NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

ANDHRA PRADESH, TADEPALLIGUDEM
INDIA

CIRCUITS LABORATORY MANUAL

 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

List of contents

1. Frequency response of second order RLC series circuit

2. Time response of second order RLC series circuit

3. Open circuit, Short circuit and ABCD parameters of two port networks

4. Verification of Kirchhoff’s laws and Tellegen’s Theorem

5. Verification of superposition and Thevenin’s Theorem

6. Verification of Maximum power transfer and Reciprocity Theorems

7. Phase lead network and Polar plots of Phasors I, VR, VC and VRC

8. Measurement of active and reactive powers of a 3-phase network using two watt-meters.

9. Simulation of Frequency response of second order RLC series circuit using PSPICE

10. Simulation of Time response of second order RLC series circuit using PSPICE

11. Verification of superposition and Thevenin’s Theorem using PSPICE

 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

EE305 Circuits lab PCC 0-0-3 2 Credits

Pre-requisites: EE202, EE251

Course Outcomes: At the end of the course the student will be able to:

CO1 Validate network theorems

CO2 Determine Z, Y and ABCD parameters for a given two port network

CO3 Evaluate the time response and frequency response characteristics of RLC series circuit
and their response conditions.

CO4 Simulate electrical circuits using PSPICE

Mapping of course outcomes with program outcomes

Course PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10
Outcomes

CO1 3 2 1 3 - - - - - -

CO2 1 1 3 3 - - 3 - - -

CO3 1 1 3 3 - - 3 - - -

CO4 - 1 2 3 - - 3 - - -
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

1.FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF SECOND ORDER RLC SERIES

CIRCUIT
AIM: To determine frequency response of a second order system and evaluation of Frequency
domain specifications.
THEORY: The frequency response of a system or a component is normally performed by
keeping the amplitude A fixed and determining B and Φ for a suitable range of frequencies
where steady state output may be represented as c(t) = B sin(wt + Φ) The ease and Accuracy of
measurements are some of the advantages of the frequency response method. Without the
knowledge of transfer function, the frequency response of stable open loop system can be
obtained experimentally or the systems with very large time constants, the frequency response
test is cumbersome to perform. We can use the data obtained from measurements on the physical
system without deriving its mathematical model. Nyquist, bode, Nichols etc., are some of the
frequency response methods. For difficult cases, such as conditionally stable systems, Nyquist
Plot is probably the only method to analyze stability.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Second order system study unit, Function generator, wires multi-meter ,CRO.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. A sinusoidal signal with amplitude of 1V is applied to the circuit.
3. The frequency is varied in steps and at each step frequency, phase angle, output is noted down.
4. A frequency response characteristic is plotted.
5. From the graph note down M R, ωR , ωC .

MODEL CALCULATIONS:
1
ω0 =
√LC

𝑅 𝑐
ζ= √
2 𝐿

FREQUENCY DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS:

ωr = ωn √ (1- 2ζ 2 )
M R = 1/2ζ √ (1- ζ 2)
ώd = ωn √ (1- ζ 2 )

MODEL GRAPH:
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RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. State the advantages and limitations of frequency
domain approach.

2. Define bandwidth.
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

2.TIME RESPONSE OF SECOND ORDER RLC SERIES

CIRCUIT
AIM: To determine time response of a second order RLC series and evaluation of time domain
specifications.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Second order system study unit, Function generator, wires multi-meter, CRO.
THEORY:
RLC circuits are widely used in a variety of applications such as filters in communications
systems, ignition systems in automobiles, defibrillator circuits in biomedical applications, etc.
The analysis of RLC circuits is more complex than of the RC circuits we have seen in the
previous lab. RLC circuits have a much richer and interesting response than the previously
studied RC or RL circuits. A summary of the response is given below.

Lets assume a series RLC circuit as is shown in Figure 1. The discussion is also applicable to
other RLC circuits such as the parallel circuit.

Figure 1: Series RLC circuit

By writing KVL one gets a second order differential equation. The solution consists of two parts:

x(t) = xn(t) + xp(t),

in which xn(t) is the complementary solution (=solution of the homogeneous differential equation
also called the natural response) and a xp(t) is the particular solution (also called forced
response). Lets focus on the complementary solution. The form of this solution depends on the
roots of the characteristic equation,

…………….(1)
in which is the damping ratio and is the undamped resonant frequency. The roots of the
quadratic equation are equal to,
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

……………..(1b)

For the example of the series RLC circuit one has the following characteristic equation for the
current iL(t) or vC(t),
s2 + R/L.s + 1/LC =0. (2)
Depending on the value of the damping ratio one has three possible cases:

Case 1: Critically damped response: two equal roots s= s1= s2

……………..(3)

The total response consists of the sum of the complementary and the particular solution. The case
of a critically damped response to a unit input step function is shown in Figure 2.

Case 2: Overdamped response: two real and unequal roots s1 and s2

……………….(4)
Figure 2 shows an overdamped response to a unit input step function.

Figure 2: Critically and overdamped response to a unit input step function.

Case 3: Underdamped response: two complex roots

 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

……..(5)
Figure 3 shows an under damped response to a unit input step function.

Figure 3: Under damped response to a unit input step function.

VIVA VOICE:

Q1. What is Time response of the system?

Q2. How Time response of the system is divided?

 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

3.ANALYSIS OF OPEN CIRCUIT, SHORT CIRCUIT AND ABCD

PARAMETERS OF TWO PORT NETWORKS
3.A) VERIFICATION OF ‘Z’ PARAMETERS OF A TWO PORT
NETWORK
AIM: To calculate and verify 'Z' parameters of two-port network.

APPARATUS:

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED TYPE RANGE QUANTITY

Variable resistors Potentiometer 220 5
ohms,1kiloohms,500
ohms
Ammeter DC 0-200mA 1
Voltmeter DC 0-20V,0-200V 2
Regulated power supply DC source 0-30 V dc 1
0-1A
Multimeter Digital Multi range 1
Patch chords As per
requirement

THEORY: In Z parameters of a two-port, the input & output voltages V1& V2 can be expressed
in terms of input & output currents I1& I2. Out of four variables (i.e. V1, V2, I1, I2) V1& V2 are
dependent variables whereas I1 & I2 are independent variables. Thus,

V1 = Z11I1+ Z12 I2 -----(1)

V2 = Z21I1 + Z22 I2 ----(2)

Here Z11& Z22 are the input & output driving point impedance's while Z12 & Z21 are the reverse
& forward transfer impedance's.
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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig. & switch ‘ON’ the experimental board.

2. First open the output terminal & supply 20V to input terminal. Measure Output Voltage &
Input Current.

3. Secondly, open input terminal & supply 20V to output terminal. Measure I/P Voltage & O/P
current using multi-meter.

4.Calculate the values of Z parameter using Equation (1) & (2).

5. Switch ‘OFF’ the supply after taking the readings.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

When output is open circuited I2=0

V1(V) I1(mA) V2(V)

15
20
30

When output is open circuited I1=0

V2(V) I2(mA) V1(V)

15
20
30
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MODEL CALCULATION:

Z11=V1/I1

Z12=V2/I1

Z21=V2/I1

Z22=V2/I2

COMPARISON OF THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL PARAMETERS:

Parameters Z11 Z12 Z21 Z22

Theoretical
Practical
%error

RESULT:

DISCUSSION: The Z-parameters are open circuit parameters.

PRECAUTIONS:

a) Make the connections according to the circuit diagram. Power supply should be switched off.

b) Connections should be tight.

c) Note the readings carefully.

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VIVA VOICE:

Q1. Define Z parameters?

Q2. List the four variables used in Z-

parameter representation

Q3. List the two dependent variables

used in Z- parameter representation

Q4. List the two independent variables

used in Z- parameter representation.

Q5. Define input driving point

impedance

Q6. Define output driving point

impedance

Q7. Define reverse transfer impedance.

Q8. Define forward transfer impedance

Q9. Write condition for reciprocity

Q10.Write condition for symmetry.

 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

3.B) VERIFICATION OF ‘Y’ PARAMETERS OF A TWO PORT

NETWORK
AIM: To calculate and verify 'Y' parameters of a two-port network

APPARATUS:

S.NO EQUIPMENT REQUIRED TYPE RANGE QUANTITY

1. Variable resistors Potentiometer 220 ohms,1kiloohms 5
,500 ohms
2. Ammeter DC 0-200mA 1
3. Voltmeter DC 0-20V,0-200V 2
4. Regulated power supply DC source 0-30 V dc 1
0-1A
5. Multimeter Digital Multi range 1
6.. Patch chords As per
requirement

THEORY: In Y parameters of a two port, the input & output currents I1 & I2 can be expressed
in terms of input & output voltages V1& V2. Out of four variables (i.e, I1, I2, V1, V2) I1& I2 are
dependent variables whereas V1 & V2 are independent variables.

I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2 ------(1)

I2 = Y21V1 + Y22V2 -------(2)

Here Y11& Y22 are the input & output driving point Admittance's

while Y12& Y21are the reverse & forward transfer Admittance's.

 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig. & switch ‘ON’ the experimental board.

2. First short the Output terminal & supply 20V to I/P terminal. Measure O/P & I/P current.

3. Secondly, short Input terminal & supply 20V to O/P terminal. Measure I/P & O/P current
using multi-meter.

4. Calculate the values of Y parameter using Eqn. (1) & (2).

5. Switch ‘off’ the supply after taking the readings.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

When output is SHORT circuited V2=0

V1(V) I1(mA) I2(mA)

15
20
30

When input is SHORT circuited V1=0

V2(V) I2(mA) I1(mA)

15
20
30
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MODEL CALCULATION:

Y11=I1/V1

Y12=I1/V2

Y21=I2/V1

Y22=I2/V2

COMPARISON OF THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL PARAMETERS:

Parameters Y11 Y12 Y21 Y22

Theoretical
Practical
% ERROR

RESULT:

DISCUSSION: The Y-parameters are short circuit parameters.

PRECAUTIONS:

a) Make the connections according to the circuit diagram. Power supply should be switched off

b) Connections should be tight.

c) Note the readings carefully.

 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

VIVA QUESTIONS:

Q1. Define Y parameters?

Q2. List the four variables used in Y-

parameter representation

Q3. List the two dependent variables

used in Y- parameter representation

Q4. List the two independent variables

used in Y- parameter representation.

Q5. Define input driving point

admittance

Q6. Define output driving point

admittance.

Q7. Define reverse transfer admittance.

Q8. Define forward transfer admittance

Q9. Write condition for reciprocity

Q10.Write condition for symmetry.

 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

3.C) VERIFICATION OF ABCD PARAMETERS OF A TWO PORT

NETWORK

AIM: To calculate and verify 'ABCD' parameters of two-port network

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO EQUIPMENT REQUIRED TYPE RANGE QUANTITY

1. Variable resistors potentiometer 220 ohms,1kilo 5
ohms,500 ohms
2. Ammeter DC 0-200mA 1
3. Voltmeter DC 0-20V,0-200V 2
4. Regulated power supply DC source 0-30 V dc 1
0-1A
5. Multimeter digital Multi range 1
6.. Patch chords As per
requirement

THEORY: ABCD parameters are widely used in analysis of power transmission engineering
where they are termed as “Circuit Parameters”. ABCD parameters are also known as
“Transmission Parameters”. In these parameters, the voltage & current at the sending end
terminals can be expressed in terms of voltage & current at the receiving end.

Thus,

V1 = AV 2 + B (-I2)

I1 = CV2 + D (-I2)

Here “A” is called reverse voltage ratio,

“B” is called transfer impedance

“C” is called transfer admittance

“D” is called reverse current ratio.

 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig. & switch ‘ON’ the experimental board.

2. First open the output terminal & supply 20V to Input terminal. Measure output voltage &
input current

3. Secondly, short the output terminal & supply 20V to Input terminal. Measure input & output
current using multi-meter.

4. Calculate the A, B, C, & D parameters using the Eq. (1) & (2).

5. Switch ‘off’ the supply after taking the readings.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

When output is OPEN circuited I2=0

V1(V) I1(mA) V2(mA)

15
20
30

When output is SHORT circuited V2=0

V1(V)
15
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

20
30

MODEL CALCULATION:

A= V1/V2

B= - V1/I2

C= I1/V2

D= -I1/I2

COMPARISION OF THEROTICAL AND PRACTICAL PARAMETERS:

PARAMETERS A B C D
THEORETICAL
PRACTICAL
% ERROR

RESULT:

DISCUSSION: ABCD parameters are transmission parameters.

PRECAUTIONS:

a) Make the connections according to the circuit diagram. Power supply should be switched off.

b) Connections should be tight.

c) Note the readings carefully.

 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

VIVA QUESTIONS :

Q1. Define transmission parameters

Q2. Why ABCD parameters are also called as

transmission parameters?

Q3. Where they are used?

Q4. Define reverse voltage ratio(A)

Q5. Define transfer impedance(B)

Q6. Define transfer admittance(C)

Q7. Define reverse current ratio(D)

Q8. Write the units of parameters B & C.

Q9. Write the units of parameters A & D.

Q10.Write the condition for symmetry &

Reciprocity
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

4.A)VERIFICATION OF KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS

AIM: To verify Kirchhoff’s voltage law, current law for a given DC network.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO EQUIPMENT REQUIRED TYPE RANGE QUANTITY
1. Variable resistors Potentiometer 220 ohms,1kilo 3
ohms,500 ohms
2. Ammeter DC 0-200mA 1
3. Voltmeter DC 0-20V,0-200V 2
4. Regulated power supply DC source 0-30 V DC 1
0-1A
5. Bread board 1
6. Patch chords As per
requirement

THEORY:
Kirchhoff’s Current law (KCL) deals with flow of current while the Kirchhoff’s Voltage law
(KVL) deals with voltage drop in a closed network .KCL also indicates the law of conservation
of charges and can also be stated as at any node of a circuit, at every instant of time, the sum of
incoming currents is equal to the sum of outgoing currents.(the direction of incoming currents to
a node being +Ve , the outgoing currents should be taken -Ve. The reverse sense of directions
can also be taken).KVL states that the algebraic sum of voltages (or voltage drops) in any closed
path of network that is traversed in a single direction is zero.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:

Kirchhoff’s Voltage law circuit

 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

Kirchhoff’s Current law circuit

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Using regulated power supply set the supply voltage to 20V.

3. Measure the voltage drop across each resistor in the circuit using voltmeter and tabulate the
readings.

4. Compare the theoretical and practical values of voltages and verify the KVL.

5. Measure inward and outward currents at a junction using ammeter and tabulate the readings.

6. Compare theoretical and practical values of currents and verify KCL.

OBSERVATIONS:

KVL
S.no Measured parameter(V) Theoretical value(V) Practical value(V) Error %
1. V1
2. V2

3. V3

KCL
S.no Measured parameter(A) Theoretical value(A) Practical value(A) Error %
1.
2.
3.
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Voltage control knob should be kept at minimum position.

2. Current control knob of RPS should be kept at maximum position

3. Connect the circuit by switching off the supply.

4. Avoid short circuits and loose connections.

5. Select suitable ranges for the measurement of voltages and currents.

RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS:

Q1.What do you mean by junction?

Q2.Derive current division rule?

Q3.Explain the sign conventions?

Q4. Explain the color coding of

resistors?
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

4.B)VERIFICATION OF TELLEGEN’S THEOREM

AIM: To verify Tellegen’s theorem for a given DC network

APPARTUS:
S.NO EQUIPMENT REQUIRED TYPE RANGE QUANTITY
1. Variable resistors Potentiometer 220 ohms,1k (2) 4
ohms,500 ohms
2. Ammeter DC 0-200mA 1
3. Voltmeter DC 0-20V,0-200V 2
4. Regulated power supply DC source 0-30 V dc 1
0-1A
5. Bread board 1
6. Patch chords As per
requirement

Theory:

Tellegen’s theorem is one of the most general theorems in network analysis. Regardless to the
type and nature, Tellegen’s theorem is applicable to any network made up of lumped two
terminal elements.

The Tellegen’s theorem states that in any linear,non-linear, passive,active, time variant or time
invariant network the summation of power (instaneous or complex power for ac source) is zero.

Circuit diagram:
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

PROCEDURE:
1.Connect the circuit diagram as per the given circuit.

2.Connect a 20V regulated power supply to the circuit and measure the input current to the
circuit.

3.Measure the magnitude of current through 500 ohms resistor using ammeter.

4.Measure magnitude of voltage across the 500 ohms resistor using voltmeter.

5.Calculate the power absorbed and power delivered by the circuit theoretically and practically.

6.Tabulate the theoretical and practical values of power and verify Tellegen’s theorem.

OBSERVATIONS:

THEORETICAL VALUES:
S.NO INPUT VOLTAGE INPUT CURRENT POWER DELIVERED
1. 20V

PRACTICAL VALUES:
S.NO OUTPUT VOLTAGE OUTPUT CURRENT POWER ABSORBED
1. 20V

COMPARISON:
THEORETICAL POWER DELIVERED PRACTICAL POWER ABSORBED

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Voltage control knob should be kept at minimum position.

2. Current control knob of RPS should be kept at maximum position.

 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

3. Connect the circuit by switching off the supply.

4. Avoid short circuits and loose connections.

5. Select suitable ranges for the measurement of voltages and currents.

RESULT:

5.a) VERIFICATION OF SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

AIM: To verify superposition theorem for a given network.

APPARTUS:
S.NO EQUIPMENT REQUIRED TYPE RANGE QUANTITY
1. Variable resistors potentiometer 220 ohms,1kohms(2) 3
2. Ammeter DC 0-200mA 1
3. Voltmeter DC 0-20V,0-200V 2
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

4. Regulated power supply DC 0-30 V,20V dc 2

SOURCE 0-1A
5. Patch chords As per
requirement
THEORY:
This theorem finds use in solving a network where two or more sources are present and
connected not in series or in parallel.This theorem states that if a number of voltage or current
sources are acting simultaneously in a linear network,the resultant current in any branch is the
algebraic sum of the currents that would be produced in it, when each source acts alone replacing
all other independent sources by their internal resistances.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1.Connect the circuit as per the given circuit diagram.

2.Apply two sources 20V,30V at a time to the circuit and measure the magnitude of current
through 220 ohms resistor.

3.Apply only 20V to the circuit and replace the 30V source with a short circuit and measure
current through 220 ohms resistor.

4.Apply only 30v to the circuit and replace the 20V source with a short circuit and measure
current through 220 ohms resistor.

5.Tabulate the currents individually and compare theoretical and practical currents to verify
superposition theorem.

OBSERVATIONS:

THEORETICAL
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

REGULATED POWER SUPPLY SOURCE CURRENT THROUGH THE 220 OHMS

VOLTAGE(V) RESISTOR(A)
30V,20V
20V
30V

PRATICAL OBSERVATIONS:
REGULATED POWER SUPPLY SOURCE CURRENT THROUGH THE 220 OHMS
VOLTAGE(V) RESISTOR(A)
30V,20V
20V
30V

COMPARISON:
Regulated Power Theoretical Practical Current(A) %Error
Supply Voltage(V) Current(A)
20V
30V
20V,30V

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Voltage control knob should be kept at minimum position.
2. current control knob of RPS should be kept at maximum position.

RESULT:
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VIVA VOICE:
1.State Superposition theorem?

2. How to find power using Superposition

theorem?

3. Write applications of super position

theorem?

4.Is it possible to apply Superposition theorem

to nonlinear circuit?

5. Is it possible to apply Superposition theorem

to AC as well as DC circuit?
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5.B) VERIFICATION OF THEVENIN’S THEOREM

AIM: To determine and verify Thevenin’s Theorem for a given network.

APPARATUS:

S.no Equipment Required Type Range Quantity

1. Variable resistors Potentiomete 220 ohms,1k (2) 4
r ohms,500 ohms
2. Ammeter DC 0-200mA 1
3. Voltmeter DC 0-20V,0-200V 2
4. Regulated power supply DC 0-30V dc 1
SOURCE 0-1A
5. Multimeter Digital Multi range 1
6.. Patch chords As per
requirement

THEORY:

THEVENIN’S THEOREM:

As applied to the network circuit may be stated as the current flowing through a load resistance RL
connected across any two terminals A and B of a linear bilateral network is given by VTH / RTH +RL
where VTH is the open circuit voltage and RTH is the internal resistance of the network from the terminal
A to B with all voltage sources replaced with their internal resistances and current sources with infinite
resistance.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

PROCEDURE:

1.Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2.Apply a regulated power supply of 15V to the circuit.

3.Open circuit the load resistor of 500 ohms and measure the Thevenin’s voltage (VTH) across
the resistor using voltmeter (open circuit voltage VTH which appears across terminal A and B.
VTH = I RTH. This is called Thevenin’s voltage.)

4.Replace the voltage source with a short circuit and measure the equivalent Thevenin’s
resistance across the load resistor using multi meter. (Manually RTH =R1 R2 /R1+R2. This is called
Thevenin’s Resistance).

5.Replace the given circuit with equivalent Thevenin’s voltage and Thevenin’s resistance.

6.Analyze voltage and current for the load resistor following the rules for series circuits.

IL= VTH / (RL+RTH)

VTH= E x R2 / (R1+R2)

7.Tabulate the theoretical and practical values also verify Thevenin’s theorem.

OBSERVATIONS:

S. Applied Voltage VTH (volts) RTH IL (amp) IL (amp) Pract. Result

No. (volts) VTH Pract. (ohms) Theo.
(volts)
Theo.

RESULT:

DISCUSSION: Thevenin’s Theorem can be used in the reduction of circuit analysis.

 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

PRECAUTIONS:

a) Make the connections according to the circuit diagram. Power supply should be switched off.

b) Connections should be tight.

c) Note the readings carefully.

d)Voltage control knob of RPS should be kept at minimum position.

e) Current control knob of RPS should be kept at maximum position.

VIVA VOICE:

Q1.To what type of circuit Thevenin’s

Theorem is applicable?

Q.2 What is the use of thevenin’s theorem?

Q.3 How Rth is connected with the circuit?

Q.4 How is Rth connected with the load

resistance?

Q.5 What modification is done in

galvanometer to convert it into a ammeter?

Q.6 What modification is done in the

galvanometer to convert it into a voltmeter?
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

Q7.In place of current source, what is placed

while calculating Rth?

Q8.In place of voltage source which electrical

parameters is placed?

Q9.Where is the voltage divider rule

applicable?

Q10. Where is the current divider rule

applicable?
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6.A) VERIFICATION OF MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER

THEOREMS
AIM: To verify maximum power transfer theorem for a given network.

APPARATUS:

S.NO EQUIPMENT REQUIRED TYPE RANGE QUANTIT

Y
1. Variable resistors Potentiometer 220 ohms,1k (2) 4
ohms,500 ohms (1)
2. Ammeter DC 0-200mA 1
3. Voltmeter DC 0-20V,0-200V 2
4. Regulated power supply DC SOURCE 0-30 V dc 1
0-1A
5. Multimeter Digital Multi range 1
6.. Patch chords As per
requirement

THEORY:

This theorem is used to find the value of load resistance for which there would be maximum
amount of power transfer from source to load. This theorem states that a resistance load, being
connected to a dc network, receives maximum power when the load resistance is equal to the
internal resistance (Thevenin’s equivalent resistance) of the source network as seen from the load
terminals.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

PROCEDURE:

1.Consider 1000 ohms as the load resistor and apply 15V regulated power supply to the given
circuit.

2.Short circuit the source voltage and open the load resistor RL and measure the resistance across
the load terminals using multimeter which gives Thevenin’s resistance RTH.

3.By applying the source voltage of 15 volts measure the voltage across the load terminals that
indicates Thevenin’s voltage VTH.

4. Reconstruct the circuit by applying VTH as the source voltage and RTH connected in series with
the load resistance RL.

5.Vary the load resistance and note down the voltage across the load resistor and current through
the load resistor which gives power that is transferred to the load.

6.Observe that at the load resistance of RL =RTH maximum power transfer occurs tabulate the
readings and verify maximum power transfer theorem.

Observations:

S.no Load Resistance( Voltage Across RL Current Power

RL) Through RL Transferred to
Load (PL)
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

MODEL GRAPH:

RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS:

What are the limitations of maximum power

transfer theorem?

Is maximum power transfer theorem applicable

to ac networks ??
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

6.B) VERIFICATION OF RECIPROCITY THEOREMS

AIM: To verify reciprocity theorem for a given network

APPARTUS:

S.NO EQUIPMENT REQUIRED TYPE RANGE QUANTITY

1. Variable resistors Potentiometer 220 ohms,1k (2) 4
ohms,500 ohms (1)
2. Ammeter DC 0-200mA 1
3. Voltmeter DC 0-20V,0-200V 2
4. Regulated power supply DC source 0-30 V dc 1
0-1A
5. Multimeter Digital Multi range 1
6.. Patch chords As per
requirement

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram

2. Apply a regulated power supply of 15V to the circuit

3. Measure the current through the 500 ohms resistor by using ammeter

4. Short circuit the source voltage and apply the voltage of same 15V at the other end of the
circuit and measure current through the 1000 ohms resistor using ammeter

5. Find the ratio of excitation to current in the two cases and compare
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

6. Tabulate the theoretical and practical values to verify the reciprocity theorem

OBSERVATIONS:

Parameter Voltage(V) Current (A) Ratio of excitation to

response (V/A)
Theoretical 15V
Practical 15V

RESULT:
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

VIVA VOICE:

Q1.State reciprocity theorem?

Q2.Is it possible to apply both theorems to AC as

well as DC circuit?

Q3. Is Reciprocity is applicable for unilateral and

bilateral networks?

Q4.State and prove reciprocity theorem?

Q5.State applications of reciprocity theorem?

Q6.Comment on the applicability of reciprocity

theorem on the type of network.

Q7..Is reciprocity theorem applicable for networks

with current source?
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

7.PHASE LEAD NETWORK AND POLAR PLOTS OF PHASORS

I, VR, VC AND VRC
AIM: To design a passive RC lead compensating network for the given specifications and to
obtain its frequency response.
APPARATUS REQUIRED: Resistors, capacitors, wires, multimeter, and phase- frequency
meter.
THEORY:
If a sinusoidal input is applied to the input of a network and steady state output has a phase lead,
then network is called lead compensator/network. Lead compensator has a zero at s = 1/T and a
pole at s = 1/ αT with zero closer to the origin than pole. This compensator speeds up the
transient response and increases the margin of stability of a system. It also helps to increase the
system error constant through to a limited extent. These compensators are used when fast
dynamic response is required.
EFFECT OF PHASE LEAD COMPENSATION
1. The velocity constant Kv increases.
2. The slope of the magnitude plot reduces at the gain crossover frequency so that relative
stability improves & error decrease due to error is directly proportional to the slope.
3. Phase margin increases.
4. Response become faster.
ADVANTAGES OF PHASE LEAD COMPENSATION
1. Due to the presence of phase lead network the speed of the system increases because it shifts
gain crossover frequency to a higher value.
2. Due to the presence of phase lead compensation maximum overshoot of the system decreases.
DISADVANTAGES OF PHASE LEAD COMPENSATION
1. Steady state error is not improved.
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Derivation of transfer function:

Vi(s) = (Z1+Z2)*I(s) (Where I(s) is the current in the circuit and Z1= (R1//C) and Z2 = R2)
Vo(s) = Z2*I(s)
Vo(s)/Vi(s) = Z2 / ( Z1+Z2)
After simplification,
(S+ 1/ T )
GC(S) = (S+ 1/ αT ) where T = R1 C and , α = R2 /( R1 + R2)

PROCEDURE:
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

1. Derive the transfer function for the Lead network given above.
2. For the given specification, ie for given Фm at given Fm , calculations of R1, R2 and C. are
done.
3. Connections are made as per the Lead circuit diagram by the selecting the values found in the
above step.
4. Switch ON the mains supply and apply sinusoidal wave by selecting suitable amplitude.
5. The frequency of the signal is varied in steps and at each step note down the corresponding
magnitude of output and phase angle.
6. Draw the frequency response plot and hence find the transfer function & compare it with the
design.

TABULAR COLUMN:

INPUT VOLTAGE VS =
…………………………………………………………………………V(volts)
FREQUENCY OUTPUT VO ɸ(degree) GAIN(dB)
(Hz) (volts) INDICATED
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

TYPICAL LEAD CHARACTERISTICS:

RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is lag compensation? Write the
frequency response of it ?

2. What is the importance of lag network?

 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

8.MEASUREMENT OF ACTIVE AND REACTIVE POWERS OF

A 3-PHASE NETWORK USING TWO WATTMETERS
AIM: To measure the 3-phase active and reactive power by 2 – wattmeter method for (i)
resistance load (ii) inductive load.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO APPARATUS RANGE QUANTITY
1. Ammeter 0-20A,MI 1
2. Voltmeter 0-600V,MI 1
3. Wattmeter 600V,20A,UPF 2
4. Wattmeter 600V, 20A,LPF 2
5. Loads 3ph Inductive & 1
Resistive

PROCEDURE:

(I) RESISTIVE LOAD

1. Give the connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Give the supply by closing TPST switch.
3. Vary the resistance load and note down the corresponding readings.

(II) INDUCTIVE LOAD

1. Give the connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Give the supply by closing the TPST switch.
3. Vary the inductive load and note down the corresponding readings.
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:

For Inductive load

For Resistive load

 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

FORMULAE USED:
1. Real power = w1 + w2
2. Reactive power = √3(w1-w2)
3.Tanɸ = √3(w1-w2)
w1 + w2
4.Power factor = Cosɸ

TWO WATTMETER METHOD : INDUCTIVE LOAD

CONDITION V( I(A) MF=Wattmeter MF=Wattmeter Power(W) Cosɸ

V) Reading(W1) Reading(W2)

Observatio Actual Observatio Actual Real power Reactive

n(W) = n(W) = (W) power
Obs*MF Obs*MF (W)

BALANCED

UNBALANCED
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

TWO WATTMETER METHOD : RESISTIVE LOAD

V(V) I(A) MF=WATTMETER MF=WATTMETER POWER(W) COSɸ

READING(W1) READING(W2)

OBSERVATION ACTUAL = OBSERV ACTUAL REAL REACTIVE

(W) OBS*MF ATION( = POWER POWER (W)
W) OBS*MF (W)
BALANCED

UNBALANC
ED

CALCULATIONS:
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The TPST switch must be kept open initially.
2. Load must not be applied while starting.
3. All the connections should be tight and clean.
4. The readings in ammeters should not exceed the current ratings of watt meters.
5. With negative deflection in wattmeter the connection should be reversed.

RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Is it possible to measure reactive power in a
three phase circuit using this method?

2. What would be the readings of two watt-

meters in this experiment, if the load is
purely resistive?

3. . What would be the readings of two

wattmeters in this experiment, if the load is
purely inductive?

4. If one of the wattmeter reads zero, what is

the power factor of the load?
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

9.SIMULATION OF FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF SECOND

ORDER RLC SERIES CIRCUIT USING MATLAB
AIM: To determine frequency response of a second order RLC series system.
FREQUENCY RESPONSE FOR SINUSODAL INPUT SOFTWARES USED: MATLAB
THEORY:
Consider a system with sinusoidal inputr t A t ( ) sin = ω . The steady-state output may be written
as, c t B t ( ) sin( ) = + ω φ . The magnitude and the phase relationship between the sinusoidal
input and the steady-state output of a system is called frequency response. The frequency
response test is performed by keeping the amplitude A fixed and determining B and Φ for a
suitable range of frequencies. Whenever it is not possible to obtain the transfer function of a
system through analytical techniques, frequency response test can be used to compute its transfer
function. The design and adjustment of open-loop transfer function of a system for specified
closed-loop performance is carried out more easily in frequency domain. Further, the effects of
noise and parameter variations are relatively easy to visualize and assess through frequency
response. The Nyquist criteria is used to extract information about the stability and the relative
stability of a system in frequency domain.

Fig.1 series RLC circuit

1
ω0 =
√LC
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

𝑅 𝑐
ζ= √
2 𝐿

The transfer function of a standard second order system can be written as,

Substituting s by jw we obtain

PROGRAM:

%Frequency Response of second order system

clc;
clear all;
close all;
num=input('enter the numerator coefficients---->');
den=input('enter the denominator coefficients---->');
%Transfer function
sys=tf(num,den);
wn=sqrt(den(1,3));
zeta= den(1,2)/(2*wn);
w=linspace(0,2);
u=w/wn;
len=length(u);
for k=1:len
m(k)=1/(sqrt((1-u(k)^2)+(2*zeta*u(k))^2));
phi(k)=-atan((2*zeta*u(k))/(1-u(k)^2))*180/pi;
end
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

subplot(1,2,1)
plot(w,m)
xlabel('normalized frequency')
ylabel('magnitude')
subplot(1,2,2)
plot(w,phi)
xlabel('normalized frequency')
ylabel('phase')
disp('resonant peak is');
mr=1/(2*zeta*sqrt(1-zeta^2))
disp('resonant frequency in rad/sec is');
wr=wn*sqrt(1-2*zeta^2)
disp('bandwidth in rad/sec is');
wb=wn*sqrt(1-2*zeta^2+sqrt(2-4*zeta^2+4*zeta^4))
disp('phase margin in degrees is')
pm=180+(atan(2*zeta/sqrt(-2*zeta^2+sqrt(4*zeta^4 +1))))*180/pi

RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS:

 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

10. SIMULATION OF TIME RESPONSE OF SECOND ORDER

RLC SERIES CIRCUIT USING MATLAB

AIM: To obtain time response of a second order system in case of under damped, over damped
and critically damped systems.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: PC loaded with MATLAB

THEORY: The general expression of transfer function of a second order control system is given
as

Here, ζ and ωn are damping ratio and natural frequency of the system respectively
There are number of common terms in transient response characteristics and which are
1. Delay time (td) is the time required to reach at 50% of its final value by a time response signal
during its first cycle of oscillation.
2. Rise time (tr) is the time required to reach at final value by a under damped time response
signal during its first cycle of oscillation. If the signal is over damped, then rise time is counted
as the time required by the response to rise from 10% to 90% of its final value.
3. Peak time (tp) is simply the time required by response to reach its first peak i.e. the peak of
first cycle of oscillation, or first overshoot.
4. Maximum overshoot (Mp) is straight way difference b of time response and magnitude of its
steady state. Maximum overshoot is expressed in term of percentage of steady-state value of the
response. As the first peak of response is normally maximum in magnitude, maximum and
steady-state value of a response.
5.Settling time (ts) is the time required for a response to become steady. It is defined as the time
required by the response to reach and steady within specified range of 2%to 5% of its final
value.
6. Steady-state error (ess ) is the difference between actual output and desired output at the
infinite range of time.
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

The time response of control system consists of two parts. Transient response and steady state
response. C (t) = Ctr(t) + Css(t). Most of the control systems use time as its independent variable.
Analysis of response means to see the variation of output with respect to time. The output of the
system takes some finite time to reach to its final value. Every system has a tendency to oppose
the oscillatory behavior of the system which is called damping. The damping is measured by a
factor called damping ratio of the system. If the damping is very high then there will not be any
oscillations in the output. The output is purely exponential. Such system is called an over
damped system.

If the damping is less compared to over damped case

then the system is called a critically damped system. If the damping is very less then the system
is called under damped system. With no damping system is undamped.

1<< ∞ ------- over damped system

=1 -------- critically damped system

0<<1 ------- under damped system

=0 ------- un damped system

TIME DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS:

Delay time Td = (1 + 0.7)/wn

Rise Time Tr =(Π – θ)/ wd

Peak overshoot time = Tp = Π/ wd

%Mp = exp( - Π/√(1-2))

Settling Time Ts = 4/wn (2% tolerance)

PROCEDURE:

Open the MATLAB command window.

1) Click on file-new-M file to open the MATLAB editor window.

2) In the given MATLAB editor window enter the program to obtain the step response.
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

% step response of a second order system

 n = input(‘enter the natural frequency’);
= input(‘enter damping ratio’);
num = [n*n];
den = [1 2**n n*n ];
sys = tf(num, den)
step(sys);
3.)Save the file in work directory.

4) Run the program and enter the respective value for natural frequency, damping ratio and time
5) The graphs displayed are according to the above values.

6) The values of wd, Td, theta, Tr, Ts, Mp can be obtained by

a) Right click on the figure window and select grid to get grids on the curve.

b) Right click on the figure window and select characteristics and enable peak response, settling
time & rise settling .

c) Repeat the steps 5,6,7 for different values of .

 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

1b)Evaluation of the effect of additional poles and zeros on time response of second order
system.

MATLAB program to evaluate the effect of additional poles and zeros on time response of
second order system.This program uses the command zpk.

For the second order system the poles are -10+30i and -10-30i.

The program given below gives the time response of 2nd order system.

Z=[ ];
P=[-10+30i -10-30i];
K=1000;
sys=zpk(z,p,k)
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

t=[0:0.001:1];
step(sys,t);
grid
For the second order system, if we add a pole it changes to third order.

To study the effect of additional poles,

Location of poles Effect on time response

-1

-10

-100

To study the effect of additional zeroes,

Location of zeros Effect on time response

-1

-10

-100

1c) Effect of loop gain of a negative feedback system on stability

The following program is used to study the effect of loop gain of a negative feedback system on
stability. The value of gain k is varied and different step responses are obtained.

clc
z=[ ]
p=[-0.5+i -0.5-i -1];
k1=1;
k2=2;
k3=3;
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

sys1=zpk(z,p,k1)
sys2=zpk(z,p,k2)
sys3=zpk(z,p,k3)
t=[0:0.01:20];
[y1,t]=step(sys1,t)
[y2,t]=step(sys2,t)
[y3,t]=step(sys3,t)
plot(t,y1,t,y2,t,y3)
legend('k=1', 'k=2', 'k=3')
grid
RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS:

Q1.What is meant by time response of

a system?

Q2.What do you mean by damping

factor?
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

11.A)VERIFICATION OF SUPERPOSITION THEOREM USING

PSPICE
Aim: To verify Superposition theorem by using MATLAB Simulink.
Software Used : MATLAB Simulink.
Superposition Theorem: “In a linear network with several independent sources which include
equivalent sources due to initial conditions, and linear dependent sources, the overall response in
any part of the network is equal to the sum of individual responses due to each independent
source, considered separately, with all other independent sources reduced to zero”.

Procedure:
1. Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram by using MATLAB Simulink.
2. Measure the response ‘I’ in the load resistor by considering all the sources 10V, 15V and
8V in the network.
3. Replace the sources 15V and 8V with their internal impedances (short circuited).
4. Measure the response ‘I1’ in the load resistor by considering 10V source in the network.
5. Replace the sources 10V and 8V with their internal impedances (short circuited).
6. Measure the response ‘I2’ in the load resistor by considering 15V source in the network.
7. Replace the sources 10V and 15V with their internal impedances (short circuited).
8. Measure the response ‘I3’ in the load resistor by considering 8V source in the network.
9. The responses obtained in step 1 should be equal to the sum of the responses obtained in
above steps.

I=I1+I2+I3

Hence Superposition Theorem is verified.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH

11B)VERIFICATION OF THEVINEN'S THEOREM USING

PSPICE
Aim: To verify Thevinen's theorem by using MATLAB Simulink.
Software used: MATLAB Simulink.
Thevenin's Theorem:
“Any two terminal network consisting of linear impedances and generators may be replaced at
the two terminals by a single voltage source acting in series with an resistance. The voltage of
the equivalent source is the open circuit voltage measured at the terminals of the network and the
impedance, known as Thevenin’s equivalent impedance, RTH, is the resistance measured at the
terminals with all the independent sources in the network reduced to zero”.
Procedure:
1. Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram by using MATLAB Simulink.
2. Measure the response ‘I’ in the load resistor by considering all the sources in the network.
3.For finding Thevenin’s Resistance (RTH) Open the load terminals and replace all the sources
with their internal impedances.
4.Measure the impedance across the open circuited terminal which is known as Thevenin’s
Resistance.
5.For finding Thevenin’s Voltage (VTH) Open the load terminals and measure the voltage across
the open circuited terminals. Measured voltage will be known as Thevenin’s Voltage.
6.Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit is represented as
a. VTH and RTH are connected in series with the load.
b. Measure the current through the load resistor
I = Current measured from Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit should be same as current obtained
from the actual circuit.

I = IL
Hence Thevenin’s Theorem is Verified.
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NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ANDHRA PRADESH