Heat Generation and Temperature Prediction in Metal Cutting: A Review and Implications For High Speed Machining.

International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 46 (2006) 782–800
www.elsevier.com/locate/ijmactool
Heat generation and temperature prediction in metal cutting:

A review and implications for high speed machining
N.A. Abukhshim*, P.T. Mativenga, M.A. Sheikh
School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
Received 17 May 2005; accepted 12 July 2005

Available online 16 September 2005
Abstract
Determination of the maximum temperature and temperature distribution along the rake face of the cutting tool is of particular importance
because of its controlling influence on tool life, as well as, the quality of the machined part. Numerous attempts have been made to approach
the problem with different methods including experimental, analytical and numerical analysis. Although considerable research effort has
been made on the thermal problem in metal cutting, there is hardly a consensus on the basics principles. The unique tribological contact
phenomenon, which occur in metal cutting is highly localized and non-linear, and occurs at high temperatures, high pressures and high
strains. This has made it extremely difficult to predict in a precise manner or even assess the performance of various models developed for
modelling the machining process. Accurate and repeatable heat and temperature prediction remains challenging due to the complexity of the
contact phenomena in the cutting process. In this paper, previous research on heat generation and heat dissipation in the orthogonal
machining process is critically reviewed. In addition, temperature measurement techniques applied in metal cutting are briefly reviewed. The
emphasis is on the comparability of test results, as well as, the relevance of temperature measurement method to high speed cutting. New
temperature measurement results obtained by a thermal imaging camera in high speed cutting of high strength alloys are also presented.
Finally, the latest work on estimation of heat generation, heat partition and temperature distribution in metal machining is reviewed. This
includes an exploration of the different simplifying assumptions related to the geometry of the process components, material properties,
boundary conditions and heat partition. The paper then proposes some modelling requirements for computer simulation of high speed
machining processes.
q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: High speed machining; Heat generation; Heat partition; Temperature measurement; FE modelling
1. Introduction generated in the deformation zones affect both the tool and
the workpiece. High cutting temperatures strongly influence
Machining of metals is still not completely understood tool wear, tool life, workpiece surface integrity, chip
because of the highly non-linear nature of the process and formation mechanism and contribute to the thermal
the complex coupling between deformation and temperature deformation of the cutting tool, which is considered,
fields. Metal cutting can be associated with high tempera- amongst others, as the largest source of error in the
tures in the tool-chip interface zone and hence, the thermal machining process [1]. The increase in the temperature of
aspects of the cutting process strongly affect the accuracy of the workpiece material in the primary deformation zone
the machining process. The deformation process is highly softens the material, thereby decreasing cutting forces and
concentrated in a very small zone and the temperatures the energy required to cause further shear. Temperature at
the tool-chip interface affects the contact phenomena
by changing the friction conditions, which in turn
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (N.A. affects the shape and location of both of the primary and
Abukhshim). secondary deformation zones [2], maximum temperature
location, heat partition and the diffusion of the tool material
0890-6955/$ - see front matter q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2005.07.024
into the chip.
N.A. Abukhshim et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 46 (2006) 782–800 783
Notation
ap depth of cut (mm) qfr heat flux of rake face heat source (W/mm2)
FV cutting force in turning (N) V, Vc cutting velocity (m/min or m/s as defined)
Fs feed force in turning (N) Vch chip velocity (m/s)
Ffr frictional cutting force at rake face (N) Wc rate of energy consumption (W)
Lc tool-chip contact length (mm) a rake angle
Qr rate of heat generation at the rake face heat lh chip compression ratio
source (W) ß heat partition coefficient
Qs rate of heat generation at the shear plane heat t shear strength
source (W)
Measuring temperature and the prediction of heat 1.1. Heat generation in metal cutting
distribution in metal cutting is extremely difficult due to a
narrow shear band, chip obstacles, and the nature of In the metal cutting process, the tool performs the cutting
the contact phenomena where the two bodies, tool and action by overcoming the shear strength of the workpiece
chip, are in continuous contact and moving with respect to material. This generates a large amount of heat in the
each other. workpiece resulting in a highly localized thermomechani-
The ever-increasing demand on cost reduction and cally coupled deformation in the shear zone. Temperatures
improving quality of final products are driving metal cutting in the cutting zone considerably affect the stress–strain
research into new areas. As for high speed machining relationship, fracture and the flow of the workpiece material.
(HSM), it has become a key technology of particular Generally, increasing temperature decreases the strength of
relevance to the aerospace, mould and die and automotive the workpiece material and thus increases its ductility. It is
industries. In HSM, cutting speed has a predominant effect now assumed that nearly all of the work done by the tool and
on the cutting temperature and the heat transfer mechanism. the energy input during the machining process are converted
As cutting speed increases, the cutting process becomes into heat [1,3,4].
more adiabatic and the heat generated in the shear The main regions where heat is generated during the
deformation zone cannot be conducted away during the orthogonal cutting process are shown in Fig. 1 [5]. Firstly,
very short contact time in which the metal passes through heat is generated in the primary deformation zone due to
this zone. Consequently, highly localized temperatures in plastic work done at the shear plane. The local heating in
the chip occur. Therefore, it appears that in HSM, where the this zone results in very high temperatures, thus softening
process is nearly adiabatic, the effect of the thermal the material and allowing greater deformation. Secondly,
phenomenon should become more important. heat is generated in the secondary deformation zone due to
The subject of heat and temperature distribution in metal work done in deforming the chip and in overcoming the
cutting has received considerable attention from research- sliding friction at the tool-chip interface zone. Finally, the
ers. Several analytical models have been developed based heat generated in the tertiary deformation zone, at the tool
on different simplifying assumptions, which affect the workpiece interface, is due to the work done to overcome
accuracy of these models. Numerical methods have also friction, which occurs at the rubbing contact between the
been used which have enabled the elimination of many of tool flank face and the newly machined surface of
the simplifying assumptions and consideration of more
realistic parameters such as, temperature dependent material
properties, material flow stress and the boundary conditions.
In this paper, several methods for measuring temperature
near the cutting tool edge are briefly reviewed and
compared. The relative merits of the different techniques
are compared by considering accuracy, precision, ease of
use and applicable temperature range, etc. Analytical and
numerical models, which have been developed over time for
the prediction of heat generation, temperature and tempera-
ture distributions, are also reviewed. Finally, this paper
presents the main requirements for the modelling of high
speed metal machining processes based on the review and
assessment of the available machining models. Fig. 1. Sources of heat generation in the orthogonal cutting process.
784 N.A. Abukhshim et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 46 (2006) 782–800
the workpiece. Heat generation and temperatures in the

primary and secondary zones are highly dependent on the
cutting conditions while heat generation in the tertiary zone
is strongly influenced by tool flank wear.
In summary, the power consumption and the heat
generation in metal cutting processes are dependent on a
combination of the physical and chemical properties of the
workpiece material and cutting tool material, cutting
conditions and the cutting tool geometry.
1.2. Estimation of heat generation in metal cutting
Heat generated in metal cutting can be estimated either

by calorimetric methods or by measuring the cutting forces.
A detailed review of the calorimetric methods is available in
literature [6]. Using the knowledge of cutting forces, the rate
of energy consumption in metal cutting is given by:
Fig. 2. Schematic representation of a heat transfer model in orthogonal
Wc Z FV ,V (1) metal cutting considering the combined effect of the three heat sources.
where FV is the cutting force in N and V is the cutting speed

in m/s.
Assuming that all the mechanical work done in the is due to the combined effect of the heat generated in the
machining process is converted into heat, then heat primary and secondary zones.
generation, QS in J/s in the primary deformation zone may According to Tay et al. [7] and Trent [8] the total heat
be calculated from the work done as: generation due to plastic deformation and frictional sliding
in the secondary deformation zone, for continuous chips
QS Z Wc Z FV ,V (2) produced from a non-abrasive material at medium cutting
speed, can be assumed to be between 20 and 35% of the heat
where, FV is the tangential cutting force or the force in the
generated in the primary zone. This implies that, when
velocity direction and V is the cutting velocity.
The amount of heat generated due to the work done in the considering the temperatures on the cutting tool, the heat
secondary deformation zone along the tool rake face is source in the primary zone should also be taken into account
calculated from the friction energy given by the following in addition to the direct effect of the heat generation on the
equation: rake face. Vernaza et al. reported that 17% of the primary
heat zone flows into the workpiece [9]. However, for very
Ffr ,V low metal removal rates this amount of heat usually
Qr Z (3)
lh assumed to be as high as 50% [9]. Moriwaki et al. [10]
where Ffr is the total shear force in N acting on the rake face, assumed that half of the heat generated due to the friction
and lh is the chip thickness ratio. The force Ffr can be between the tool and workpiece is supplied to the workpiece
calculated by using the following equation: and another half to the tool as a heat flux. It also said that
10–30% of the total heat generation enters the tool [1].
Ffr Z FV sin a C FS cos a (4) Most of the analytical models for temperature prediction
where FS is the feed force and a is the rake angle. used Blok’s [11] energy partition analysis or Jaeger’s [12]
Heat is removed from the primary, secondary and tertiary friction slider solution, which differ significantly in heat
zones by the chip, the tool and the workpiece. Fig. 2 partition phenomenon.
schematically shows this dissipation of heat. The tempera- Blok’s partition principle has been widely used in the
ture rise in the cutting tool is mainly due to the secondary analytical investigation of temperatures generated in metal
heat source, but the primary heat source also contributes cutting. Blok’s principle is only valid for two bodies in
towards the temperature rise of the cutting tool and relative motion; one stationary while the other is moving
indirectly affects the temperature distribution on the tool with a relative velocity. Therefore, it is only valid to solve
rake face. During the process, part of the heat generated at the problem of heat partition in the tool-chip interface.
the shear plane flows by convection into the chip and then Blok’s partition principle can be summarised as follows: the
through the interface zone into the cutting tool. Therefore, rate of heat generated per unit area at the interface is
the heat generated at the shear zone affects the temperature conducted into the tool and the chip at l and (lK1) rates,
distributions of both the tool and the chip sides of the tool- respectively, assuming that all heat losses are neglected.
chip interface, and the temperature rise on the tool rake face The author then derived an expression for the average
temperature over the tool-chip contact by considering a the main concerns stated by different researchers about this
stationary heat source of intensity bq on the rake face of the method are that: it only gives a mean value of the
tool. Another expression is then derived for the average temperature along the whole tool-chip interface and high
temperature over the same contact by considering a moving local temperatures which occur for short periods can not be
heat source of intensity (1Kb)q with chip-velocity at the observed; it gives incorrect results if a built up edge is
separating surface of the chip. The two values of the mean formed; a coolant cannot be used; both workpiece and the
temperature can be then equated to determine the single tool should be electrical conductors, the thermocouple pair
unknown b (the fraction of the heat flowing into the tool). requires accurate calibration and produces significant noise
The main concern about Block’s procedures is the in the signal. Furthermore, this technique’s application in
unrealistic assumption of a uniform distribution of heat HSM could be limited by the brittleness and electrical
flux over the contact region (considering the existence of resistance properties of the tools. In particular, its inability
sticking and sliding contact). This assumption makes it less to capture the transient aspects of temperature distribution
relevant especially when the temperature distribution is makes it less ideal for HSM. Indeed this technique is not
considered. In addition, the use of this model to predict the suitable for temperature measurements when the workpiece
temperature rise in the shear zone, where there is one body material melts. This is one of the possible reasons for the in-
involved, can also be questionable. accuracy of Salmon’s 1931 theory of the evolution of
Also, most of these models, assumes steady state cutting temperature in HSM.
conditions when partitioning the heat generated at the Embedded thermocouple technique uses thermocouples,
primary and secondary zones. This means that the heat which are inserted and mounted into the cutting inserts to
fluxes flowing into the process components are constant measure temperature either at a single point or at multiple
during the process. This leads to an underestimation of heat points along the tool rake face. This method requires drilling
partition into the cutting tool especially in transient period. of several holes into the tool or the workpiece for the
However, there is a lack of consensus in the methodology thermocouples to be inserted. For good accuracy the depth
for accounting of heat partition and the effect of the remote of the holes needs to be as close as possible to the surface
primary heat source on rake face temperature field. In HSM, where the temperature is to be measured. Kitagawa et al.
it could be argued that the low interaction time diminishes employed this technique to study the effect of the cutting
the significance of the primary heat source on rake face temperature on the tool wear in high speed turning of
temperatures. Inconel 718 and milling of Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn alloy [20].
Tungsten micro-thermocouples were embedded in the tool.
Temperatures of 1200 and 1100 8C were reported for the
2. Temperature measurement in metal cutting ceramic–Inconel tool material pair at 150 m/min and the
carbide-Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn tool-material pair at 500 m/min,
Much effort has been made to measure the temperature at respectively. Chen and Tsao calculated the heat flowing into
the tool-chip interface zone and the temperatures of the the rake face of the cutting tool by using inverse heat
chip, tool and the workpiece, as well as, obtaining the conduction method (IHCM) based on the interior tempera-
temperature distributions in the cutting tool. A review of ture variations measured from a thermocouple [21].
the most common experimental techniques for temperature Although this technique has been widely used, especially
measurement in metal cutting processes reveals that for the estimation of the temperature of the tool using the
these techniques can be classified as: direct conduction, IHCM, there are a number of limitations and questionable
indirect radiation, and metallographic. These techniques aspects concerning the placement of the thermocouple,
have been reviewed by Barrow [3], Da Silva et al. [5], since they alter the heat flow, as well as, limit the strength of
Herchang et al. [13] and more recently by Komanduri et al. the tool. Other limitations include the slow response time,
[14], O’Sullivan [15], and Sutter et al. [16]. Generally, these difficulties to drill holes in hard tool materials such as
techniques include: tool-work thermocouples, embedded ceramics, as well as, an inability to predict the transient
thermocouples, radiation pyrometers, metallographic response.
techniques and a method of using powders of constant The radiation techniques are non-contact thermographic
melting point. methods to measure the surface temperature of the body
The tool-work (dynamic) thermocouple technique is based on its emitted thermal energy. It is available for both
based on the fact that the tool and the workpiece are two temperature field measurement (infrared thermography)
different materials. The contact area between them forms a including photo cameras with films sensitive to infrared
hot junction, which produces an electromotive force (emf) radiation and infrared cameras, and for point measurement
while the tool or the workpiece material themselves form (infrared pyrometer). The radiation technique has many
the cold junctions. Stephenson used this technique for advantages over the thermo-electric technique including:
measuring the temperature in cutting tests on grey cast iron fast response; no adverse effects on temperatures and
and aluminium with WC tools [17]. This technique was also materials; no physical contact; and allowing measurements
used by Alvelid [18] and Lezanski et al. [19]. However, on objects, which are difficult to access. This technique is
probably the most suitable in HSM applications where high by this method is in the range of G25 8C [30]. However,
temperatures can be captured easily as there is no direct this technique is mainly limited to HSS tools, which
contact with the heat source. However, the measurement experience a change in the structure/microhardness with
position has to be selected carefully as the accuracy may be temperature in the range from 600 to 1000 8C. It has been
significantly affected by chip obstruction. Chip obstruction reported that temperature maps can also be constructed for
also makes it difficult to measure the temperature at the tool- the iron-bonded cemented carbide tools where cobalt is
chip interface. In addition, the exact surface emissivity replaced by iron [31]. The accuracy of this method for the
should be known as it strongly affects the measured determination of metal cutting temperatures is limited. This
temperature. Sullivan and Cotterell applied a coating of method cannot be used to record the temperature field in the
known emissivity on the workpiece surface in order to cutting tool as a function of time.
eliminate any measurement problems [22]. There are many The fine powder method can be used to predict the
different emissivity values reported in literature for different temperature gradients on the rake face of cutting tools [32].
cutting tools and workpiece materials. However, it is The temperature distribution on the rake face is estimated by
important to note that the emissivity of most of the metals observing the boundary line formed by the melted and
with clean surface or thin oxide layers varies with unmelted powder scattered on the tool surface. Lo Casto
wavelength and temperature. Therefore, the pyrometer- et al. used a remote temperature sensing technique to
operating wavelength and band data must match with the determine the isothermal lines on a plane parallel to the rake
spectral emissivity values. In addition, measuring the face based on the use of various constant melting point
emissivity is also complicated by the fact that the emissivity powders [33]. However, the main limitation of this method
of an object significantly changes with the change in the is that the used powder requires a long time to be completely
surface conditions such as oxidation, etc. In most cases, to melted.
overcome the uncertainty of the emissivity measurement it There is no general agreement on the results obtained by
is important to measure the emissivity of the object prior to using the various temperature measurement techniques
the temperature measurement in the cutting test. discussed above. The complexity of the machining process
Lin et al. used an infrared pyrometer to measure the tool- makes it extremely difficult to compare the results from
chip temperature for carbide and ceramic tools at cutting different techniques. This difficulty is illustrated by the fact
speed of 600 m/min [23]. Dewes et al. employed an IR that different results are obtained by the same measuring
camera and the thermocouple technique to measure the chip method from the experiments, which are performed under
temperature when machining H13 hardened steel in high the same cutting conditions and on the same tool and
speed machining [24]. Young used the IR camera to workpiece materials. In terms of the temporal and spatial
measure temperature of the chip back section and the resolutions of the measurements of temperatures in metal
interface temperature in orthogonal cutting of AISI 1045 cutting, it has been reported that the best temporal resolution
steel [25]. These results were used to investigate the effect of 50 mm was obtained by the pyrometer while the best
of the flank wear on the cutting temperature. Yourong et al. spatial resolution of 5 mm was obtained by thermal video
used the infrared camera to investigate the temperature cameras [34].
distribution on the flank face of ceramic tools used for
turning operation [26]. More recently, Muller et al.
developed a two-colour fiber-optic pyrometer for the 3. Temperature in high speed machining
measurement of temperatures on surfaces of unknown or
varying emissivity [27]. The pyrometer was also used for The high temperatures encountered in HSM are due to
the measurement of the chip and the workpiece temperature many reasons: more heat is generated; heat generation is
in an oblique turning process of AISI 1045 steel. Darwish concentrated over a small area; and, the adiabatic nature of
et al. used an IR camera to measure the tool-chip interface the process where less heat is dissipated away from the
temperature in orthogonal cutting tests in a study to compare cutting zone due to a short contact time.
the heat flow through brazed and bonded tools [28]. IR This section presents the results of extensive cutting tests
pyrometer was also used as a remote sensor to measure the performed to measure temperature along the tool-chip
temperature at the tool-chip interface in high-speed milling interface line when machining BS 970-709M40EN19
[29]. The measured temperatures were used as an input for (AISI/SAE-4140) high strength alloy steel using uncoated
the inverse heat transfer model to calculate the heat flux and cemented carbide inserts. The temperature was measured as
temperature distribution on the tool-chip interface. a function of cutting speed. The cutting speeds used in the
In metallographic techniques, the temperature measure- tests were 750 and 925 m/min while the feed rate and depth
ment involves the analysis of the microstructure and/or the of cut were kept constant at 0.15 mm/rev and 0.1 mm,
microhardness of the heat-affected zone within the cutting respectively. Temperature was measured using an infrared
tool. It requires calibration curves, which give the hardness thermal imager FLIR ThermaCAM SC3000, a long wave,
of the tool material against known temperatures and heating self-cooling analysis system with a cool down time of !
time. Typically the accuracy of the temperatures measured 6 min. It has a temperature range of K20 to C2000 8C with
Fig. 3. The ThermaCAMe researcher main window.
an accuracy of G2% or 2 8C for measurement ranges above 925 m/min, the temperature reached the steady state
150 8C. This camera can acquire images and data at high conditions and a nearly constant value of 1000 8C after
rates of up to 750 Hz PAL/900 Hz NTSC with ThermaCAM the heat up period. The temperature then increased and
ResearcherTM HS package. This package allows extensive reached approximately 1150 8C at the end of the test. The
analysis of highly dynamic objects and events typically curves in Fig. 6 represent the temperature evolution
found in metal machining research applications. The according to the spotmeters located on the chip, parallel to
emissivity of the workpiece material was measured using the tool-chip interface at a distance of 40 mm. It can be seen
the direct emissivity measurement method. The surface that the maximum temperature on the chip was recorded at a
temperature was measured locally by a thermocouple. The distance of 120 mm to the left from the tool tip. This clearly
emissivity was evaluated using the ThermaCAM researcher shows the predominance of the frictional heating
software by matching the measured temperature with that of component.
the thermocouple.
The ThermaCAM SC3000 was set up and the location of
the analysis area was chosen to be on the chip. The camera
was positioned at a distance of 10 mm from the tool 4. A review of temperature prediction and distribution
workpiece interface in order to avoid any damage by the models
chips.
The stored images were recalled and analysed by using Researchers have long investigated heat generation and
the ‘flying spotmeters and the line’ in the software, see cutting temperatures in metal cutting. They have applied
different analytical and numerical methods with
program interface in Fig. 3. When placed on the image the
spotmeter gave the temperature value at a particular point
and was used to predict the position of the maximum
temperature, while the line gave the maximum temperature
along the tool-chip interface. The line was positioned at a
distance of 40 mm from the interface into the chip as shown
in Fig. 4.
The results obtained give a clear idea about the values of
temperature achieved at the tool-chip interface at high
cutting speeds. The thermography of Figs. 4 and 5 shows
that as the insert gets in contact with the workpiece the
temperature raises rapidly. For the cutting speed of 750 m/
min, it can be seen that the maximum temperature is rising
during the whole cutting period. The maximum
temperature has a value of approximately 950 8C at the
end of the cutting test. For the higher cutting speed of Fig. 4. Infrared photograph of the cutting process (VZ750 m/min).
Fig. 5. Maximum temperature profile along line LO1 on the chip near the tool-chip interface at a distance of 40 mm, for cutting speeds of (a) 750 m/min, (b)
925 m/min.
the objectives to calculate the peak and average tempera- assumed plane heat sources at the shear plane and at the
tures in the shear zone and on the tool rake face, determine tool-chip interface and that the shear and frictional energy
the temperature distribution on the tool rake face, are distributed uniformly. Additionally, they assumed that
investigate the heat partition phenomena and obtain the there is no redistribution of the thermal shear energy going
temperature fields within the cutting tool, chip and the to the chip during the very short time the chip was in contact
workpiece. These methods involve analysis of heat with the tool. They used Blok’s [11] partition principle to
conduction with moving or stationary heat sources together compute the distribution of thermal energy at the shear
with the kinematics, geometry and energy aspects of the plane. The frictional heat source at the tool-chip interface
machining process. The inverse heat conduction method has was considered as a moving band heat source in relation to
also been employed where the unknown boundary values of the chip and a stationary plane source in relation to the tool.
heat flux are obtained from a known interior temperature Moreover, Trigger and Chao assumed the work surface and
distribution in a heat conduction system. the machined surface as adiabatic boundaries. The authors
were able to calculate the average heat partition into the chip
4.1. Analytical models
1200
Trigger and Chao [35] developed a steady state two- 1000

Temperature, deg C
dimensional analytical model for the prediction of average 800

Cutting time = 2 sec
temperature in metal cutting. They calculated the average
600 Cutting time = 5 sec
temperature rise of the chip as it leaves the shear plane due Cutting time = 8 sec
400
to the shear plane heat source and the average tool-chip
interface temperature in orthogonal machining based on the 200
existence of two heat sources, one on the shear plane and 0
the other on the tool-chip interface. The latent heat stored in 0.05 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.2 0.24 0.28 0.32
Distance from the cutting edge, mm
the chip was approximated to be 12.5% of the total heat
generation. They also assumed that 90% of the heat flow Fig. 6. Variation of maximum interface temperature with the distance from
into chip and 10% flows into the work material. They the tip of the cutting edge (VZ925 m/min).
and the tool and consequently the resulting average were constant and independent of temperature. At the tool
temperature at the tool-chip interface zone. rake face the heat source was assumed as a plane uniform
Loewen and Shaw [36] used a similar approach to heat source with no heat transferring into the tool. The
calculate the average temperature rise at the tool-chip author was able to calculate temperature distribution in the
interface by making the same assumptions. The authors workpiece, chip and tool and compute the temperature at
considered the chip and the work material as two bodies in any distances from the shear plane. Results however showed
relative motion at the shear plane. Relative to the shear an overestimation of the chip temperature. Also the
plane the chip was considered as stationary body while the maximum temperature on the tool rake face occurred at
work material is a moving body moving at the velocity of the end of the tool-chip contact length. Boothroyd [40] and
shear instead of the cutting velocity. They applied Blok’s Wright et al. [41] developed two similar temperature models
heat partition principle to their analysis. Two temperature using Wiener’s energy partition analysis. These were non-
solutions were obtained for each heat source, one for each iterative models, which considered the workpiece thermal
side of the plane heat source. Similar to Trigger and Chao, properties to be independent of temperature. Boothroyd
Loewen and Shaw considered that tool-chip interface is assumed that the heat source on the tool rake face was
adiabatic and therefore, the shear plane contributes only to uniform and the fraction of the total heat entering the tool
the temperature rise in the chip including the tool-chip was constant. Boothroyd also assumed that the heat
interface on the chip side but not on the tool. conduction in the direction of the chip flow is negligible.
Although the models developed by Trigger and Chao and Wright, on the other hand, used a different assumption for
Loewen and Shaw provide a relatively straightforward the rake face frictional heat source. His model computed the
solution for the prediction of the average temperature of the temperature of specially ground HSS inserts based on the
shear plane and the tool-chip interface, the main question- relative size of the sticking and sliding regions with
able aspect is about the use of Blok’s partition principle and the assumption that 80% of the frictional heat source
the assumption of a uniform heat flux at the tool-chip flows into the chip. Venuvinod and Lau [42] proposed a
interface zone. Chao and Trigger pointed out the difficulties, three-dimensional iterative model for the distribution of the
which arose from the use of this assumption [37]. It was average tool-chip interface temperature in free oblique
concluded that with this assumption it was impossible to cutting based on Jaeger’s friction slider solution [12]. Their
match the temperatures on the two sides of the heat sources analysis assumed the tool to be ideally sharp and unworn,
and that to bring the two temperature distribution curves to the chips produced to be continuous and the chip moves as a
near coincidence; the heat flux distribution must necessarily rigid body relative to the tool. The shear plane source was
be non-uniform. To solve this problem Chao and Trigger assumed to be uniformly distributed heat source while the
used two approaches. Firstly, they proposed an approximate heat generation at the tool-chip interface was assumed to be
analytical procedure in which the heat flux was assumed as uniformly distributed over the sticking zone but decreasing
an exponential function. Although they were able to achieve linearly over the sliding zone and becoming zero at the
a more realistic interface temperature distribution, they separation point.
pointed out that this approach required the use of a time Young and Chou presented an analytical model to predict
consuming cut-and-try procedure to find the values of the the tool-chip interface temperature distribution during
constants in their equation. The second approach used by the orthogonal metal cutting [43]. They assumed plane strain
authors was a discrete numerical iterative method, which and steady-state conditions. The shear plane and frictional
involved a combination of analytical and numerical heat sources were assumed as plane heat sources of a
methods. The authors were able to calculate the temperature uniform strength. Furthermore, they assumed that the shear
rise at the tool-chip interface on the tool and chip sides using plane was inclined to the chip velocity; heat conduction in
Jaeger’s solution for the moving and stationary heat sources. the direction of motion could be neglected; and heat
Weiner developed another analytical model and obtained generated along the shear plane was at a uniform rate. Their
the average temperature at the tool-chip interface [38]. The results show that the maximum temperatures occur along
shear plane was considered as an inclined plane with the the interface where the chip starts to separate from the tool
heat source moving with a speed equal to the cutting speed. face as a consequence of the assumption of a plane source of
In order to simplify the geometry of the problem, Weiner uniform strength at the tool-chip interface. The location of
assumed that the chip flow was normal to the shear plane the maximum temperature, expressed as a fraction of the
and the heat conduction in the direction of tool motion was contact length, was found to shift from 1 to 0.55 and 0.65
negligible. Moreover, it was assumed that the intersection when the triangular and trapezoidal distributions of the heat
between the shear plane and the workpiece free surface source were used, respectively.
remained at ambient temperature. Rapier, assumed the Radulescu and Kapoor presented a three-dimensional
primary deformation zone to be a plane heat source of analytical model for the prediction of temperature fields in
uniform strength [39]. It was also assumed that there were continuous and interrupted metal cutting processes [44].
no heat losses from the free surfaces of the chip and the Their analytical model can be used to calculate the transient
workpiece and that the thermal properties of the workpiece cutting temperatures based on the cutting forces as inputs.
The authors assumed steady-state conditions and imposed

convection boundary conditions on the boundaries exposed
to the environment. The values of heat flux into the tool,
chip, and the workpiece were determined from an energy
balance on the control volume comprising of the chip
formation zone. The tool-chip interface temperature was
calculated by solving a heat conduction problem using the
predetermined heat fluxes. Their results were found to be in
good agreement with the experimental observations for the
workpiece materials.
Stephenson et al. developed a model for calculating the
tool temperatures in contour turning under transient
conditions with a time varying heat flux and tool-chip
contact area [45]. Unlike Radulescu and Kapoor, Stephen-
son et al. used insulated conditions for the faces exposed to
Fig. 7. Temperature rise at the tool-chip interface due to the combined effect
the air in order to reduce the computing time and simplify
of the shear and the frictional heat sources.
the input requirements. Besides this, the ambient and
insulated boundary conditions were applied at the bottom assumptions of the analytical models. However, the use of
surface of the insert. Moreover, the computational domain FEM in metal cutting research requires a large number of
was selected to have the same size as the tool insert, which input parameters which needs to be determined through an
means that any heat penetration to the holder was neglected. extensive experimental work and mechanical property tests.
Heat flux was determined from measured cutting forces These include material models for large deformation, high
using Loewen and Show’s model [36]. The average strain rate, temperature effects, tool-chip contact and
temperatures were calculated with two sets of boundary friction models, and the separation criterion.
conditions for the bottom of the insert i.e. ambient Generally, application of finite element modelling to
temperature and insulated contact. Generally, the predic-
cutting processes involves two types of formulations;
tions obtained with the ambient temperature boundary
Eulerian or an updated Lagrangian. The analyses employ
condition at the bottom of the insert were found to agree
different material models, such as rigid-plastic or elasto-
well with the measured temperatures.
plastic. The meshes are either structured or adaptive. Chip
More recently, Komanduri and Hou developed an
separation criteria, friction and contact conditions at the
analytical model for the temperature rise distribution at
secondary zone and coupled thermomechanical models are
the tool-chip interface in metal cutting which considered the
also considered. Recently, general codes and commercial
combined effect of the shear and the frictional heat sources
implicit finite element codes such as Deform 2D–3D,
[46]. The model was based on Hahn’s work [47] of an
oblique moving heat source for the shear plane heat source, MSC.Marc have also been used for the simulation of metal
and Chao and Trigger [37] on the frictional heat source at cutting processes.
the tool-chip interface and the heat source method Tay et al. used the finite element method to compute the
developed by Jaeger. The authors assumed that only the temperature field in the tool, the chip, and the workpiece in
backside of the chip was an adiabatic boundary and were orthogonal cutting process [7]. Their approach was to
able to predict the temperature rise distribution at the tool- develop a model based on the knowledge of the strain-rate
chip interface by considering a non-uniform moving-band field from experimental data. This procedure requires the
heat source for the chip and a stationary rectangular heat strain-rate field being available for each set of conditions;
source for the tool. The model was applied to conventional quick stop tests printed with fine grids and the flow stress of
machining of steel with a carbide tool. The results obtained the work material as a function of strain, strain rate and
are very interesting and show the combined effect of the temperature. The authors were able to obtain an acceptable
shear and the frictional heat sources on the temperature rise complete two-dimensional temperature distribution. Maxi-
as can be seen in Fig. 7. It was concluded that, although, the mum tool-chip interface temperatures were found to be 700
contribution of friction heat source is predominant, the shear and 1000 8C for cutting speeds of 122 and 244 m/min,
plane heat source accounts for an increase in the respectively and a depth of cut of 0.25 mm. The location of
temperature at the interface of about 200 8C. the maximum interface temperatures occurred approxi-
mately at the mid of the contact length. However, the main
4.2. Numerical models limitation of this method is that the inputs should be
obtained from the cutting tests for the specific combination
Finite element simulations have been successfully of the tool geometry and workpiece. More simplified
applied for modelling orthogonal metal cutting processes. version of this finite element method was described later
They have significantly reduced the simplifying in order to reduce the computer run time and to eliminate
to the strain, strain rate and temperature. Unfortunately, the

input requirements for this model have to be determined
experimentally, which may influence the accuracy of the
obtained results. Stephenson et al. presented a further
development of Tay’s finite element model and extended its
range of application [50]. Modifications were applied to the
procedures for calculating the strain rate field, the mesh and
the flow stress. The resulting procedure avoided the need for
the flow field as an input and was able to accommodate a
wide range of shear angles and tool-chip contact lengths.
Dawson and Malkin [51] presented a finite element
solution for the heat transfer problem for the shear plane
temperature. They suggested that the band heat source did
not move along the shear plane relative to the workpiece as
had been assumed by Loewen and show [36]. Instead, the
band heat source was moved with the cutting velocity
Fig. 8. Assumed deformation zone shape and dimensions used in [48]. directly into the workpiece material to be removed ahead of
shear plane. Therefore, the preheated material directly
the need for an experimental strain rate field for each set of ahead of the shear plane was removed. From the chip side at
conditions [48]. The secondary plastic zone was assumed to the shear plane it was assumed that all of the heat dissipated
extend over the entire contact length while the elastic at the shear plane is conducted into the workpiece. The
region, which occurs just before the separation point, was authors also considered the heat convection from the
neglected. Moreover, the secondary plastic zone was workpiece into the chip across the shear plane.
considered to have a triangular shape as shown in Fig. 8. Kim and Sin developed a thermo-viscoplastic cutting
Fig. 9 shows temperature distribution obtained with this model by using finite element method to analyse the
model. The author’s results were compared with those mechanics of steady-state orthogonal cutting process [52].
obtained by Rapier and Boothroyd for the same cutting The authors assumed that the workpiece is a thermo-
conditions. The tool-chip interface temperatures of Rapier viscoplastic material and the flow stress is a function of
were found to be higher than those obtained by the authors. strain, strain rate and temperature. In the temperature
This was attributed to the assumption of plain heat source analysis, the authors applied the full upwind scheme to
made by Rapier. The primary zone temperatures of Rapier overcome the spurious oscillations in the solution arising
and Boothroyd were also found to be higher than the values from the standard discretization of the heat transfer equation
of the authors. involving both diffusion and convection terms. The
Muraka et al. also used the finite element method to experimental data comparison included the cutting force
investigate the effect of the process variables such as cutting and temperature analysis. Validation of the cutting
speed, flank wear rate, coolant water, etc. on the temperature temperature was performed by comparing the simulated
distribution on the tool flank and rake faces [49]. The rate of temperature distributions, maximum temperature and the
heat generation was calculated from the experimentally location of maximum temperature with Tay et al.’s results
measured strain-rates in the primary and secondary shear and was found in good agreement. Ceretti et al. proposed a
zones. In addition, empirical expressions were used to relate finite element model to simulate the orthogonal cutting
the flow stress of the workpiece material in the primary zone process with continuous and segmented chip flow [53].
They used the commercial code DEFORM 2D to simulate
the process. Despite the simplifying assumptions, related to
friction conditions, properties of the workpiece material,
limited work hardening, strain rate, and temperature effects,
their results were in good agreement with the experiments in
terms of estimating chip geometry, tool workpiece contact
length and chip and tool temperatures.
Moriwaki et al. [10] developed a rigid-plastic finite
element model to analyse the mechanics of the orthogonal
micro machining process and examined the effect of the tool
edge radius to depth of cut ratio on the micro machining
process. They also analysed the flow of cutting heat and
temperature distribution in both the workpiece and the tool
based on stress, strain and material flow within the
Fig. 9. Temperature distribution [48]. workpiece. The steady state heat conduction analysis was
performed assuming that the flow stress is independent on distributed on the contact area and no frictional heat was
the temperatures and the nodal velocities in workpiece and transferred into the workpiece. All heat losses other than
chip and therefore, their model was for low cutting speeds. conduction and mass heat transfer were neglected. The
Strenkowski et al. [54] presented a steady-state Eulerian model required the temperature at the back of the tool to be
finite element model for orthogonal metal cutting in which known. Boothroyd also applied the finite difference
the workpiece and chip are treated as a control volume. For technique to measure and calculate the heat generation
this model, the cutting process was treated as a large rates in the primary and secondary deformation zones based
deformation process involving a viscoplastic material. The on the temperature variations in preheated workpieces using
authors assumed that the elastic effects are negligible. The an IR photography technique [60].
model incorporates a procedure for predicting the chip Boundary element method has also been used to
geometry and contact length which allows the determination analyse the metal cutting process. Chan and Chandra
of the thermal conduction path of the heat generated by [61] used this method to analyse the heat transfer problem
plastic work of the workpiece and sliding friction into the in orthogonal machining processes based on the BEM
tool which allows for calculation of the tool temperatures. formulation of Tanaka et al. [62]. The method was applied
Since, the Eulerian cutting model is a control volume to solve for heat transfer in the tool, chip and the
approach the free surface is not known in advance, the workpiece regions separately due to the different
authors calculated the position of the free surface by velocities in each of these regions and assuming that the
considering the material velocity normal to a free surface is thermophysical properties were same in the three regions.
zero. Their model does not require an empirical cutting data The complete heat transfer model was then obtained by
such as material velocity or measured contact length to matching the boundary conditions at the shear plane and
predict the tool temperatures and therefore, no companion the tool-chip interface.
cutting experiments are required. The inverse heat conduction techniques have been
More recently, Lei et al. presented a thermomechanical employed in the analysis of machining process. The
plane strain finite element model for modelling orthogonal unknown boundary condition i.e. the actual heat flux is
cutting process with continuous chip formation. The authors obtained from known interior temperatures measured at
considered a steady state plane strain conditions. They certain positions in a heat conduction system. Chen and
assumed that friction forces at the tool-chip interface are Tsao used a remote method to determine the temperature
neglected. Instead the authors applied a uniform heat flux distribution on the tool rake face [21]. The authors used
directly into the chip to account for the frictional heat three-dimensional boundary element method to solve the
transfer at the interface [55]. heat transfer model of the cutting tool and then they
Liu and Guo proposed a thermoelastic–viscoplastic FE employed the inverse heat transfer technique to estimate
model to investigate the effects of the friction at the tool- heat flux at the rake face for the corresponding transient
chip interface and sequential cuts on residual stresses in measurement of a thermocouple embedded in a HSS tool.
machined layers [56]. The authors assumed adiabatic The model was also used to determine the temperature fields
conditions and calculated temperature rise in the workpiece on the tool rake face.
based on the heat generated by plastic deformation while the
friction heat generation was neglected. The FE analysis of
the orthogonal cutting process conducted by Shet and Deng 5. Discussion on heat generation and temperature
was based on a modified Coulomb’s friction model at the distribution in metal machining
tool-chip interface and a stress-based chip separation
criterion and the assumption of adiabatic heating conditions Some conclusions can be drawn from the study of the
[57]. The authors were able to estimate the local work published on heat generation, temperature measure-
temperature rise in the primary and the secondary ment and temperature distribution in metal cutting. Firstly,
deformation zones. the temperature measurement techniques employed in the
Levy et al. [58] applied a two-dimensional finite experimental work have certain limitations, which make it
difference approach to determine the transient temperature difficult to predict the results in a precise manner. A large
variations in the chip and the tool in orthogonal cutting. In part of research on thermal aspects of the metal cutting
order to simplify the use of square grids in their study, the operations has concentrated on predicting the temperature
authors considered a tool of zero rake and clearance angle. of the interface zone and obtaining the temperature
The results were obtained under idealized cutting conditions distributions in the cutting tool and the chip. However,
with a zero wear rate, a normal wear rate and an accelerated there is no general agreement on the procedures for
wear rate. Smith and Armarego presented a three- estimating the mean temperatures on the shear plane and
dimensional temperature analysis in orthogonal cutting the tool-chip interface, and for predicting the intensity and
processes based on the thin shear zone model, popular shear distribution of heat sources in machining operations. This is
zone temperature equations and a finite difference scheme due to the complexity of the machining mechanics and the
[59]. The heat generated at the rake face was uniformly heat transfer phenomena involved.
There is a wide range of analytical models based on into the workpiece. Part of this heat is then transferred to the
certain simplifying assumptions, and developed from chip along the shear plane through convection from the
differing levels of experimental work. Most of these models workpiece. In HSM, on the other hand, most of the heat
have been developed for orthogonal cutting processes in conducts into the chip, as there is no sufficient time for the
order to reduce the problem to a two-dimensional case. A generated heat to flow into the workpiece.
few consider the process as three-dimensional. The In metal cutting, the tool-chip interface is divided into
simplification of these models relate to the geometry of two regions. At any instant during the cutting process a part
the tool, the chip, and the workpiece, as well as, some of the of the interface experiences full seizure whilst the remaining
boundary conditions and material data. In reality, heat is part undergoes inter-facial sliding [63,64]. Seizure (or full
generated at the shear plane, at the tool-chip interface, and at sticking friction) can be defined as a solid phase weld
the flank face of the cutting tool. Each of these sources between the primary atomic bonds of absolutely clean
affects the heat distribution in the tool, the chip and the metallic surfaces. Interfacial sliding, on the other hand, is
workpiece. Most of the models, however, consider the effect due to the relative movement between last layer of chip
of each source separately. Consequently, each model is material (atoms) and the tool rake face surface. These
subject to some difficulties in obtaining the complex interfacial conditions are highly dependent on the cutting
temperature distribution. conditions and the properties of the tool and workpiece
The main concerns about the accuracy of the analytical materials. Therefore, the heat generated along the secondary
models, and their limited predictive capability, emanate shear zone is directly influenced by the tribological
from the simplifying assumptions related to the nature of conditions of the contact region, whilst the tool-chip contact
heat sources and the boundary conditions. Most models length greatly affects the thermal conduction path between
assume that the heat sources on the shear plane and on the the chip and tool. For the calculation of heat generation and
tool-chip interface are plane heat sources. This assumption temperatures in the secondary deformation zone, these
is made mainly to simplify the analysis, since modelling the factors should be taken into consideration. The assumption
deformation zones with distributed heat sources would of a uniform plane heat source is inadequate in conventional
require the workpiece material velocity (or strain) distri- machining where sliding and sticking contact phenomenon
butions in these zones to be determined experimentally. In is obvious. Thus, in conventional machining the uniform
reality, the shear zone and the frictional zone extend slightly band source results in an overestimation of the calculated
into the workpiece and the chip, respectively, and in both temperatures. In high speed machining the contact
cases the heat is generated over a larger finite volume. The phenomenon is different. The friction model at the tool-
assumption of plane sources, therefore, usually leads to an chip interface plays a rule of importance in the modelling of
overestimation of the temperature. Another assumption machining process; it is probably one of the major
made in some studies, when considering the effect of the limitations of the machining models developed so far.
shear plane heat source on the temperature rise in the chip, is Chao and Trigger [37] found that the temperature rise on
that the chip boundaries, the back and the interface sides, are either side of the tool-chip interface could not be matched at
adiabatic. This means that there is no heat flowing from the any position along the contact length if the heat source was
chip into either the environment or the cutting tool. This assumed to be uniform. They pointed out the need for the
assumption also implies that the chip temperature is consideration of a distributed heat source. This was also
independent of the heat generation in the secondary recognised by Boothroyd [40], who did consider the rake
deformation zone and consequently the cutting speed does face frictional contact as a distributed source over a very
not have a significant effect on the chip temperature rise. In thin region. This led to a significant reduction in the
reality, there is always heat conduction occurring within the estimated rake face temperature. Another consequence of
workpiece, the chip and the tool. The heat generated in the the ‘uniform heat source’ assumption is the unrealistic
secondary deformation zone flows into the tool and the chip prediction of the position of the maximum temperature
and hence should be included in the total temperature rise of along the cool-chip interface, which, in some studies, has
the chip. Therefore, the adiabatic heating is just an been found to occur at the tool-chip separation point. It is
assumption which leads to non realistic results. The effect well known that the chip heats up as it moves along the rake
of this assumption is more important when cutting within face and hence, the vicinity of the maximum temperature
the conventional speeds region. cannot possibly be the edge of the cutting tool. It cannot be
The assumption, used by some investigators, of a band at the tool-chip separation point either as the intensity of the
heat source moving relative to the workpiece along the shear heat source decreases along the friction region gradually and
plane does not appear to be realistic in HSM. This is because reaches a minimum at the end of the contact length, as will
the heat source moves directly into the workpiece at the be seen later. Therefore, the hottest point along the tool-chip
cutting velocity and implies that the maximum heat is interface occurs within the contact length, as shown in
generated in the material ahead of the shear plane. This Section 3.
considerably alters the heat transfer behaviour during the Wright and Trent [65] suggested that the contact
process. In conventional machining, most of the heat flows phenomenon along the tool-chip contact length consists of
sticking and interfacial sliding regions and the distribution processes are coupled together and influence each other to
of heat follows the same trend as the frictional stress given a large degree. The elevated temperatures associated with
by Zorev [66], and as shown in Fig. 5(a). The frictional the cutting process significantly alter the material mechan-
stress is distributed uniformly from the cutting edge to the ical and thermal properties during the process. For example,
end of the sticking region and then decreases gradually to as the temperature along the tool-chip interface zone
the end of the contact length. Based on the assumption that increases, the material strength and hence, the cutting
all the energy resulting from friction is converted into heat, forces decrease, thereby reducing the heat generation. Any
the authors concluded that heat generation could not be model, which does not take this into account, would predict
uniformly distributed along the rake face. Tay et al. [7] higher temperatures. It can be concluded, therefore, that the
reported that the material which is in contact with the temperature solution in metal cutting needs to be an iterative
cutting edge slides at a cutting speed of Vc /3, where Vc is the solution with temperature dependent material properties.
bulk chip speed. The interfacial speed increases and reaches Different analytical models are based on the assumption
the bulk chip speed at the end of the sticking region. Tay of different heat partitions into the workpiece. As a result,
et al. also suggested that the heat generation in the sticking the temperature distributions obtained from these models
region comes from two sources, as shown in Fig. 10(b). differ significantly. For example, the assumption of steady-
First, the heat generated in the secondary zone, QS, due to state cutting conditions and fixed heat partitioning between
the shearing of the material. This is a function of the the process components imply that the contact area, the
material shear strength and the relative velocity across input heat area, and the tool geometry remain constant
the zone thickness which varies from a value of 2Vc /3 at the during the process. In reality, the cutting parameters vary
cutting edge to zero at the end of the sticking region. The significantly with time before reaching the steady-state
second source is due to the heat generated through conditions. This is due to many factors such as tool wear,
the sliding of the material at Vc /3 at the cutting edge, and change in contact conditions. The contact area, which
with the amount of heat generated per unit area given by determines the heat input area for the model, changes with
QfZtSVc/3. the cutting time due to the fact that crater wear modifies the
Considering the generation of the shear and frictional tool rake angle leading to a longer contact length. Without
heat and the distribution of temperature along the tool-chip considering this, the analysis may lead to an under-
interface, some of the analytical models use Wiener’s estimation of the heat flowing into the cutting tool and
energy partition analysis, whilst others use Jaeger’s friction hence, yield lower tool temperatures.
slider solution. These solutions differ significantly in heat In some studies for the prediction of the temperature on
partition; Wiener’s solution assumes a less amount of heat the shear plane and at the tool-chip interface, the
flowing into the workpiece than Jaeger’s solution. There- intersection between the shear plane and the workpiece
fore, the models derived based on Wiener’s solution free surface is maintained at ambient temperature. This
overestimate the temperatures of the chip and tool rake boundary condition is another source of error as ambient
face. Also, with these models, the assumption of a constant conditions may not be prevail at the end of the shear plane
heat partition factor lead to an overestimation of the due to heat convection into the chip along the shear plane.
calculated temperatures. In summary, there is no general This is particularly so in HSM where the chip takes away
agreement on a partition criterion for the heat transfer into most of the heat.
the tool, the chip, and the workpiece, in conventional The finite element method has been frequently used for
machining. modelling machining processes. The main objective of FE
The intensity and distribution of heat sources are studies is to derive a computational model for predicting
extremely difficult to predict in machining operations. deformations, stresses and strains in the workpiece, as well
This is because the dynamic mechanical and thermal as the loads on the cutting tool including forces,
(a) (b)
Heat generation
rate per unit area
Qt
Qf
Chip Chip
Qs
Distance along
rake face
x ls lst x ls lst
Tool Tool
Fig. 10. Heat generation rate per unit area along the contact length according to: Wright and Trent (a), and Tay et al. (b).
temperatures and temperature distribution under different quite different. In the primary deformation zone, the chip
cutting conditions. Similar to the analytical modelling, FEM and the work material should be considered as one body.
require material flow stress data for the workpiece material The deformation is a material flow process in which a
as a function of strain, strain rate and temperature. However, certain amount of the work material continuously flows
the accuracy of the FE simulation of orthogonal cutting through the shear plane to form the chip. On the other hand,
process is dependent upon the effects of the input friction in the secondary deformation zone, the chip and the tool are
model, chip separation and formation criterion and material two different bodies in relative motion. This fact needs to be
data (material flow stress), material properties of the process emphasised because it highly influence the heat partition
components. Due to the combined effect of these factors, the phenomena at the chip-work and tool-chip interfaces.
accuracy of the cutting temperatures and temperature As mentioned above, cutting metals at high speeds
distribution cannot be examined independently. All other results in highly localised temperatures, stresses and strain
predictable process parameters; such as cutting forces, chip rates resulting in a decrease in chip thickness and a
thickness and contact length, must be assessed and validated corresponding decrease in cutting forces. Under such
by the experimental results until a good correlation is conditions it is obvious that the assumption of plane-strain
achieved for the predictable parameters. deformation of the work material during conventional
Machining process is mainly a deformation process orthogonal cutting simulation for continuous chip formation
where deformation is highly concentrated in a very small cannot be used in HSM. The mechanical behaviour of
zone. However, the workpiece material flow data at the metallic materials at conventional cutting speeds should not
conditions encountered during machining process; at large be directly transferred to the high-speed region. In HSM,
plastic strain up to 3, temperature up to 1200 8C and strain- material behaviour during the deformation process at high
rate up to 104 1/s, are still not widely existent. This lack of strains is characterized by increased strain sensitivity, by
complete material properties and friction parameters are a adiabatic nature of the deformation process and by
major limitation in accurate FE simulation of metal cutting.
increasing effects of mass inertia forces [67]. The material
Most of finite element simulation of the orthogonal
flow characteristics, or flow stress (the resistance of the
cutting assumes a plane strain relying on the fact that cutting
workpiece material to cutting, which is always considered
width is much larger than the undeformed chip thickness.
as the major mechanical characteristic of the work material),
Furthermore, in view of the large elastic modulus of the tool
are highly affected by the temperature increase that is
material relative to that of the workpiece, perfect rigidity of
associated with the deformation process in HSM. The flow
the cutting tool is commonly assumed. This is rarely the
stress reaches a maximum at certain stress value. Any
case but this approximation is quite reasonable, since the
further drop in flow stress strongly influences the
elastic deflection of the cutting tool is small compared to the
deformation process leading to a deformation localization
large plastic deformations of the workpiece material.
The contact phenomenon in metal cutting is associated combined with heat concentration in very small region [67].
with very high conditions of pressure, strain rate and The material data for the severe deformation conditions that
temperature. The state of technology for interactions at the exist in HSM are not widely available. This is probably due
tool-chip interface is mainly based on assumptions, not on to the unavailability of the necessary experimental setup.
scientific understanding of the underlying physics. However, the available data are mainly obtained by using
Based on the review of the above studies, it can be impact compression tests for various materials at the
concluded that finite element work done so far has not moderate deformation rates. For example, the strain rates
successfully modelled the machining process. The uncer- in the standard tensile tests and the rapid impact type tensile
tainty in FE modelling of machining is illustrated by test are 10K3 and 103 sK1, respectively, which is consider-
inaccuracies in the following aspects: mesh and boundary ably below than even those of conventional machining [68].
conditions, material property data, friction properties at the In addition, it is important to mention that at strain rates
tool-chip interface, temperature consideration and chip greater than 104 sK1 the role of material internal forces
separation mechanism. cannot be neglected [68]. Therefore, there is a strong need to
To summarise: there is no general agreement on various obtain the material data for wide range of strain rates and
modelling issues in conventional machining. The problem temperatures for the numerical simulation of HSM process.
becomes even more complex in high speed machining As shown above, due to the adiabatic nature of the HSM
where material properties, heat sources, and heat partition process, temperatures at the tool-chip interface could be as
become dependent on temperature and cutting speed. high as 1200 8C in a very short time. This will considerably
affect the properties of tool and workpiece materials. The
thermal properties of both the cutting tool and the
6. Numerical modelling of high speed machining workpiece, such as thermal conductivity, specific heat
cannot be expected to remain constant when the temperature
In metal cutting process, the nature of the deformation difference within the cutting process is more then 1000 8C.
process in the primary and secondary deformation zones is Therefore, the simulation of the HSM must be considered as
an iterative process and should incorporate variable thermal regard to the friction behaviour of various hard and soft
properties for the workpiece and tool materials. coatings under metal cutting conditions. The problem
Another difference of great importance between the becomes more complicated in HSM due to the extreme
conventional and high speed machining is the physical conditions of deformation of the work material under locally
contact phenomenon and the friction characteristics at the high hydrostatic pressure. Obviously, more research is
tool-chip interface. Nevertheless, it is undoubted that the needed to develop more realistic and accurate friction model
friction model at the tool-chip interface in metal cutting, for HSM. The prediction of friction model for HSM needs to
especially in HSM, plays a vital role in influencing the be dependent mainly upon the cutting conditions, especially
modelling process and the accuracy of the predicted cutting cutting speed and the tool and chip materials.
forces, stresses, temperatures and temperature distribution. Another point of great importance in the FE modelling of
In the earlier works on FE modelling of conventional orthogonal cutting process is the design of the finite element
machining, the frictional condition at the interface is often mesh and the boundary conditions. Meshing the CAD
neglected or assumed to be constant and usually a constant models in their original forms is problematic due to
Coulomb’s friction, along the tool-chip contact area is used. overlaps, gaps and other inconsistencies in the model
This is mainly due to the difficulty in implementing accurate surfaces. Manual fixing of the model surfaces to be properly
friction and contact conditions which arises from the fact meshed is a tedious and time consuming process.
that the contact phenomenon and friction parameters are The simulation package must have the capability to mesh
influenced by different factors such as cutting conditions, the complex geometry of the CAD model. In general, the
especially the cutting speed, and tool geometry, etc. accuracy of the finite element analysis depends on the
However, it is will known that Coulomb’s Law is capable number of elements involved in the simulation process.
of describing only friction effects between effectively rigid However, it is worth mentioning that the efficient and
bodies and gross sliding of one body relative to another accurate solution of the HSM modelling problem is not
which is not the case in HSM. For HSM, it would appear merely the number of elements and nodal points but also
that using Coulomb’s frictional model will lead to an their placement and the individual element relationships
overestimated shear friction stress far beyond the local yield [71]. The deformation zone within the work material is
shear stress. exposed to steep thermal gradients which give rise to
HSM is characterized by high chip velocity, friction and thermal stresses in addition to the combined effect of the
temperature at the tool-chip contact area and consequently thermo-mechanical stresses. Therefore, a high mesh density
high tool wear rate. This clearly means that the steady state is required especially in the regions of high deformation.
conditions may not be reached in HSM process. It has been In HSM modelling, considering the accuracy enhance-
reported that the contact phenomenon changes from ment close to the region of interface between the tool, chip
conventional to high speed machining. While sliding and workpiece is essential. Adaptation of mesh in FE
friction is common in conventional machining, in HSM simulation of HSM is required in order to achieve high
seizure takes place and sticking contact length is the mode accuracy while maintaining local details of the deformation.
of heat transfer [69]. Also, both sticking and sliding has Thus, frequent remeshing is necessary to ensure that the
been reported to occur simultaneously at the tool-chip elements never become too distorted and to reduce error in
interface. Though there has been difference of opinion the deformation zones. On the other hand, quiescent
regarding the ratio of plastic to elastic contact lengths. As a regions, less detail and accuracy are required and hence
consequence, the mean friction stress and friction coefficient can be meshed using a comparatively coarser mesh. This
on the tool rake face is expected to differ substantially means that regions of the mesh undergoing less change will
according to the contact phenomenon present at the be resolved at lower resolutions. However, the main
interface. Therefore, under this unique tribological phenom- difficulty with adaptive meshing in FE simulation of the
enon it is clear that for HSM modelling and simulation, it is HSM is that the regions of interest where refinement is
not possible to use the empirical values of the coefficient of necessary, i.e. size of the deformation zone within the work
friction found from ordinary sliding test conditions. material and the heat affected zone within the cutting tool,
Different approaches have been taken to tackle the are not precisely known a priori. In terms of the element
problem including applying a constant shear friction at the size, the narrow shear bands formed in HSM process
entire chip-tool contact, a constant shear friction in the requires an element sizes of the order of 1 mm or less in
sticking region and Coulomb’s friction in sliding region, order to resolve the generated stress and strain gradients and
variable Coulomb friction at the entire contact area, variable model stable tearing under elastic–plastic conditions [72].
friction in sliding region and variable shear friction at the As large plastic strains, without volume change, are
entire tool-chip contact [70]. However, there is no general expected during the simulation of the process, elements
agreement on a friction model at the tool-chip interface in with additional degree of freedom are preferable. It may be
conventional machining. worth mentioning that in general, better results and greater
Another added complexity is the use of coatings on accuracy could be achieved with higher order elements,
cutting tools where very limited knowledge is available in however these elements require more computational time.
Another added complexity to the modelling and

simulation of HSM is the meshing of the coating layers
when coated tools are considered. For modelling the coating
layers of the coated tools, using a single solid element
through the thickness of each coated layer would generate
elements with large aspect ratios and would lead to a high
mesh density. Also having a single solid element through
the thickness would produce poor temperature gradients.
Therefore, shell elements should be used. The main benefits
of using shell elements for thin walled applications are: an
increase in computational speed, very thin aspect ratios and
with the layers it is simple to incorporate material or
orientation changes through the thickness. In addition, these
elements also have an option that allows them to be meshed
Fig. 11. Thermal and elastic–plastic boundary conditions in FE simulation. directly to solid thermal elements. However, when shell
elements are used, it is important to ensure that the
temperatures obtained within the elements can be
Choice of cutting conditions
Experimental data
Cutting forces, undeformed chip thickness, temperatures
FE model inputs
Material properties of the tool-work system &
Geometry data
Flow stress model Material properties Frictional model
Elastic-plastic FE analysis
Modify flow using the same cutting conditions Modify frictional
stress
model
No Compare predicted and

measured cutting force FC
Converged?
Yes
Yes
Compare predicted and No

measured FC& Ff
Converged?
Yes
Cutting forces, strain and strain rates
Correct flow stress
FE Thermal analysis
Compare predicted & No

measured temperatures
Converged?
Yes
Temperature, temperature No
distribution, stress, flow
converged? lines
Yes End
Fig. 12. Flow chart for computer simulation of orthogonal machining process for prediction of the tool-chip interface temperature and temperature distribution.
transferred directly to the surrounding structural elements. candidates are the fibre-optic pyrometers and infrared
In terms of the thermal boundary conditions, the pressure at thermography techniques. Compared to other methods
the contact interface is very high; therefore, heat transfer at these techniques could measure temperature, as well as,
the contact is thermally perfect. The other boundary the cooling rate easily, accurately and with fast time
conditions are shown in Fig. 11. response. In addition, they enable the prediction of the
To summarize, FE modelling and simulation of large transient behaviour during the warm up period, as well as,
deformations, high temperatures, and high stress and strain the cooling period. However, design of higher magnifying
rates in HSM processes requires a coupled thermal and and resolution systems capable of predicting temperatures at
elastic–plastic analysis. The precision of such simulation the cutting zone on a micro scale is a major challenge. The
can be enhanced by considering the influences of the non- lack of emissivity values for different materials is a major
linear behaviour of the material as well as the large limitation in the use of the infrared thermography
deformation and the dynamic contact conditions. The finite techniques. Specifically, emissivity values of hard and soft
element model for the analysis of the HSM process must coatings deposited on the cutting tools are very limited.
account for dynamic effects, heat conduction, mesh-on- Review of the works on analytical modelling of the metal
mesh contact with friction, and full thermo-mechanical cutting process show that these models suffer mainly due to
coupling. In addition, a fracture model which allows the simplified assumptions. However, the superiority of the
arbitrary crack initiation and propagation in the case of numerical techniques over the analytical solutions can be
shear localized chips is necessary. The FE software to be easily established.
used for HSM simulation needs to have several types of Due to the complexity and the severity of the
analysis capabilities including; static, dynamic, buckling deformation in HSM process, it is clear that purely
and crack extension, as well as, material non-linear and analytical approaches are severely restrictive. However, as
geometric non-linear behaviours. the deformation zone is non-analytic and non-linear, it is
It needs to be emphasised that the material properties are essential to have confidence in any proposed numerical
temperature dependent and thus not constant. As an model, which relies on a limited representation of the
example, it is not logical to assume that the thermal deformation shape.
conductivity of the workpiece remains constant during the In metal machining, the workpiece material can be
process. This introduces a high source of uncertainty in the considered as a material for which the flow stress of the
process. For accurate process modelling these uncertainties workpiece is a function of strain, strain rate and
must be taken into account by considering the thermal temperature. Therefore, the analysis and finite element
effects on input material properties. FE modelling of HSM simulation of the machining process requires the coupling of
requires a friction model that accounts for the non-local and the metal flow and heat transfer.
non-linear frictional presents in the contact between While FEM has been successfully applied for two-
metallic bodies. However, it can be said that FE modelling dimensional analysis of the machining process with
results are only as good as the material and frictional models reasonable accuracy, the transition to three-dimensional
used and never better. A methodology for FE simulation of analysis is still problematic.
HSM process is proposed in Fig. 12. The precision of the The inability to validate existing conventional machining
simulation results can be determined by comparing them to simulation models and extend them to HSM with confidence
the experimentally measured parameters of the process. is a main problem.
Calibrating the numerical simulation in terms of, the cutting Modelling the extreme conditions presented in the HSM
forces, the chip thickness, size of deformation zones and the process, which includes highly inhomogeneous plastic flow
temperatures is a fundamental requirement for the evalu- and thermal fields, complex contact conditions and high
ation of the model, as well as, for any further work based on temperatures and pressures, is extremely difficult.
simulation. The state of technology for consideration of interactions
at the tool/chip interface is mainly based on certain
assumptions and not on a precise understanding of the
7. Conlusions underlying physics.
FE modelling and simulation of machining processes is
This paper reviews the temperature measurement mainly suffering from a lack of the fundamental input data.
methods and the analytical and numerical models for the Therefore, further effort is required to provide a clear,
prediction of temperature and temperature distribution in consistent, well measured and relevant data on material
metal cutting. Based on this investigation, the following behaviour under conditions of interest. In addition, more
general statements can be made: research is required to develop realistic and accurate friction
Prediction of cutting temperatures is a major challenge in models for the tool-chip interface.
metal cutting. This is due to numerous practical difficulties One of the very important findings of this paper is that
involved in the process. However, for temperature measure- accuracy and reliability of HSM machining simulation
ment of the high speed cutting process the most promising models is crucially limited by uncertainties in material
friction models. Therefore, more research is needed to manufacturing processes and tribology, Tribol. Int. 34 (2001) 653–
develop numerical models to predict the contact geometry 682.
[15] D. O’Sullivan, M. Cotterell, Temperature measurement in single point
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Heat Generation and Temperature Prediction in Metal Cutting: A Review and Implications For High Speed Machining.

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International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 46 (2006) 782–800

Heat generation and temperature prediction in metal cutting:

Received 17 May 2005; accepted 12 July 2005

the workpiece. Heat generation and temperatures in the

1.2. Estimation of heat generation in metal cutting

Heat generated in metal cutting can be estimated either

where FV is the cutting force in N and V is the cutting speed

Fig. 3. The ThermaCAMe researcher main window.

Trigger and Chao [35] developed a steady state two- 1000

dimensional analytical model for the prediction of average 800

The authors assumed steady-state conditions and imposed

to the strain, strain rate and temperature. Unfortunately, the

Another added complexity to the modelling and

Choice of cutting conditions

Flow stress model Material properties Frictional model

No Compare predicted and

Compare predicted and No

Compare predicted & No

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