already
imported module to re-execute the top-level code, python provides us the reload()
function. The syntax to use the reload() function is given below.

1. reload(<module-name>)

for example, to reload the module calculation defined in the previous example, we must
use the following line of code.

1. reload(calculation)

Scope of variables
In Python, variables are associated with two types of scopes. All the variables defined in
a module contain the global scope unless or until it is defined within a function.

All the variables defined inside a function contain a local scope that is limited to this
function itself. We can not access a local variable globally.

If two variables are defined with the same name with the two different scopes, i.e., local
and global, then the priority will always be given to the local variable.
 Consider the following example.

Example
1. name = "john"
2. def print_name(name):
3. print("Hi",name) #prints the name that is local to this function only.
4. name = input("Enter the name?")
5. print_name(name)

Output:

Hi David

Python packages
The packages in python facilitate the developer with the application development
environment by providing a hierarchical directory structure where a package contains sub-
packages, modules, and sub-modules. The packages are used to categorize the application
level code efficiently.

Let's create a package named Employees in your home directory. Consider the following
steps.

1. Create a directory with name Employees on path /home.

2. Create a python source file with name ITEmployees.py on the path /home/Employees.

ITEmployees.py

1. def getITNames():
2. List = ["John", "David", "Nick", "Martin"]
3. return List;

3. Similarly, create one more python file with name BPOEmployees.py and create a
function getBPONames().

4. Now, the directory Employees which we have created in the first step contains two
python modules. To make this directory a package, we need to include one more file here,
that is __init__.py which contains the import statements of the modules defined in this
directory.

__init__.py

1. from ITEmployees import getITNames

2. from BPOEmployees import getBPONames
 5. Now, the directory Employees has become the package containing two python
modules. Here we must notice that we must have to create __init__.py inside a directory
to convert this directory to a package.

6. To use the modules defined inside the package Employees, we must have to import this
in our python source file. Let's create a simple python source file at our home directory
(/home) which uses the modules defined in this package.

Test.py

1. import Employees
2. print(Employees.getNames())

Output:

['John', 'David', 'Nick', 'Martin']

We can have sub-packages inside the packages. We can nest the packages up to any level
depending upon the application requirements.

The following image shows the directory structure of an application Library management
system which contains three sub-packages as Admin, Librarian, and Student. The sub-
packages contain the python modules.
 Python Exceptions
An exception can be defined as an abnormal condition in a program resulting in the
disruption in the flow of the program.

Whenever an exception occurs, the program halts the execution, and thus the further code
is not executed. Therefore, an exception is the error which python script is unable to tackle
with.

Python provides us with the way to handle the Exception so that the other part of the code
can be executed without any disruption. However, if we do not handle the exception, the
interpreter doesn't execute all the code that exists after the that.

Common Exceptions
A list of common exceptions that can be thrown from a normal python program is given
below.

1. ZeroDivisionError: Occurs when a number is divided by zero.

2. NameError: It occurs when a name is not found. It may be local or global.
3. IndentationError: If incorrect indentation is given.
4. IOError: It occurs when Input Output operation fails.
5. EOFError: It occurs when the end of the file is reached, and yet operations are
being performed.

Problem without handling exceptions

As we have already discussed, the exception is an abnormal condition that halts the
execution of the program. Consider the following example.
 Example
1. a = int(input("Enter a:"))
2. b = int(input("Enter b:"))
3. c = a/b;
4. print("a/b = %d"%c)
5.
6. #other code:
7. print("Hi I am other part of the program")

Output:

Enter a:10
Enter b:0
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "exception-test.py", line 3, in <module>
c = a/b;
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

Exception handling in python

If the python program contains suspicious code that may throw the exception, we must
place that code in the try block. The try block must be followed with the except statement
which contains a block of code that will be executed if there is some exception in the try
block.

Syntax
1. try:
2. #block of code
3.
4. except Exception1:
5. #block of code
6.
7. except Exception2:
8. #block of code
9.
10. #other code
 We can also use the else statement with the try-except statement in which, we can place
the code which will be executed in the scenario if no exception occurs in the try block.

The syntax to use the else statement with the try-except statement is given below.

1. try:
2. #block of code
3.
4. except Exception1:
5. #block of code
6.
7. else:
8. #this code executes if no except block is executed

Example
1. try:
2. a = int(input("Enter a:"))
3. b = int(input("Enter b:"))
4. c = a/b;
5. print("a/b = %d"%c)
6. except Exception:
7. print("can't divide by zero")
8. else:
9. print("Hi I am else block")

Output:

Enter a:10
Enter b:2
 a/b = 5
Hi I am else block

The except statement with no exception

Python provides the flexibility not to specify the name of exception with the except
statement.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. try:
2. a = int(input("Enter a:"))
3. b = int(input("Enter b:"))
4. c = a/b;
5. print("a/b = %d"%c)
6. except:
7. print("can't divide by zero")
8. else:
9. print("Hi I am else block")

Output:

Enter a:10
Enter b:0
can't divide by zero

Points to remember
1. Python facilitates us to not specify the exception with the except statement.
2. We can declare multiple exceptions in the except statement since the try block may
contain the statements which throw the different type of exceptions.
3. We can also specify an else block along with the try-except statement which will
be executed if no exception is raised in the try block.
 4. The statements that don't throw the exception should be placed inside the else
block.

Example
1. try:
2. #this will throw an exception if the file doesn't exist.
3. fileptr = open("file.txt","r")
4. except IOError:
5. print("File not found")
6. else:
7. print("The file opened successfully")
8. fileptr.close()

Output:

File not found

Declaring multiple exceptions

The python allows us to declare the multiple exceptions with the except clause. Declaring
multiple exceptions is useful in the cases where a try block throws multiple exceptions.

Syntax
1. try:
2. #block of code
3.
4. except (<Exception 1>,<Exception 2>,<Exception 3>,...<Exception n>)
5. #block of code
6.
7. else:
8. #block of code
Example
1. try:
2. a=10/0;
3. except ArithmeticError,StandardError:
4. print "Arithmetic Exception"
5. else:
6. print "Successfully Done"

Output:

Arithmetic Exception
 The finally block
We can use the finally block with the try block in which, we can pace the important code
which must be executed before the try statement throws an exception.

The syntax to use the finally block is given below.

syntax
1. try:
2. # block of code
3. # this may throw an exception
4. finally:
5. # block of code
6. # this will always be executed

Example
1. try:
2. fileptr = open("file.txt","r")
3. try:
4. fileptr.write("Hi I am good")
5. finally:
6. fileptr.close()
7. print("file closed")
8. except:
9. print("Error")

Output:

file closed
Error
 Raising exceptions
An exception can be raised by using the raise clause in python. The syntax to use the raise
statement is given below.

syntax
1. raise Exception_class,<value>

Points to remember
1. To raise an exception, raise statement is used. The exception class name follows
it.
2. An exception can be provided with a value that can be given in the parenthesis.
3. To access the value "as" keyword is used. "e" is used as a reference variable which
stores the value of the exception.

Example
1. try:
2. age = int(input("Enter the age?"))
3. if age<18:
4. raise ValueError;
5. else:
6. print("the age is valid")
7. except ValueError:
8. print("The age is not valid")

Output:

Enter the age?17

The age is not valid
 Example
1. try:
2. a = int(input("Enter a?"))
3. b = int(input("Enter b?"))
4. if b is 0:
5. raise ArithmeticError;
6. else:
7. print("a/b = ",a/b)
8. except ArithmeticError:
9. print("The value of b can't be 0")

Output:

Enter a?10
Enter b?0
The value of b can't be 0

Custom Exception
The python allows us to create our exceptions that can be raised from the program and
caught using the except clause. However, we suggest you read this section after visiting
the Python object and classes.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. class ErrorInCode(Exception):
2. def __init__(self, data):
3. self.data = data
4. def __str__(self):
5. return repr(self.data)
6.
7. try:
8. raise ErrorInCode(2000)
9. except ErrorInCode as ae:
10. print("Received error:", ae.data)

Output:

Received error: 2000

 Python Date and time
In the real world applications, there are the scenarios where we need to work with the
date and time. There are the examples in python where we have to schedule the script to
run at some particular timings.

In python, the date is not a data type, but we can work with the date objects by importing
the module named with datetime, time, and calendar.

In this section of the tutorial, we will discuss how to work with the date and time objects
in python.

Tick
In python, the time instants are counted since 12 AM, 1st January 1970. The function
time() of the module time returns the total number of ticks spent since 12 AM, 1st January
1970. A tick can be seen as the smallest unit to measure the time.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. import time;
2.
3. #prints the number of ticks spent since 12 AM, 1st January 1970
4.
5. print(time.time())

Output:

1545124460.9151757

How to get the current time?

 The localtime() functions of the time module are used to get the current time tuple.
Consider the following example.

Example
1. import time;
2.
3. #returns a time tuple
4.
5. print(time.localtime(time.time()))

Output:

time.struct_time(tm_year=2018, tm_mon=12, tm_mday=18, tm_hour=15, tm_min=1,

tm_sec=32, tm_wday=1, tm_yday=352, tm_isdst=0)

Time tuple
The time is treated as the tuple of 9 numbers. Let's look at the members of the time tuple.

Index Attribute Values

0 Year 4 digit (for example 2018)

1 Month 1 to 12

2 Day 1 to 31

3 Hour 0 to 23

4 Minute 0 to 59

5 Second 0 to 60

6 Day of weak 0 to 6

7 Day of year 1 to 366

8 Daylight savings -1, 0, 1 , or -1

Getting formatted time

The time can be formatted by using the asctime() function of time module. It returns the
formatted time for the time tuple being passed.

Example
1. import time;
2.
3. #returns the formatted time
4.
5. print(time.asctime(time.localtime(time.time())))

Output:

Tue Dec 18 15:31:39 2018

Python sleep time

The sleep() method of time module is used to stop the execution of the script for a given
amount of time. The output will be delayed for the number of seconds given as float.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. import time
2. for i in range(0,5):
3. print(i)
4. #Each element will be printed after 1 second
5. time.sleep(1)

Output:

0
1
2
3
4

The datetime Module

The datetime module enables us to create the custom date objects, perform various
operations on dates like the comparison, etc.

To work with dates as date objects, we have to import datetime module into the python
source code.

Consider the following example to get the datetime object representation for the current
time.
 Example
1. import datetime;
2.
3. #returns the current datetime object
4.
5. print(datetime.datetime.now())

Output:

2018-12-18 16:16:45.462778

Creating date objects

We can create the date objects by passing the desired date in the datetime constructor
for which the date objects are to be created.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. import datetime;
2.
3. #returns the datetime object for the specified date
4.
5. print(datetime.datetime(2018,12,10))

Output:

2018-12-10 00:00:00

We can also specify the time along with the date to create the datetime object. Consider
the following example.

Example
1. import datetime;
2.
3. #returns the datetime object for the specified time
4.
5. print(datetime.datetime(2018,12,10,14,15,10))

Output:

2018-12-10 14:15:10
 Comparison of two dates
We can compare two dates by using the comparison operators like >, >=, <, and <=.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. from datetime import datetime as dt
2. #Compares the time. If the time is in between 8AM and 4PM, then it prints working hour
s otherwise it prints fun hours
3. if dt(dt.now().year,dt.now().month,dt.now().day,8)<dt.now()<dt(dt.now().year,dt.now(
).month,dt.now().day,16):
4. print("Working hours....")
5. else:
6. print("fun hours")

Output:

fun hours

The calendar module

Python provides a calendar object that contains various methods to work with the
calendars.

Consider the following example to print the Calendar of the last month of 2018.

Example
1. import calendar;
2. cal = calendar.month(2018,12)
3. #printing the calendar of December 2018
4. print(cal)

Output:
 Printing the calendar of whole year
The prcal() method of calendar module is used to print the calendar of the whole year.
The year of which the calendar is to be printed must be passed into this method.

Example
1. import calendar
2.
3. #printing the calendar of the year 2019
4. calendar.prcal(2019)

Output:
 Python Regular Expressions
The regular expressions can be defined as the sequence of characters which are used to
search for a pattern in a string. The module re provides the support to use regex in the
python program. The re module throws an exception if there is some error while using the
regular expression.

The re module must be imported to use the regex functionalities in python.

1. import re

Regex Functions
The following regex functions are used in the python.

SN Function Description

1 match This method matches the regex pattern in the string with the
optional flag. It returns true if a match is found in the string
otherwise it returns false.

2 search This method returns the match object if there is a match found
in the string.

3 findall It returns a list that contains all the matches of a pattern in the
string.

4 split Returns a list in which the string has been split in each match.

5 sub Replace one or many matches in the string.

Forming a regular expression

A regular expression can be formed by using the mix of meta-characters, special
sequences, and sets.

Meta-Characters
Metacharacter is a character with the specified meaning.

Metacharacter Description Example

 [] It represents the set of characters. "[a-z]"

\ It represents the special sequence. "\r"

. It signals that any character is present at some "Ja.v."

specific place.

^ It represents the pattern present at the beginning of "^Java"

the string.

$ It represents the pattern present at the end of the "point"

string.

* It represents zero or more occurrences of a pattern "hello*"

in the string.

+ It represents one or more occurrences of a pattern "hello+"

in the string.

{} The specified number of occurrences of a pattern the "java{2}"

string.

| It represents either this or that character is present. "java|point"

() Capture and group

Special Sequences
Special sequences are the sequences containing \ followed by one of the characters.

Character Description

\A It returns a match if the specified characters are present at the beginning

of the string.

\b It returns a match if the specified characters are present at the beginning

or the end of the string.
 \B It returns a match if the specified characters are present at the beginning
of the string but not at the end.

\d It returns a match if the string contains digits [0-9].

\D It returns a match if the string doesn't contain the digits [0-9].

\s It returns a match if the string contains any white space character.

\S It returns a match if the string doesn't contain any white space character.

\w It returns a match if the string contains any word characters.

\W It returns a match if the string doesn't contain any word.

\Z Returns a match if the specified characters are at the end of the string.

Sets
A set is a group of characters given inside a pair of square brackets. It represents the
special meaning.

SN Set Description

1 [arn] Returns a match if the string contains any of the specified

characters in the set.

2 [a-n] Returns a match if the string contains any of the characters

between a to n.

3 [^arn] Returns a match if the string contains the characters except a,

r, and n.

4 [0123] Returns a match if the string contains any of the specified

digits.
 5 [0-9] Returns a match if the string contains any digit between 0 and
9.

6 [0-5][0-9] Returns a match if the string contains any digit between 00

and 59.

10 [a-zA-Z] Returns a match if the string contains any alphabet (lower-

case or upper-case).

The findall() function

This method returns a list containing a list of all matches of a pattern within the string. It
returns the patterns in the order they are found. If there are no matches, then an empty
list is returned.

Consider the following example.

Example

1. import re
2.
3. str = "How are you. How is everything"
4.
5. matches = re.findall("How", str)
6.
7. print(matches)
8.
9. print(matches)

Output:

['How', 'How']

The match object

The match object contains the information about the search and the output. If there is no
match found, the None object is returned.

Example
1. import re
2.
3. str = "How are you. How is everything"
4.
5. matches = re.search("How", str)
6.
7. print(type(matches))
8.
9. print(matches) #matches is the search object

Output:

<class '_sre.SRE_Match'>
<_sre.SRE_Match object; span=(0, 3), match='How'>

The Match object methods

There are the following methods associated with the Match object.

1. span(): It returns the tuple containing the starting and end position of the match.
2. string(): It returns a string passed into the function.
3. group(): The part of the string is returned where the match is found.

Example
1. import re
2.
3. str = "How are you. How is everything"
4.
5. matches = re.search("How", str)
6.
7. print(matches.span())
8.
9. print(matches.group())
10.
11. print(matches.string)

Output:

(0, 3)
How
How are you. How is everything
 Python OOPs Concepts
Like other general purpose languages, python is also an object-oriented language since
its beginning. Python is an object-oriented programming language. It allows us to develop
applications using an Object Oriented approach. In Python, we can easily create and use
classes and objects.

Major principles of object-oriented programming system are given below.

o Object
o Class
o Method
o Inheritance
o Polymorphism
o Data Abstraction
o Encapsulation
 Object
The object is an entity that has state and behavior. It may be any real-world object like
the mouse, keyboard, chair, table, pen, etc.

Everything in Python is an object, and almost everything has attributes and methods. All
functions have a built-in attribute __doc__, which returns the doc string defined in the
function source code.

Class
The class can be defined as a collection of objects. It is a logical entity that has some
specific attributes and methods. For example: if you have an employee class then it should
contain an attribute and method, i.e. an email id, name, age, salary, etc.

Syntax
1. class ClassName:
2. <statement-1>
3. .
4. .
5. <statement-N>

Method
The method is a function that is associated with an object. In Python, a method is not
unique to class instances. Any object type can have methods.

Inheritance
Inheritance is the most important aspect of object-oriented programming which simulates
the real world concept of inheritance. It specifies that the child object acquires all the
properties and behaviors of the parent object.

By using inheritance, we can create a class which uses all the properties and behavior of
another class. The new class is known as a derived class or child class, and the one whose
properties are acquired is known as a base class or parent class.

It provides re-usability of the code.

Polymorphism
Polymorphism contains two words "poly" and "morphs". Poly means many and Morphs
means form, shape. By polymorphism, we understand that one task can be performed in
different ways. For example You have a class animal, and all animals speak. But they
speak differently. Here, the "speak" behavior is polymorphic in the sense and depends on
the animal. So, the abstract "animal" concept does not actually "speak", but specific
animals (like dogs and cats) have a concrete implementation of the action "speak".

Encapsulation
Encapsulation is also an important aspect of object-oriented programming. It is used to
restrict access to methods and variables. In encapsulation, code and data are wrapped
together within a single unit from being modified by accident.

Data Abstraction
Data abstraction and encapsulation both are often used as synonyms. Both are nearly
synonym because data abstraction is achieved through encapsulation.

Abstraction is used to hide internal details and show only functionalities. Abstracting
something means to give names to things so that the name captures the core of what a
function or a whole program does.

Object-oriented vs Procedure-oriented
Programming languages
Index Object-oriented Programming Procedural Programming

1. Object-oriented programming is the Procedural programming uses a list

problem-solving approach and used of instructions to do computation
where computation is done by using step by step.
objects.

2. It makes the development and In procedural programming, It is not

maintenance easier. easy to maintain the codes when the
project becomes lengthy.

3. It simulates the real world entity. So It doesn't simulate the real world. It
real-world problems can be easily works on step by step instructions
solved through oops. divided into small parts called
functions.

4. It provides data hiding. So it is more Procedural language doesn't provide

secure than procedural languages. You any proper way for data binding, so
cannot access private data from it is less secure.
anywhere.
 5. Example of object-oriented Example of procedural languages
programming languages is C++, Java, are: C, Fortran, Pascal, VB etc.
.Net, Python, C#, etc.

Python Class and Objects

As we have already discussed, a class is a virtual entity and can be seen as a blueprint of
an object. The class came into existence when it instantiated. Let's understand it by an
example.

Suppose a class is a prototype of a building. A building contains all the details about the
floor, doors, windows, etc. we can make as many buildings as we want, based on these
details. Hence, the building can be seen as a class, and we can create as many objects of
this class.

On the other hand, the object is the instance of a class. The process of creating an object
can be called as instantiation.

In this section of the tutorial, we will discuss creating classes and objects in python. We
will also talk about how an attribute is accessed by using the class object.

Creating classes in python

In python, a class can be created by using the keyword class followed by the class name.
The syntax to create a class is given below.

Syntax
1. class ClassName:
2. #statement_suite
 In python, we must notice that each class is associated with a documentation string which
can be accessed by using <class-name>.__doc__. A class contains a statement suite
including fields, constructor, function, etc. definition.

Consider the following example to create a class Employee which contains two fields as
Employee id, and name.

The class also contains a function display() which is used to display the information of the
Employee.

Example
1. class Employee:
2. id = 10;
3. name = "ayush"
4. def display (self):
5. print(self.id,self.name)

Here, the self is used as a reference variable which refers to the current class object. It is
always the first argument in the function definition. However, using self is optional in the
function call.

Creating an instance of the class

A class needs to be instantiated if we want to use the class attributes in another class or
method. A class can be instantiated by calling the class using the class name.

The syntax to create the instance of the class is given below.

1. <object-name> = <class-name>(<arguments>)

The following example creates the instance of the class Employee defined in the above
example.

Example
1. class Employee:
2. id = 10;
3. name = "John"
4. def display (self):
5. print("ID: %d \nName: %s"%(self.id,self.name))
6. emp = Employee()
7. emp.display()

Output:

ID: 10
Name: ayush
 Python Constructor
A constructor is a special type of method (function) which is used to initialize the instance
members of the class.

Constructors can be of two types.

1. Parameterized Constructor
2. Non-parameterized Constructor

Constructor definition is executed when we create the object of this class. Constructors
also verify that there are enough resources for the object to perform any start-up task.

Creating the constructor in python

In python, the method __init__ simulates the constructor of the class. This method is
called when the class is instantiated. We can pass any number of arguments at the time
of creating the class object, depending upon __init__ definition. It is mostly used to
initialize the class attributes. Every class must have a constructor, even if it simply relies
on the default constructor.

Consider the following example to initialize the Employee class attributes.

Example
1. class Employee:
2. def __init__(self,name,id):
3. self.id = id;
4. self.name = name;
5. def display (self):
6. print("ID: %d \nName: %s"%(self.id,self.name))
7. emp1 = Employee("John",101)
8. emp2 = Employee("David",102)
9.
10. #accessing display() method to print employee 1 information
11.
12. emp1.display();
13.
14. #accessing display() method to print employee 2 information
15. emp2.display();

Output:

ID: 101
Name: John
ID: 102
Name: David

Example: Counting the number of objects of a

class
1. class Student:
2. count = 0
3. def __init__(self):
4. Student.count = Student.count + 1
5. s1=Student()
6. s2=Student()
7. s3=Student()
8. print("The number of students:",Student.count)

Output:

The number of students: 3

Python Non-Parameterized Constructor Example

1. class Student:
2. # Constructor - non parameterized
3. def __init__(self):
4. print("This is non parametrized constructor")
5. def show(self,name):
6. print("Hello",name)
7. student = Student()
8. student.show("John")
 Output:

This is non parametrized constructor

Hello John

Python Parameterized Constructor Example

1. class Student:
2. # Constructor - parameterized
3. def __init__(self, name):
4. print("This is parametrized constructor")
5. self.name = name
6. def show(self):
7. print("Hello",self.name)
8. student = Student("John")
9. student.show()

Output:

This is parametrized constructor

Hello John

Python In-built class functions

The in-built functions defined in the class are described in the following table.

SN Function Description

1 getattr(obj,name,default) It is used to access the attribute of the object.

2 setattr(obj, name,value) It is used to set a particular value to the

specific attribute of an object.

3 delattr(obj, name) It is used to delete a specific attribute.

4 hasattr(obj, name) It returns true if the object contains some

specific attribute.

Example
1. class Student:
2. def __init__(self,name,id,age):
3. self.name = name;
4. self.id = id;
5. self.age = age
6.
7. #creates the object of the class Student
8. s = Student("John",101,22)
9.
10. #prints the attribute name of the object s
11. print(getattr(s,'name'))
12.
13. # reset the value of attribute age to 23
14. setattr(s,"age",23)
15.
16. # prints the modified value of age
17. print(getattr(s,'age'))
18.
19. # prints true if the student contains the attribute with name id
20.
21. print(hasattr(s,'id'))
22. # deletes the attribute age
23. delattr(s,'age')
24.
25. # this will give an error since the attribute age has been deleted
26. print(s.age)

Output:

John
23
True
AttributeError: 'Student' object has no attribute 'age'

Built-in class attributes

Along with the other attributes, a python class also contains some built-in class attributes
which provide information about the class.

The built-in class attributes are given in the below table.

SN Attribute Description

1 __dict__ It provides the dictionary containing the information about

the class namespace.

2 __doc__ It contains a string which has the class documentation

3 __name__ It is used to access the class name.

4 __module__ It is used to access the module in which, this class is defined.

 5 __bases__ It contains a tuple including all base classes.

Example
1. class Student:
2. def __init__(self,name,id,age):
3. self.name = name;
4. self.id = id;
5. self.age = age
6. def display_details(self):
7. print("Name:%s, ID:%d, age:%d"%(self.name,self.id))
8. s = Student("John",101,22)
9. print(s.__doc__)
10. print(s.__dict__)
11. print(s.__module__)

Output:

None
{'name': 'John', 'id': 101, 'age': 22}
__main__

Python Inheritance
Inheritance is an important aspect of the object-oriented paradigm. Inheritance provides
code reusability to the program because we can use an existing class to create a new class
instead of creating it from scratch.

In inheritance, the child class acquires the properties and can access all the data members
and functions defined in the parent class. A child class can also provide its specific
implementation to the functions of the parent class. In this section of the tutorial, we will
discuss inheritance in detail.

In python, a derived class can inherit base class by just mentioning the base in the bracket
after the derived class name. Consider the following syntax to inherit a base class into the
derived class.

Syntax
1. class derived-class(base class):
2. <class-suite>
 A class can inherit multiple classes by mentioning all of them inside the bracket. Consider
the following syntax.

Syntax
1. class derive-class(<base class 1>, <base class 2>, ..... <base class n>):
2. <class - suite>

Example 1
1. class Animal:
2. def speak(self):
3. print("Animal Speaking")
4. #child class Dog inherits the base class Animal
5. class Dog(Animal):
6. def bark(self):
7. print("dog barking")
8. d = Dog()
9. d.bark()
10. d.speak()

Output:

dog barking
Animal Speaking

Python Multi-Level inheritance

Multi-Level inheritance is possible in python like other object-oriented languages. Multi-
level inheritance is archived when a derived class inherits another derived class. There is
no limit on the number of levels up to which, the multi-level inheritance is archived in
python.

The syntax of multi-level inheritance is given below.

 Syntax
1. class class1:
2. <class-suite>
3. class class2(class1):
4. <class suite>
5. class class3(class2):
6. <class suite>
7. .
8. .

Example
1. class Animal:
2. def speak(self):
3. print("Animal Speaking")
4. #The child class Dog inherits the base class Animal
5. class Dog(Animal):
6. def bark(self):
7. print("dog barking")
8. #The child class Dogchild inherits another child class Dog
9. class DogChild(Dog):
10. def eat(self):
11. print("Eating bread...")
12. d = DogChild()
13. d.bark()
14. d.speak()
15. d.eat()

Output:

dog barking
Animal Speaking
Eating bread...

Python Multiple inheritance

Python provides us the flexibility to inherit multiple base classes in the child class.
 The syntax to perform multiple inheritance is given below.

Syntax
1. class Base1:
2. <class-suite>
3.
4. class Base2:
5. <class-suite>
6. .
7. .
8. .
9. class BaseN:
10. <class-suite>
11.
12. class Derived(Base1, Base2, ...... BaseN):
13. <class-suite>

Example
1. class Calculation1:
2. def Summation(self,a,b):
3. return a+b;
4. class Calculation2:
5. def Multiplication(self,a,b):
6. return a*b;
7. class Derived(Calculation1,Calculation2):
8. def Divide(self,a,b):
9. return a/b;
10. d = Derived()
11. print(d.Summation(10,20))
12. print(d.Multiplication(10,20))
13. print(d.Divide(10,20))

Output:

30
200
0.5

The issubclass(sub,sup) method

The issubclass(sub, sup) method is used to check the relationships between the specified
classes. It returns true if the first class is the subclass of the second class, and false
otherwise.

Consider the following example.

 Example
1. class Calculation1:
2. def Summation(self,a,b):
3. return a+b;
4. class Calculation2:
5. def Multiplication(self,a,b):
6. return a*b;
7. class Derived(Calculation1,Calculation2):
8. def Divide(self,a,b):
9. return a/b;
10. d = Derived()
11. print(issubclass(Derived,Calculation2))
12. print(issubclass(Calculation1,Calculation2))

Output:

True
False

The isinstance (obj, class) method

The isinstance() method is used to check the relationship between the objects and classes.
It returns true if the first parameter, i.e., obj is the instance of the second parameter, i.e.,
class.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. class Calculation1:
2. def Summation(self,a,b):
3. return a+b;
4. class Calculation2:
5. def Multiplication(self,a,b):
6. return a*b;
7. class Derived(Calculation1,Calculation2):
8. def Divide(self,a,b):
9. return a/b;
10. d = Derived()
11. print(isinstance(d,Derived))

Output:

True

Method Overriding
We can provide some specific implementation of the parent class method in our child class.
When the parent class method is defined in the child class with some specific
 implementation, then the concept is called method overriding. We may need to perform
method overriding in the scenario where the different definition of a parent class method
is needed in the child class.

Consider the following example to perform method overriding in python.

Example
1. class Animal:
2. def speak(self):
3. print("speaking")
4. class Dog(Animal):
5. def speak(self):
6. print("Barking")
7. d = Dog()
8. d.speak()

Output:

Barking

Real Life Example of method overriding

1. class Bank:
2. def getroi(self):
3. return 10;
4. class SBI(Bank):
5. def getroi(self):
6. return 7;
7.
8. class ICICI(Bank):
9. def getroi(self):
10. return 8;
11. b1 = Bank()
12. b2 = SBI()
13. b3 = ICICI()
14. print("Bank Rate of interest:",b1.getroi());
15. print("SBI Rate of interest:",b2.getroi());
16. print("ICICI Rate of interest:",b3.getroi());

Output:

Bank Rate of interest: 10

SBI Rate of interest: 7
ICICI Rate of interest: 8

Data abstraction in python

Abstraction is an important aspect of object-oriented programming. In python, we can
also perform data hiding by adding the double underscore (___) as a prefix to the attribute
which is to be hidden. After this, the attribute will not be visible outside of the class through
the object.

Consider the following example.

 Example
1. class Employee:
2. __count = 0;
3. def __init__(self):
4. Employee.__count = Employee.__count+1
5. def display(self):
6. print("The number of employees",Employee.__count)
7. emp = Employee()
8. emp2 = Employee()
9. try:
10. print(emp.__count)
11. finally:
12. emp.display()

Output:

The number of employees 2

AttributeError: 'Employee' object has no attribute '__count'