Function

A function relates an input to an output. It is like a machine that has an input and an output. And the
output is related somehow to the input.

Some Examples of Functions

x2 (squaring) is a function
x3+1 is also a function
Sine, Cosine and Tangent are functions used in trigonometry
and there are lots more!

But we are not going to look at specific functions ...

... instead we will look at the general idea of a function.

We say "f of x equals x squared"

what goes into the function is put inside parentheses () after the name of the function:
So f(x) shows us the function is called "f", and "x" goes in
And we usually see what a function does with the input:
f(x) = x2 shows us that function "f" takes "x" and squares it.

Domain and Range

Under Function Basics, we saw the difference between a relation and a function.In either case,
we are dealing with relationships expressed as ordered pairs. All of the values that can go into a
relation or function (input) are called the domain. All of the values that come out of a relation or
function (output) are called the range.
Range may also be referred to as "image". Note that both relations and functions have domains and
ranges.The domain is the set of all first elements of ordered pairs (x-coordinates).
The range is the set of all second elements of ordered pairs (y-coordinates).
Only the elements "used" by the relation or function constitute the range.
Example 1

State the domain and range of the following relation:

(eye color, student's name).
A = {(blue,Steve), (green,Elaine), (brown,Kyle), (blue,Marsha), (brown,Miranda), (green, Dylan)}
State whether the relation is a function.

Solution: Domain: {blue, green, brown}. Range: {Steve, Elaine, Marsha, Miranda, Dylan}.
No, this relation is not a function. The eye colors are repeated.

Example 2

State the domain and range of the following relation: {(1,3), (-2,7), (3,-3), (4,5), (1,-3)}.
State whether the relation is a function.

Solution: Domain: {-2, 1, 3, 4}. Range: {-3, 3, 5, 7}.

While these listings appear in ascending order, ordering is not required. Do not, however, duplicate
an element.
No, this relation is not a function. The x-value of "1" had two corresponding y-values (3 and -3).

Example 3

State the domain and range for the elements matched in the diagram below.
State whether the matches form a function.

Solution: Domain: {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. Range: {1, 2, 9, 12}.

Note that the range is only the elements that were used.
Yes, the relation {(3,2), (4,1), (5,9), (6,12), (7,12)}is a function.
No x-value repeats.

FYI: Set B = {1, 2, 3, 8, 9, 12} may be called the co-domain. It is the "possible" set from which
output from the relation will fall. The co-domain is NOT necessarily the same as the range. There
may be values in the co-domain that are never used.

Example 4

State the domain and range associated with the scatter plot shown below.
State whether the scatter plot is a function.

Solution: Domain: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.

(Be careful not to simply list the domain as 1 < x < 6, which would imply
ALL values between 1 and 6 inclusive, unless you specify "x is an
integer".)

Range: { 0, -1, 1, 2, 3, 6} Yes, this is a function. No x-values repeat,

and it passes the Vertical Line Test for functions. Note: Graphs that
are composed of a series of dots, instead of a connected curve, are
referred to as discrete graphs. A discrete domain is a set of input
values that consist of only certain numbers in an interval.
Example 5

Solution: Domain: (all real numbers).

The arrows indicate that the graph continues off the visible
grid, so assume that all real numbers are involved.

Range: y > -3 (may also be written as )

Yes, this relation is a function, since it passes the Vertical

Line Test for functions.

Example 6

State the appropriate domains for the functions shown below.

When functions are expressed as "rules" (formulas), be sure to think about possible "problem" spots
before stating the domain. Remember that the domain is the x-values that are allowed by the
function's equation. In most cases, a graph will help show the domain.

We know not all graphs are functions. As we saw in Example 5, it is often possible, however, to
create "functions" from non-function graphs by restricting which domain elements are used.
 The graph at the left is .

At first glance, it appears that this graph passes the

Vertical Line Test and is a "function". But it is NOT a
function over the domain of Real numbers.
This graph is undefined when x = 2, because
substituting two into the function will create a zero
denominator.

If we restrict the domain to be "all Real numbers

excluding 2", our relation can be called a function.

Domain of the function:

The graph of the relation is shown below on the left. It is clear that this relation fails the
Vertical Line Test and is NOT a function. We can, however, separate this graph into its two parts
and create two separate functions.

Function Notation
Some people think of functions as “mathematical machines.” Imagine you have a machine that
changes a number according to a specific rule, such as “multiply by 3 and add 2” or “divide by 5,
add 25, and multiply by −1.” If you put a number into the machine, a new number will pop out the
other end, having been changed according to the rule. The number that goes in is called the input,
and the number that is produced is called the output.

You can also call the machine “f” for function. If you put x into the box, f(x),comes out.
Mathematically speaking, x is the input, or the “independent variable,” and f(x) is the output, or the
“dependent variable,” since it depends on the value of x.

f(x)= 4x + 1 is written in function notation and is read “f of x equals 4x plus 1.” It represents the
following situation: A function named f acts upon an input, x, and produces f(x) which is equal to
4x + 1. This is the same as the equation as y = 4x + 1.
 Function notation gives you more flexibility because you don’t have to use y for every equation.
Instead, you could use f(x) or g(x) or c(x). This can be a helpful way to distinguish equations of
functions when you are dealing with more than one at a time.

You could write the formula for perimeter, P = 4s, as the function p(x) = 4x, and the formula for
area, A = x2, as a(x) = x2. This would make it easy to graph both functions on the same graph
without confusion about the variables.

Which two equations represent the same function?

A) y = 2x – 7 and f(x) = 7 – 2x
B) 3x = y – 2 and f(x) = 3x – 2
C) f(x) = 3x2 + 5 and y = 3x2 + 5
D) None of the above

Answer
A) y = 2x – 7 and f(x) = 7 – 2x
Incorrect. These equations look similar but are not the same. The first has a slope of 2 and
a y-intercept of −7. The second function has a slope of −2 and a y-intercept of 7. It slopes in the
opposite direction. They do not produce the same graph, so they are not the same function. The
correct answer is f(x) = 3x2 + 5 and y = 3x2 + 5.

B) 3x = y – 2 and f(x) = 3x – 2
Incorrect. These equations represent two different functions. If you rewrite the first equation in terms
of y, you’ll find the equation of the function is y = 3x + 2. The correct answer is f(x) = 3x2 + 5 and y =
3x2 + 5.

C) f(x) = 3x2 + 5 and y = 3x2 + 5

Correct. The expressions that follow f(x) = and y = are the same, so these are two different ways to
write the same function: f(x) = 3x2 + 5 and y = 3x2 + 5.

D) None of the above

Incorrect. Look at the expressions that follow f(x) = and y =. If the expressions are the same, then
the equations represent the same exact function. The correct answer is f(x) = 3x2 + 5 and y = 3x2 +
5.

Evaluating Functions
Equations written using function notation can also be evaluated. With function notation, you might
see a problem like this.

Given f(x) = 4x + 1, find f(2).

You read this problem like this: “given f of x equals 4x plus one, find f of 2.” While the notation and
wording is different, the process of evaluating a function is the same as evaluating an equation: in
both cases, you substitute 2 for x, multiply it by 4 and add 1, simplifying to get 9. In both a function
and an equation, an input of 2 results in an output of 9.

f(x) = 4x + 1
f(2) = 4(2) + 1 = 8 + 1 = 9
You can simply apply what you already know about evaluating expressions to evaluate a function.
It’s important to note that the parentheses that are part of function notation do not mean multiply.
The notation f(x) does not mean f multiplied by x. Instead the notation means “f of x” or “the function
of x” To evaluate the function, take the value given for x , and substitute that value in for x in the
expression. Let’s look at a couple of examples.

Example
Problem Given f(x) = 3x – 4, find f(5).
f(5) = 3(5) – 4 Substitute 5 in for x in the
function.
f(5) = 15 – 4 Simplify the expression on
f(5) = 11 the right side of the
equation.
Answer Given f(x)= 3x – 4, f(5) = 11.

Functions can be evaluated for negative values of x, too. Keep in mind the rules for integer
operations.

Example
Problem Given p(x) = 2x2 + 5, find p(−3).
p(−3) = 2(−3)2 + 5 Substitute -3 in for x in
the function.
p(−3) = 2(9) + 5 Simplify the expression
p(−3) = 18 + 5 on the right side of the
p(−3) = 23 equation.
Answer Given p(x) = 2x2 + 5, p(−3) = 23.

You may also be asked to evaluate a function for more than one value as shown in the example that
follows.

Example
Problem Given p(x) = 2x2 + 5, find p(−3).
p(−3) = 2(−3)2 + 5 Substitute -3 in for x in
the function.
p(−3) = 2(9) + 5 Simplify the expression
p(−3) = 18 + 5 on the right side of the
p(−3) = 23 equation.
Answer Given p(x) = 2x2 + 5, p(−3) = 23.

You may also be asked to evaluate a function for more than one value as shown in the example that
follows.
Example
Problem Given f(x) = 3x2 + 2x + 1, find f(0), f(2), and f(−1).
 f(0) = 3(0)2 + 2(0) + 1 Treat each of these like three separate
f(0) = 0 + 0 + 1 problems. In each case, you substitute
f(0) = 1 the value in for x and simplify. Start
with x = 0.
f(2) = 3(2)2 + 2(2) + 1 Evaluate for x = 3.
f(2) = 3(4) + 4 + 1
f(2) = 12 + 4 + 1
f(2) = 17
f(−1) = 3(−1)2 + 2(−1) + 1 Evaluate for x = −1.
f(−1) = 3(1) + (−2) + 1
f(−1) = 3 ‒ 2 + 1
f(−1) = 1 + 1
f(−1) = 2
Answer Given f(x) = 3x2 + 2x + 1, f(0) = 1, f(2) = 17, and f(‒1) = 2.

Given g(x) = 4x + 7, find g(−10).

A) −40g + 7
B) −33
C) 4x + 17
D) 47

Answer
A) −40g + 7
Incorrect. g(−10) means “g of negative ten” not “g times negative ten.” To evaluate the function,
substitute −10 for x. The correct answer is −33.

B) −33
Correct. g(−10) = 4(−10) + 7 = −40 + 7 = −33.

C) 4x + 17
Incorrect. To find g(−10), substitute −10 in for x in the right side of the equation and simplify. The
correct answer is −33.

D) 47
Incorrect. Evaluate the function for g(−10), not g(10). The correct answer is −33.

Finding The Domain and Range Of a Function

Finding domain and range of different functions is often a matter of asking yourself, what values can
this function not have?
Example
Problem What are the domain and range of the real-valued function f(x) = x + 3?

This is a linear function. Remember that linear functions are lines that continue forever in each
direction.
Any real number can be substituted for x and get a meaningful output. For any real number, you can
always find an x value that gives you that number for the output. Unless a linear function is a constant,
such as f(x) = 2, there is no restriction on the range.
Answer The domain and range are all real numbers.

Example
Problem What are the domain and range of the real-valued function f(x) = −3x2 + 6x + 1?

This is a quadratic function. There are no rational or radical expressions, so there is nothing that will
restrict the domain. Any real number can be used for x to get a meaningful output.

Because the coefficient of x2 is negative, it will open downward. With quadratic functions, remember
that there is either a maximum (greatest) value, or a minimum (least) value. In this case, there is a
maximum value.

The vertex, or turning point, is at (1, 4). From the graph, you
can see that f(x) ≤ 4.

Answer The domain is all real numbers, and the range is all real numbers f(x) such that f(x) ≤
4.
You can check that the vertex is indeed at (1, 4). Since a quadratic function has two mirror image
halves, the line of reflection has to be in the middle of two points with the same y value. The vertex
must lie on the line of reflection, because it’s the only point that does not have a mirror image!

In the previous example, notice that when x = 2 and when x = 0, the function value is 1. (You can
verify this by evaluating f(2) and f(0).) That is, both (2, 1) and (0, 1) are on the graph. The line of
reflection here is x = 1, so the vertex must be at the point (1, f(1)). Evaluating f(1) gives f(1) = 4, so
the vertex is at (1, 4).

Example

Problem
What are the domain and range of the real-valued function ?
This is a radical function. The domain of a radical function is any x value for which the radicand (the
value under the radical sign) is not negative. That means x + 5 ≥ 0, so x ≥ −5.

Since the square root must always be positive or 0, .

That means .

Answer The domain is all real numbers x where x ≥ −5, and the range is all real numbers f(x)
such that f(x) ≥ −2.
 Example

Problem
What are the domain and range of the real-valued function ?
This is a rational function. The domain of a rational function is restricted where the denominator is 0. In
this case, x + 2 is the denominator, and this is 0 only when x = −2.

For the range, create a graph using a graphing utility and look for asymptotes:

One asymptote, a vertical asymptote, is at x =−2, as you

should expect from the domain restriction. The other, a
horizontal asymptote, appears to be around y = 3. (In
fact, it is indeed y = 3.)

Answer The domain is all real numbers except −2, and the range is all real numbers except
3.

You can check the horizontal asymptote, y = 3. Is it possible for to be equal to 3? Write an
equation and try to solve it.

Since the attempt to solve ends with a false statement—0 cannot be equal to 6!—the equation has

no solution. There is no value of x for which , so this proves that the range is restricted.
Find the domain and range of the real-valued function f(x) = x2 + 7.

A) The domain is all real numbers and the range is all real numbers f(x) such that
f(x) ≥ 7.

B) The domain is all real numbers x such that x ≥ 0 and the range is all real numbers f(x) such
that f(x) ≥ 7.

C) The domain is all real numbers x such that x ≥ 0 and the range is all real numbers.

D) The domain and range are all real numbers.

Answer
A) The domain is all real numbers and the range is all real numbers f(x) such that
f(x) ≥ 7.
Correct. Quadratic functions have no domain restrictions. Since x2 ≥ 0, x2 + 7 ≥ 7.

B) The domain is all real numbers x such that x ≥ 0 and the range is all real numbers f(x) such
that f(x) ≥ 7.
Incorrect. Negative values can be used for x. The correct answer is: The domain is all real numbers
and the range is all real numbers f(x) such that f(x) ≥ 7.

C) The domain is all real numbers x such that x ≥ 0 and the range is all real numbers.
Incorrect. Negative values can be used for x, but the range is restricted because x2 ≥ 0. The correct
answer is: The domain is all real numbers and the range is all real numbers f(x) such that f(x) ≥ 7.

D) The domain and range are all real numbers.

Incorrect. While it’s true that quadratic functions have no domain restrictions, the range is restricted
because x2 ≥ 0. The correct answer is: The domain is all real numbers and the range is all real
numbers f(x) such that f(x) ≥ 7.
Graphs of Functions
When both the input (independent variable) and the output (dependent variable) are real numbers, a
function can be represented by a coordinate graph. The input is plotted on the horizontal x-axis and
the output is plotted on the vertical y-axis.

A helpful first step in graphing a function is to make a table of values. This is particularly useful when
you don’t know the general shape the function will have. You probably already know that a linear
function will be a straight line, but let’s make a table first to see how it can be helpful.

When making a table, it’s a good idea to include negative values, positive values, and zero to ensure
that you do have a linear function.

Make a table of values for f(x)=3x+2f(x)=3x+2.

x f(x)
Make a two-column table. Label the columns x and f(x).

Choose several values for x and put them as separate rows in the x column. These are YOUR
CHOICE – there is no “right” or “wrong” values to pick, just go for it.

Tip: It’s always good to include 0, positive values, and negative values, if you can.

Evaluate the function for each value of x, and write the result in the f(x) column next to the x value
you used.

When x=0x=0, f(0)=3(0)+2=2f(0)=3(0)+2=2,

f(1)=3(1)+2=5f(1)=3(1)+2=5,

f(−1)=3(−1)+2=−3+2=−1f(−1)=3(−1)+2=−3+2=−1, and so on.

Note that your table of values may be different from someone else’s.
You may each choose different numbers for x.)

Now that you have a table of values, you can use them to help you
draw both the shape and location of the function. Important: The graph
of the function will show all possible values of x and the corresponding
values of y. This is why the graph is a line and not just the dots that
make up the points in our table.

Graph f(x)=3x+2f(x)=3x+2.
Using the table of values we created above you can think of f(x)
as y, each row forms an ordered pair that you can plot on a coordinate
grid.
 EXAMPLE

Graph f(x)=−x+1f(x)=−x+1.
Start with a table of values. You can choose different values for x, but once again, it’s helpful to
include 0, some positive values, and some negative values.
If you think of f(x) as y, each row forms an ordered pair that you can plot on a coordinate grid.
f(−2)=−(−2)+1=2+1=3f(−1)=−(−1)+1=1+1=2f(0)=−(0)+1=0+1=1f(1)=−(1)+1=−1+1=0f(2)=−(2)+1=−2
+1=−1f(−2)=−(−2)+1=2+1=3f(−1)=−(−1)+1=1+1=2f(0)=−(0)+1=0+1=1f(1)=−(1)+1=−1+1=0f(2)=−(2)
+1=−2+1=−1

A
GENERAL NOTE: LINEAR FUNCTION
A linear function is a function whose graph is a line. Linear functions can be written in the
slope-intercept form of a line
f(x)=mx+bf(x)=mx+b
where bb is the initial or starting value of the function (when input, x=0x=0), and mm is the constant
rate of change, or slope of the function. The y-intercept is at (0,b)(0,b).

Graph Quadratic Functions

Quadratic functions can also be graphed. It’s helpful to have an idea what the shape should be, so
you can be sure that you’ve chosen enough points to plot as a guide. Let’s start with the most basic
quadratic function, f(x)=x2f(x)=x2.
Graph f(x)=x2f(x)=x2.
Start with a table of values. Then think of the table as ordered pairs.

Plot the points (−2,4),(−1,1),(0,0),(1,1),(2,4)

Since the points are not on a line, you can’t use a straight edge.
Connect the points as best you can, using a smooth curve (not a series
of straight lines). You may want to find and plot additional points (such
as the ones in blue here). Placing arrows on the tips of the lines implies
that they continue in that direction forever.

Notice that the shape is like the letter U. This is called a parabola.
One-half of the parabola is a mirror image of the other half. The line
that goes down the middle is called the line of reflection, in this case
that line is they y-axis. The lowest point on this graph is called the
vertex.

In the following video we show an example of plotting a quadratic

function using a table of values.

The equations for quadratic functions have the

form f(x)=ax2+bx+cf(x)=ax2+bx+c where a≠0a≠0. In the basic graph
above, a=1a=1, b=0b=0, and c=0c=0.

Changing a changes the width of the parabola and whether it opens up ( a>0a>0) or down
(a<0a<0). If a is positive, the vertex is the lowest point, if a is negative, the vertex is the highest
point. In the following example, we show how changing the value of a will affect the graph of the
function.
 EXAMPLE

Match the following functions with their graph.

a) f(x)=3x2f(x)=3x2
b) f(x)=−3x2f(x)=−3x2
c)f(x)=12x2f(x)=12x2
a) b)

c)

Show Answer
Function a) f(x)=3x2f(x)=3x2 means that inputs are squared and then multiplied by three, so the outputs will
be greater than they would have been for f(x)=x2f(x)=x2. This results in a parabola that has been squeezed,
so the graph b) is the best match for this function.
Function b) f(x)=−3x2f(x)=−3x2 means that inputs are squared and then
multiplied by negative three, so the outputs will be greater than they would
have been for f(x)=x2f(x)=x2 so graph a) is the best match for this function.

Function c) f(x)=12x2f(x)=12x2 means that

inputs are squared then multiplied by 1212, so
the outputs are less than they would be
for f(x)=x2f(x)=x2. This results in a parabola
that has been opened wider
thanf(x)=x2f(x)=x2. Graph c) is the best match
for this function.
 Answer

Function a) matches graph b)

Function b) matches graph a)
Function c) matches graph c)

If there is no b term, changing c moves the parabola up or down so

that the y intercept is (0, c). In the next example we show how
changes to c affect the graph of the function.

Changing b moves the line of reflection, which is the vertical line that
passes through the vertex ( the high or low point) of the parabola. It
may help to know how calculate the vertex of a parabola to understand how changing the value of b
in a function will change it’s graph.

To find the vertex of the parabola, use the formula (−b2a,f(−b2a))(−b2a,f(−b2a)).

For example, if the function in consideration is f(x)=2x2−3x+4f(x)=2x2−3x+4, to find the vertex, first
calculate −b2a−b2a

a = 2, and b = -3, therefore −b2a=−(−3)2(2)=34−b2a=−(−3)2(2)=34.

This is the x value of the vertex.

Now evaluate the function at x=34x=34 to get the corresponding y-value for the vertex.

f(−b2a)=2(34)2−3(34)+4=2(916)−4+4=98f(−b2a)=2(34)2−3(34)+4=2(916)−4+4=98.

The vertex is at the point (34,98)(34,98). This means that the vertical line of reflection passes
through this point as well. It is not easy to tell how changing the values for b will change the graph of
a quadratic function, but if you find the vertex, you can tell how the graph will change.

In the next example we show how changing b can change the graph of the quadratic function.

EXAMPLE

Match the following functions with their graph.

a) f(x)=x2+2xf(x)=x2+2x
b) f(x)=x2−2xf(x)=x2−2x

a)

b)
Show Answer
Find the vertex of function a)f(x)=x2+2xf(x)=x2+2x.
a = 1, b = 2
x-value:
−b2a=−22(1)=−1−b2a=−22(1)=−1
y-value:
f\left(\frac{-b}{2a}\right)=\left(-1)^2+2\left(-1)=1-2=-1f\left(\frac{-b}{2a}\right)=\left(-1)^2+2\left(-1)=1-2=-
1.
Vertex = \left(-1,-1)\left(-1,-1), which means the graph that best fits this function is a)

Find the vertex of function b)f(x)=x2−2xf(x)=x2−2x.

a = 1, b = -2
x-value:
−b2a=22(1)=1−b2a=22(1)=1
y-value:
f\left(\frac{-b}{2a}\right)=\left(1)^2-2\left(1)=1-2=-1f\left(\frac{-b}{2a}\right)=\left(1)^2-2\left(1)=1-2=-1.
Vertex = \left(1,-1)\left(1,-1), which means the graph that best fits this function is b)

Note that the vertex can change if the value for c changes because the y-value of the vertex is calculated by
substituting the x-value into the function. Here is a summary of how the changes to the values for a, b, and,
c of a quadratic function can change it’s graph.
Properties of a Parabola

For f(x)=ax2+bx+cf(x)=ax2+bx+c, where a, b, and c are real numbers.

 The parabola opens upward if a > 0 and downward if a < 0.

 a changes the width of the parabola. The parabola gets narrower if |a| is > 1 and wider if |a|<1.
 The vertex depends on the values of a, b, and c. The vertex is (−b2a,f(−b2a))(−b2a,f(−b2a)).

In the last example we show how you can use the properties of a parabola to help you make a graph
without having to calculate an exhaustive table of values.

EXAMPLE

Graph f(x)=−2x2+3x–3f(x)=−2x2+3x–3.
Show Solution
Before making a table of values, look at the values of a and c to get a general idea of what the graph should
look like.
a=−2a=−2, so the graph will open down and be thinner than f(x)=x2f(x)=x2.
c=−3c=−3, so it will move to intercept the y-axis at (0,−3)(0,−3).
To find the vertex of the parabola, use the formula (−b2a,f(−b2a))(−b2a,f(−b2a)). Finding the vertex may
make graphing the parabola easier.
Vertex formula=(−b2a,f(−b2a))Vertex formula=(−b2a,f(−b2a))
x-coordinate of vertex:
−b2a=−(3)2(−2)=−3−4=34−b2a=−(3)2(−2)=−3−4=34
y-coordinate of vertex:
f(−b2a)=f(34)f(34)=−2(34)2+3(34)−3=−2(916)+94−3=−1816+94−3=−98+188−248=−158f(−b2a)=f(34)f(34)=−2
(34)2+3(34)−3=−2(916)+94−3=−1816+94−3=−98+188−248=−158
Vertex:(34,−158)(34,−158)
Use the vertex,(34,−158)(34,−158), and the properties you described to get a general idea of the shape of
the graph. You can create a table of values to verify your graph. Notice that in this table, the x values
increase. The y values increase and then start to decrease again. That indicates a parabola.
 Answer

Connect the points as best you can, using a smooth curve. Remember
that the parabola is two mirror images, so if your points don’t have
pairs with the same value, you may want to include additional points
(such as the ones in blue here). Plot points on either side of the
vertex.
x=12x=12 and x=32x=32 are good values to include.

Creating a graph of a function is one way to understand the

relationship between the inputs and outputs of that function. Creating
a graph can be done by choosing values for x, finding the
corresponding y values, and plotting them. However, it helps to
understand the basic shape of the function. Knowing the effect of changes to the basic function
equation is also helpful.

One common shape you will see is a parabola. Parabolas have the
equation f(x)=ax2+bx+cf(x)=ax2+bx+c, where a, b, and c are real numbers and a≠0a≠0. The value of a
determines the width and the direction of the parabola, while the vertex depends on the values of a, b,
and c. The vertex is(−b2a,f(−b2a))(−b2a,f(−b2a)).

Graph Radical Functions

You can also graph radical functions (such as square root functions) by choosing values for x and
finding points that will be on the graph. Again, it’s helpful to have some idea about what the graph will
look like.

Think about the basic square root function, f(x)=√xf(x)=x. Let’s take a look at a table of values
for x and y and then graph the function. (Notice that all the values for x in the table are perfect squares.
Since you are taking the square root of x, using perfect squares makes more sense than just finding the
square roots of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.)

Recall that x can never be negative because when you square a real number, the result is always
positive. For example, √4949, this means “find the number whose square is 49.” Since there is no real
number that we can square and get a negative, the function f(x)=√xf(x)=x will be defined for x>0x>0.

Take a look at the graph.

As with parabolas, multiplying and adding

numbers makes some changes, but the basic
shape is still the same. Here are some examples.

Multiplying √xx by a positive value changes the

width of the half-parabola. Multiplying √xx by a
negative number gives you the other half of a
horizontal parabola.

In the following example we will show how

multiplying a radical function by a constant can
change the shape of the graph.
 EXAMPLE

Match each of the following functions to the graph that it represents.

a) f(x)=−√xf(x)=−x
b)f(x)=2√xf(x)=2x
c) f(x)=12√xf(x)=12x
a)
b)
c)

Show Answer
Function a) f(x)=−√xf(x)=−x means that all the outputs will be negative – the function is the negative of the
square roots of the input. This will give the other half of the parabola on it’s side. Therefore the graph

goes with the function f(x)=−√xf(x)=−x

Function b)f(x)=2√xf(x)=2x means take the
square root of all the inputs, then multiply
by two, so the outputs will be larger than
the outputs for √xx. The graph

goes with the function f(x)=2√xf(x)=2x

Function c) f(x)=12√xf(x)=12x means take
the squat=re root of the inputs then
multiply by 1212. The outputs will be
smaller than the outputs for √xx. The
graph

goes with the function f(x)=12√xf(x)=12x.

Answer

Function a) goes with graph b)

Function b) goes with graph a)
Function c) goes with graph c)

Adding a value outside the radical moves the graph up or down. Think
about it as adding the value to the basic y value of √xx, so a positive value
added moves the graph up.
 EXAMPLE

Match each of the following functions to the graph that it represents.

a) f(x)=√x+3f(x)=x+3
b)f(x)=√x−2f(x)=x−2
a)
b)

Show Answer
Function a) f(x)=√x+3f(x)=x+3 means take the square root of all the inputs and add three, so the out puts
will be greater than those for √xx, therefore the graph that goes with this function is

Function b) f(x)=√x−2f(x)=x−2 means take the square root of the input then
subtract two. The outputs will be less than those for √xx, therefore the
graph that goes with this function is

Answer

Function a) goes with graph b)

Function b) goes with graph a)

Adding a value inside the radical moves the graph left or right. Think about it
as adding a value to x before you take the square root—so the y value gets
moved to a different x value. For example, for f(x)=√xf(x)=x, the square root
is 3 if x=9x=9. Forf(x)=√x+1f(x)=x+1, the square root is 3 when x+1x+1 is 9,
so x is 8. Changing x to x+1x+1 shifts the graph to the left by 1 unit (from 9 to
8). Changing x to x−2x−2 shifts the graph to the right by 2 units.

EXAMPLE

Graph f(x)=−2+√x−1f(x)=−2+x−1.
Show Solution
Before making a table of values, look at the function equation to get a general idea what the graph should
look like.
Inside the square root, you’re subtracting 1, so the graph will move to the right 1 from the
basic f(x)=√xf(x)=x graph.
You’re also adding −2−2 outside the square root, so the graph will move down two from the
basic f(x)=√xf(x)=x graph.
Create a table of values. Choose values that will make your calculations easy. You want x–1x–1 to be a
perfect square (0, 1, 4, 9, and so on) so you can take the square root.
Since values of x less than 1 makes the value inside the square root
negative, there will be no points on the coordinate graph to the left
of x=1x=1. There is no need to choose x values less than 1 for your table!
Use the table pairs to plot points.

Connect the points as best you can, using a smooth curve.

Answer
Combinations of Functions
Arithmetic Combinations of Functions
The sum, difference, product, or quotient of functions can be found easily.
Sum
(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
Difference
(f - g)(x) = f(x) - g(x)
Product
(f · g)(x) = f(x) · g(x)
Quotient
(f / g)(x) = f(x) / g(x), as long as g(x) isn't zero.

The domain of each of these combinations is the intersection of the domain of f and the domain of g. In
other words, both functions must be defined at a point for the combination to be defined. One additional
requirement for the division of functions is that the denominator can't be zero, but we knew that because
it's part of the implied domain.

Basically what the above says is that to evaluate a combination of functions, you may combine the
functions and then evaluate or you may evaluate each function and then combine.

Examples

In the following examples, let f(x) = 5x+2 and g(x) = x2-1. We will then evaluate each combination at the
point x=4. f(4)=5(4)+2=22 and g(4)=42-1=15

Expression Combine, then evaluate Evaluate, then combine

(f+g)(x) (5x+2) + (x2-1) (f+g)(4) 42+5(4)+1 f(4)+g(4) 22+15

=x2+5x+1 =16+20+1 =37
=37

(f-g)(x) (5x+2) - (x2-1) (f-g)(4) -42+5(4)+3 f(4)-g(4) 22-15

=-x2+5x+3 =-16+20+3 =7
=7

(f/g)(x) (5x+2)*(x2-1) (f/g)(4) 5(43)+2(42)-5(4)-2 f(4)/g(4) 22(15)

=5x3+2x2-5x-2 =5(64)+2(16)-20-2 =330
=330

(f/g)(4) (5x+2)/(x2-1) (f/g)(4) [5(4)+2]/[42-1] f(4)/g(4) 22/15

=22/15

As you can see from the examples, it doesn't matter if you combine and then evaluate or if you evaluate
and then combine.
In each of the above problems, the domain is all real numbers with the exception of the division. The
domain in the division combination is all real numbers except for 1 and -1.

Composition of Functions

While the arithmetic combinations of functions are straightforward and fairly easy, there is another type of
combination called a composition.

A composition of functions is the applying of one function to another function. The symbol of composition
of functions is a small circle between the function names. I can't do that symbol in text mode on the web,
so I'll use a lower case oh "o" to represent composition of functions.

 (fog)(x) = f [ g(x) ]
 (gof)(x) = g [ f(x) ]

These are read "f composed with g of x" and "g composed with f of x" respectively.

The function on the outside is always written first with the functions that follow being on the inside. The
order is important. Composition of functions is not commutative.

Examples of Composition of Functions

That doesn't sound that bad. Let's look at a few examples.

f(x)=5x+2 and g(x)=x2-1

 (fog)(x) = f [ g(x) ] = f [ x2-1 ] = 5( x2-1 ) + 2 = 5x2- 5 + 2 = 5x2-3

 (gof)(x) = g [ f(x) ] = g [ 5x+2 ] = ( 5x+2 )2 - 1 = 25x2 + 20x + 4 - 1 = 25x2 + 20x + 3

f(x) = sqrt(x) and g(x) = 4x2

 (fog)(x) = f [ g(x) ] = f [ 4x2 ] = sqrt( 4x2 ) = 2 | x |

 (gof)(x) = g [ f(x) ] = g [ sqrt(x) ] = 4 ( sqrt(x) )2 = 4x, x ≥ 0

This example probably needs some explanation. From the prerequisite chapter, the square root of (x2) is
the absolute value of x. The square of (the square root of x) is x, but this assumes that x is not negative
because you couldn't find the square root of x in the first place if it was. This is a case where the implied
domain (because of the square root) is no longer implied (because the square root is gone), so you have to
explicitly state it (I told you it all fit together).

f(x) = sqrt(x-4) and g(x) = 1 - x2

 (fog)(x) = f [ g(x) ] = f [ 1-x2 ] = sqrt ( [1-x2] - 4 ) = sqrt ( -x2 - 3 ) = ø

 (gof)(x) = g [ f(x) ] = g [ sqrt(x-4) ] = 1 - [ sqrt(x-4) ]2 = 1 - ( x-4 ) = 5 - x, x ≥ 4

If the last example needed some explanation, then this one definitely needs some, too. Let's take the easier
one (gof)(x) first. There was an implied domain of x ≥ 4 because of the square root, but after squaring it, it
was no longer implied, so it needed to be stated explicitly.
Okay, now for the harder one (fog)(x). I'll give the simple explanation here and the more complete one later.
After simplifying, you got the square root of (-x2 - 3). -x2-3 is always negative, no matter what real number x
is, and you can't take the square root of a negative number, so it is always undefined (for the set of reals).

Finding Domains on Composition of Functions

When you find a composition of a functions, it is no longer x that is being plugged into the outer function, it
is the inner function evaluated at x. So there are two domains that we have to be concerned about. If we
consider (fog)(x), we see that g is evaluated at x, so x has to be in the domain of g. We also see that f is
evaluated at g(x), so g(x) has to be in the domain of f.

 For (fog)(x), x is a value that can be plugged into g and gives you a value g(x) that can be plugged
into f to get f(g(x))
 For (gof)(x), x is a value that can be plugged into f and gives you a value f(x) that can be plugged
into g to get g(f(x)).

But, it's not as bad as it looks, either. Let's consider that last example again.

unction Domain Range

f(x) = sqrt(x-4) x≥4 y≥0

g(x) = 1-x2 all reals y≤1

When you find (fog)(x), there are two things that must be satisfied:

1. x must be in the domain of g, which means x is a real number (pretty easy to do)
2. g(x) must be in the domain of f, which means that 1-x2^2 ≥ 4 (when you try to solve this, you get
the empty set)

When you combine the two domains to see what they have in common, you find the intersection of
everything and nothing is nothing (the empty set), so the function is defined nowhere and undefined
everywhere.

When you find (gof)(x), there are two things that must be satisfied:

1. x must be in the domain of f, which means that x ≥ 4 (not too bad)

2. f(x) must be in the domain of g which means that the sqrt(x-4) must be a real number (that occurs
when x ≥ 4, which we already have stated from the first part)

When you combine the two domains to see what they have in common, you find the intersection to be x ≥
4, so that is the where the composition is defined.

Decomposition of Functions
Decomposition of functions is the reverse of composition of functions. Instead of combining two functions
to get a new function, you're breaking apart a combined function into its separate components. There is
often more than one way to decompose a function, so your answers may vary from the books.
Basically, you want to look at the function and look for an "outside function" and an "inside function".
Another thing to look for is repeated patterns and make that the inside function. The outside function is
summarized as "the big picture" and the inside function is "what you are doing the big picture to".

Examples

Write each function h as the composition of two functions f and g such that h(x)=(fog)(x)

Outside Inside
h(x) Notes
f(x) g(x)

(1-x)3 x3 1-x The big thing going on is cubing

something, so the outside function
is a cubing function. 1-x is what
you're cubing, so it's the inside
function.

sqrt(9-x) sqrt(x) 9-x The big thing going on is taking the

square root (outside), 9-x is what
you're taking the square root of
(inside)

4/(5x2+2)2 4/x2 5x2+2 Looks like 4 over something

squared

4/x (5x2+2)2 An alternative, but correct answer.

(x+2)2+2(x+2)+ x2+2x+1 x+2 x+2 is repeated, so that's a good

1 choice for the inside function.
Replace every occurrence of the
pattern by x for the outside
function

Difference Quotients
Difference quotients are what they say they are. They involve a difference and a quotient. A difference
quotient is really the slope of a secant line between two points on a curve.

The formula for the difference quotient is: [ f(x+h) - f(x) ] / h

If you go on to calculus, you will be introduced to the concept of limits (Calculus is Algebra
with limits) and find as the two points on the curve get closer together, the secant line
turns into a tangent line, and the slope of the secant line becomes the slope of the tangent
line which is called the derivative of the function and there are a whole lot of shortcuts for
finding derivatives. However, you're still in College Algebra and don't know about limits
until chapter 3 when we talk about asymptotes, so you'll have to find the difference
quotients by hand. The difference quotient is very important in Calculus, so if you are going
on, make sure you get this!
For polynomial functions, finding the difference quotient isn't that difficult. Where you're going to run into
trouble is with radical and rational functions.

Polynomial Functions

f(x) = 5x2 - 2

f(x+h) = 5(x+h)2 - 2 = 5( x2 + 2xh + h2 ) - 2 = 5x2 + 10xh + 5h2 - 2

f(x+h) - f(x) = 5( x2 + 2xh + h2 ) - 2 = 5x2 + 10xh + 5h2 - 2 - ( 5x2 - 2 )

f(x+h) - f(x) = 5x2 + 10xh + 5h2 - 2 - 5x2 + 2 = 10xh + 5h2
f(x+h) - f(x) = h ( 10x + 5h )

[f(x+h) - f(x)] / h = h ( 10x + 5h ) / h = 10x + 5h

Rational Functions

The trick with rational functions is to get a common denominator and then simplify.

f(x) = 3 / x

f(x+h) = 3 / (x+h)

f(x+h) - f(x) = 3 / (x+h) - 3 / x

f(x+h) - f(x) = 3 x / [ x(x+h)] - 3(x+h) / [x(x+h)]
f(x+h) - f(x) = ( 3x - 3x - 3h ) / [ x(x+h) ]
f(x+h) - f(x) = -3h / [x(x+h)]

[f(x+h) - f(x)] / h = -3h / [x(x+h)] / h = -3 / [ x(x+h) ]

Radical Functions

The trick with a radical function is to rationalize the numerator by multiplying by the conjugate of the
numerator.
Don't worry that you're left with a radical in the denominator, it's okay in this instance. It's much better
than having a factor of h in the denominator because in calculus, we're going to let h approach 0 and we'll
want to just plug a zero in for h. When given the choice of having a radical in the denominator or division by
0, we'll pick a radical in the denominator anyday.