The Hellenistic Age Second Edition (New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1995), 47. (Hear After Cited As A Helmut
The Hellenistic Age Second Edition (New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1995), 47. (Hear After Cited As A Helmut
The Hellenistic Age Second Edition (New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1995), 47. (Hear After Cited As A Helmut
Presentation on: History: Hellenistic World; Roman Empire; Maccabean Revolt, Herod and
His Descendants; Jewish war 66-70 C.E., Barkochba Revolt.
Concern Professor: Rev. Dr. Manikya Rao Presenter: Mr. Anil Kumar M.Th.1 (NT)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Introduction:
The world of New Testament is like an ocean this presentation going to research on History:
Hellenistic world, Roman Empire, Maccabean Revolt, Herod, and his descendants, Jewish
war 66-70 C.E. finally Bar Kochaba revolt. How it is existed what are the causes for Revolts,
how Roman Empires and Herod and his descendants ruled the world.
1. Hellenism
Hellenism means Greek culture and their tradition impact on the non-Greek world. After
conquests of Alexander the great (333-323BCE.). The Judeans were not immune to this impact
and consequently Hellenism had some impact upon Jewish religion.1 Archaeological discover
ies, Greek culture had been widely known in western Asian before the time of Alexander as
early seventh century BCE.2
The first Scholar to use the term Hellenism was J.G. Droysen he under stood Hellenism to be
a mixture of the world of Greek with that of the orient. In its actual sense the civilization of the
Mediterranean basin and the Middle East until the time of Roman Empire is called Hellenism.3
The word Hellenism give two meanings one is speak Greek correctly another one is to adopt a
Greek style of life.4
After destruction of Jerusalem in 597 and 585 BCE. By Nebuchadnezzar, the king of the Neo
Babylonian Empire, the upper class of the kingdom of Judah was exiled to Babylonia. During
this age many of the exiles received from the Persian king Kyros to return Jerusalem. The
temple of Jerusalem was constructed during the years of 520 – 515 BCE. The reason of the
1
Colinj M. Wells, “ Roman Empire” The Anchor Bible Dictionary volume 5 O –Sh Edited by David
Noel Freedman, Gray A. Herion eds., (New York: Double Day,1992), 127 (Hear after cited as a Colinj M.
Wells, “Roman empire” The Anchor Bible Dictionary…,)
2
H. Joseph Lalfakmawia, Understanding The New Testament: Its Historical Background and Content
(Kolkata: SCEPTRE, 2013), 13. (Hear after cited as H. Joseph Understanding The New Testament…,)
3
Helmut Koester, Introduction to the New Testament Volume 1. History and Culture and Religion of
the Hellenistic Age Second Edition (New York: Walter De Gruyter, 1995), 47. (Hear after cited as a Helmut
Introduction to New Testament volume 1…,)
4
H. Joseph Understanding The New Testament…, 13.
1
construction of the temple for divine presence. The law of state was not a civil law but the
religious law given by God, and high priest was the highest official.5
Throughout the 5th 4th centuries Persian Empire Greek influences increased. Then literature of
Israel from this period reveals Greek influence. Religious syncretism was probably widespread,
especially common Israelite communities outside of Palestine.6
After battle of issue (333 BCE.) Palestine came under the control of Alexander great.
Alexander was now sole ruler of the Persian Empire. His ambition was to rule eastern to Indus
River. He was reached and he forced to return west (326 BCE.) he spent last year in Babylonian
he died at the age of 33 in 323 BCE.7
Later his kingdom was divided power came in to the hands of the Diadochi. The term Diadochi
denotes his generals who proportioned all his kingdoms. Later the Ptolemies arrived 323 BCE,
and won his power there in 320 BCE. Though military means and formed the Ptolemaic
dynasty. Throughout their dominions and encouraged the use of the Greek language and the
adoption of propagating Hellenism was founding the Greek cities.8
Seleucids: the Seleucid dynasty lasted continuously from 312 – 64 BCE. Their era begin from
1st Oct 312 BCE they were also followed same policy of Alexandria and Ptolemies, they were
establish their kingdoms and developed Hellenistic culture around all Palestine cities.
Hellenistic influences were probably less in the rural areas while the upper classes in cities
were generally affected. Similarly, the Greek language became popular among the urban
people. Then everywhere it became the common language of politics and government,
commerce and instruction.
There were two periods of Roman government. – Roman Republic 509 BCE-30 BCE – Roman
Empire 30 BCE-476 CE Rome technically had an “empire” under the Roman Republic. But
the term “Roman Empire” refers to the time period, beginning with Augustus, when Rome was
ruled by emperors.
Octavian Becomes Augustus, Octavian was sole ruler of Rome after his forces defeated Antony
and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium. The Senate gave him the name “Augustus,” meaning
“most high” 23 BCE ‟ Octavian, now referred to as Augustus, was made consul for life by the
Senate Also made “Princeps,” meaning “first citizen” Origin of the word “prince” Also made
“Imperator,” meaning “successful general” Origin of the word “emperor” – Also made
5
Tessa Rajak, eds, Jewish Perspectives on Hellenistic Rulers (Berkeley: University of California Press,
2007), 101. (Hear after cited as Rajak Jewish perspective…,)
6
Rajak Jewish perspective…, 102.
7
George W.E. Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature between the Bible and the Mishanah (Minneapolis:
Fortress Press, 205), 41-42. (Hear after cited as George W.E. Jewish Literature…,)
8
George W.E. Jewish Literature…, 43.
2
“Pontifex Maximus” or “chief religious leader Origin of the word “pontiff” (used to describe
the pope today) – Also made a tribune He had the power to call the Senate, veto the Senate’s
laws, and make laws himself Primus inter pares “First among equals” Augustus and later
emperors tried to maintain the façade that they were elected officials rather than dictators.
Being “first among equals” gave the illusion that an emperor was the most prestigious and
important member of the Roman Senate, but that each senator was simultaneously equally
important. In reality, the Roman emperors ruled with little input from anyone else.9
The great conquering force of the Greeks, under the kingship of Alexander the Great virtually
covered all the important place in his days. The process of Hellenism also affected and
supplanted the existing cultural and political features. This was the main aim of Alexander the
Great, successes and impact almost everywhere, even in the oriental and the Roman
provinces.10
This Roman republic can be largely divided into two phases. The first phase covers 500-280
BCE. By this time Rome ascertained supremacy over central Italy. At the end of the phase, the
entire Italian peninsula was subjected to Rome. Second phase, this period covers roughly 280-
27 BCE. There was a series of wars between Rome and Carthage during this time. The ware
between the two are known as the Punic war, (1st Punic war 149-146 BCE. 2nd Punic war 218-
201 BCE. 3rd Punic war 149-146 BCE.) by the end of the second century BCE. The entire
Mediterranean was controlled by the Romans.11
Meanwhile, the influence and the power of the Romans were also mounting even without
military intervention. The internal struggle eventually led to the total collapse of the kingdom
of the Seleucids. The Roman military forces appeared before Antiochus III. Rome declared
war (192 BCE.) with Antiochus III and enter Greece, they were defeated to Antiochus III in
the battle of Magnesia in 190 BCE. Roman were established their kingdom and they were ruled
Greece.12
Edward Gibson approximately estimated the extension of the Roman Empire as 1,600,000
square miles. The territory of the Roman Empire surrounded the Mediterranean Sea on the
north, east and South including whole Italy and the thirty six provinces. The political set up of
Rome was quite systematic that they could enjoy stable government. The peoples represent,
the Senate and the emperor also had a separate jurisdiction. The order and more settled
provinces, e.g. Sicily and Asia and Asia, were under the administrative control of the Senate
and were called senatorial provinces. On the other hand those which still required military
9
H. Joseph, Understanding The New Testament…, 49-50.
10
H. Joseph, Understanding The New Testament…, 51.
11
Colinj M. Wells, “Roman empire” The Anchor Bible Dictionary…, 801.
12
Colinj M. Wells, “Roman empire” The Anchor Bible Dictionary…, 805.
3
occupation were under the control of the emperor and were called imperial provinces. Here
emperor was represented by military and civilian authorities, legates, procurators and govern
ors.13
Great variety in the quality of those emperors who succeeded Augustus. The office of empero
r was initially designed to be hereditary, But from the start, there was confusion as to which
family member would inherit the throne, Some emperors proved to be cutthroats, or insane,
or both, The military came to play an enormous role in selecting who would become
emperor? Later Tiberius and others emperor were ruled.
Tiberius (14-37 CE): Stepson of Augustus, abolished the assembly, capable general who
extended the frontier in the north Strengthened the empire appeared to dislike ruling, and
gradually retired to the island of Capri.14
Caligula (37 CE-41 CE): Son of famed military leader Germanicus, the nephew and adopted
son of Tiberius. Earned his name “Caligula,” meaning “little boots,” by the Roman army as a
child (he was dressed like a soldier). Two years of good, effective rule, interrupted by a severe
illness, and followed by two years of horrible rule. Members of family and perceived enemies
– Exiled some, killed some, and forced others to commit suicide. Assassinated in 41 CE by
members of the Praetorian.15
Guard Claudius (41-54 CE): Brought southern Britannia (what later became Great Britain)
under Roman control, as well as several kingdoms in the East. Opened the Senate up to
provincials became emperor because he was the last adult male of his family (brother of
Germanicus and uncle of Caligula). Conducted a census of the empire in 48 CE – 5,984,072
Roman citizens.16
Nero (54-68 CE): Considered a tyrant. Came to power after his mother allegedly poisoned his
predecessor, Claudius. Murdered his mother, his stepbrother, and two of his wives. Also killed
his teacher, the famous philosopher Seneca. Fire in Rome (64 CE) – Nero was accused of
setting the fire, and of fiddling while the city burned – Nero blamed the fire on the new religious
group known as “Christians”. Forced to commit suicide.17
Roman law: Started with the Twelve Tables (450 BCE) Developed over a thousand years,
included decisions of judges, ideas of the Republic and Empire, and rulings of emperors, Public
law, Relationship of citizen to state – Private (civil) law, Relationships between people. Peoples
law (jus gentium), Rights of foreigners, Justinian Code (6th century CE). Encapsulated the
previous 1000 years of Roman law – Still used as the basis of civil law in many parts of Europe.
13
H. Joseph, Understanding The New Testament…, 55-56.
14
Helmut, Introduction to New Testament volume 1…, 296-297.
15
Helmut, Introduction to New Testament volume 1…, 297-298.
16
Helmut, Introduction to New Testament volume 1…, 298-299.
17
Helmut, Introduction to New Testament volume 1…, 299.
4
1.8. Social structure of the Roman Empire:
The population of the Roman word can be classified into the following hierarchical divisions:
1. Roman Aristocratic Families: This class composed by senate based on the heredity.
They were officials of the central administration in Rome; below them were the
senatorial order.
2. The Equestrian Order: They were below the senate in legal rights and social dignity,
but they were equal to them in wealth. They were wealthy landowners.
3. Decurionum or Decurions: These were the members of the families who made up the
local councils end filled magistrate positions in the more the one thousand towns and
cities of the empire.
4. Middle Class: They were mostly less landowners, craftsmen, shopkeepers and the lower
ranks of roman citizens in the army. Stambaugh and Balch assessed that most of the
Christians listed in the New Testament belonged to this group.
5. Really Poor: The bottom most class people were those who had no property and
supported themselves by piecework at the docks, in construction or on forms. 18
The Greece land not suitable for the cultivation land because of lack of water there is rivers but
it was to narrow and to shallow. Agriculture land was too limited. Another way over population
was a constant threat. The only possible solution, they could be emigrate or importing food.
This served as great connecting link between the Greeks and the Romans in their occupation,
especially in agriculture.19
There was a great fusion of the Greek and oriental religions after death of Alexander. This
process called ‘syncretism’. During Roman period there is no particular god but they were
worshiped every area different deity, with different name.20
2. Maccabean Revolt:
The name commonly given to the revolt of Jewish in Judea against Seleucid domination in the
years 166-170 BCE it is named latter surname of his leader “Judas Maccabeus” it is also called
the Hasmonean revolt. The duration of revolt some people believed that 142 BCE.21
18
Colinj M. Wells, “Roman empire” The Anchor Bible Dictionary…, 809.
19
Helmut, Introduction to New Testament volume 1…, 313-314.
20
H. Joseph, Understanding The New Testament…, 57.
21
Uriel Rappaport, “Maccabean Revolt” The Anchor Bible Dictionary Volume 4 K- N Edited by David
Noel Freedman, Gary A. Herion eds., (New York: Double Day, 1992), 433. (Hear after cited as a Uriel
“Maccabean Revolt” The Anchor Bible Dictionary…,)
5
2.1.Etymology of Maccabean.
The name Maccabean is derived from the son of the priest Mattathias, Judas whose surname is
‘ho Makkabaios’ from which whole party has received the name of Maccabees. It is derived
from Hebrew ‘Macabah’ which means the ‘harmmer’ ascribed to who become the leader of
the revolt.22
The sources for the revolt pose various problems of interpretation and reliability. The principal
sources are the books Maccabees 1&2. Maccabean 1 covers short period preceding, Antiochus
persecution the persecution itself revolt and activity of Judas and brothers, Jonathan and Simon.
It probably embodies first hand data either of the author from eye witness. The book of
Maccabees covers about 15 years the persecution, the persecution itself, and the revolt up to
the last victory of Judas Maccabees at Adasa among the additional sources of secondly
importance are Josephus, and which basically follow 1 Maccabees with some difference value
and with a very important added development the correspondence of the Samaritans and
Antiochus.23
Antiochus defeated by Rome. This defeated caused a considerable deterioration of both and
this internal affairs. Jerusalem was taken forcedly and general persecution of the Jewish
religion was ordained by king. The study of law observance of Sabbath, and circumcision were
forbidden. The day sacrificial in temple was cancelled and alter was desecrated. The Jewish
people were related 3 ways to these measures some people against and some people were prefer
martyrdom rather than obey the king’s order.24
2.5. Causes
What caused Maccabean revolt? The answer is the religious persecution of Antiochus IV, but
this answer touches the only the surface of these events: first one should enquire about cause
of persecution, second one must discover the various powers, groups, personalities, and ideas
22
H. Joseph Understanding The New Testament…,30
23
Uriel “Maccabean Revolt” The Anchor Bible Dictionary…, 435.
24
Uriel “Maccabean Revolt” The Anchor Bible Dictionary…, 436.
25
Uriel “Maccabean Revolt” The Anchor Bible Dictionary…, 436.
6
behind both persecution and revolt. 26 Roman Empire were forcedly imposing Hellenistic
culture, and tradition, if people were not follow they will put in death.
In December 167 BCE. The first pagan sacrificed was performed on alter to Zeus which had
been erected over alter of burnt offering in the temple. Antiochus IV which he was ruling age
he announced that every Jew should follow Hellenistic customs, and traditions, otherwise they
will put in death.27
Because of this religious oppression a priestly family under the leadership of Matthias rose up
and developed war against the Seleucid ruler. The revolution is called Maccabean Revolt. The
revolt led by Hasmonean family is called the Maccabean revolt. 28
The political affairs of the Hasmonean dynasty begin from Simon although the shadow of the
Seleucid regime was always present. He was condemned the ruler and kingship when need to
take decision he always prefer for unanity, he gave more importance to Jewish worship and
alter. Later those who are ruled Hasmonean dynasty, they were followed Hellenistic principles,
and agendas. The Hasmonean rulers forcefully implemented Jewish customs and traditions on
non-Jew people regions. Some of the Hasmonean rulers killed their own people because
protecting their political power.29
When the Hasmonean dynasty formed they were defeated Antiochus IV all the army forces, he
sent one by one group to fight with Hasmonean but Hasmonean army defeated Antiochus IV
army, finally he went to fight with them but he compromise not to fight, then he came back.
Most of the scholars were saying that Antiochus IV his army to strong but Hasmonean army
not that much strong but they were won. For example David and Goliath. 30
The result of the Maccabean revolt were decisive in various aspects historically it created a
process by which the palestanian Jews founded autonomous national state which encompassed
most of the country not less important universally is that the survival of Jewish monotheism
was achieved through the revolt, which overcome the religious persecution. The consequences
of these events go for beyond the borders of Judea.31
26
H. Joseph Lalfakmawia, Understanding The New Testament: Its Historical Background and Content
(Kolkata: SCEPTRE, 2013), 13. (Hear after cited as H. Joseph Understanding The New Testament…,)
27
Uriel “Maccabean Revolt” The Anchor Bible Dictionary…, 437.
28
Uriel “Maccabean Revolt” The Anchor Bible Dictionary…, 438.
29
H. Joseph Understanding The New Testament…, 31.
30
H. Joseph Understanding The New Testament…, 33.
31
Uriel “Maccabean Revolt” The Anchor Bible Dictionary…, 439.
7
3. Herod and his descendants. 161-168 A.D.
3.1.Herod the great (person) 37 BCE -4 BCE:
The king who, by arrangement with Rome, ruled Jewish Palestine from 37 BCE. – 4BCE.
According to New Testament Jesus was born during reign of this king. Herod was born in the
late 70s BCE. In to an aristocratic idumean family that had converted to Judaism a half century
earlier, in reign of John Hyrcanus I. his father Antipater, was adviser to Hyrcanus II and later
held office in his own right when he was appointed epitropos of Judea in 47 BCE. The rise to
power of both Antipater, and Herod was predicated first and foremost on their unswerving
loyalty to Rome. Both the father and son were convinced that, following the conquest of Judea
by Pompey in 63 BCE.32
In the year 63 BCE. On a Sabbath Pompey entered the temple of Jerusalem Hyrkanos was
reinstated as high priest, but from now on he was accountable to the Romans for his
administration. His brother Aristoboulos was led as prisoner in Pompey’s triumphal processio
n in Rome. 33
32
L.I. Levine, “Herod The Great” The Anchor Bible Dictionary Volume 3 H-J edited by David Noel
Freedman, Gary A. Herion, eds., (New York: Double Day, 1992),162. (Hear after cited as a L.I. Levine “Herod
the Great” The Anchor Bible…,)
33
L.I. Levine “Herod the Great” The Anchor Bible…, 163.
34
Geza, Vermes, The True Herod (India: Oxford, 2013) 41. (Referred in google books) (Hear after
cited as a Geza, The True Herod…,)
35
Helmut Introduction to New Testament Volume 1…, 375-376.
8
(Herod Agrippa) as a conspirator. This resulted in Antipas’ exile and the loss of his
tetrarchy in AD 39. 36
4. Herod Agrippa I (Herod the King in Acts 12.1) (AD 37 to 44): He was the grandson of
Herod the Great. After the execution of his father in 7 BC he was brought to Rome and
was in close association with the imperial family. He offended the Emperor Tiberius
and was imprisoned for a year and was released by Caligula from whom he received
the title king of the north east territories of Palestine. When Antipas was exiled,
Agrippa was given his territories. Then when Claudius became emperor (in AD 41) he
augmented Agrippa’s kingdom by giving him Judea and Samaria. In the end his
kingdom was roughly the same size as Herod the Great. He was looked upon favorably
by the Jews because his grandmother was a Hasmonean (Mariamne). He executed
James the son of Zebedee and imprisoned Peter (Acts 12.1-19). He died suddenly at
the age of 54 as described in Acts 12 and by Josephus (Antiquities 19). 37
5. Herod Agrippa II (AD 50 to 90s): He was the great-grandson of Herod the Great and
son of Herod Agrippa I. He was too young to take the throne of his father in AD 44.
He was raised in Rome during the reign of Claudius. Around the year AD 50 Claudius
appointed him king of Chalcis in Lebanon and gave him the right to appoint the high
priest in Jerusalem. He later gained northern Galilee. Then under Nero, he gained
southern Galilee and Perea. He was heavily influenced by his sister Berenice who lived
with him. Procurator Festus heard Paul’s defence (Acts 25-26) and asked for Herod
Agrippa II’s advice. He first tried to reconcile the Jews with Rome when the revolt
began in AD 66 but when it came down to it, sided with Rome and supported them with
troops. This won him even larger territory when Jerusalem was destroyed. His reign
lasted into the 90s38.
War between the Romans and Jewish it was also a class struggle, to protect Jews identity,
and their religious freedom finally their economy status.
In 66 Roman Emperor Nero needed money, and ordered his representatives in Judea, Gessius
florus, to remove it from the temple treasure. If money not there in temple treasure Jews will
be punish or some time crucified them. Another cause’s religious tension between the Jewish
public and the roman government.39
36
Helmut Introduction to New Testament Volume 1…, 375.
37
Helmut Introduction to New Testament Volume 1…, 378-379.
38
Geza, The True Herod…, 44-45.
39
Naomi Psachoff, Robert J. Littman, Aconcise History of the Jewish people (Rowman & Littlefield
Publishers, Inc., 2005), 83-85. (Hear after cited as Robert J. Littman, A Concise History ….,)
9
Romans order to Jews should have to pay tax to the Roman empire, then they were paying tax
to Roman empire, so Jews were become poor and Romans were become a rich. For Jews
Jerusalem consider as a divine place but romans were not consider as a divine place.40
The preparations for war Jerusalem and the Galilee, Jewish were elected some high priest as
Supreme commanders in the city, governmental officials, and others who are take caring the
country territory. They were informed to all the Galilee cities of people and supported to war,
then all the Galileans were ready to participate for war. 41
Many Jews now flee Jerusalem, knowing disaster will follow. Jews in Damascus are
slaughtered. The Jews elect Joseph son of Gorion and Ananus to lead in the City. Eleazar son
of Simon and his Zealot followers gradually rises to power. Josephus (the author) is appointed
commander in Galilee region. Josephus organizes the military in Galilee. The plotter John from
Gischala appears and plunders Galilee, develops monopolies, etc. King Agrippa's minister
Ptolemy is robbed. An anti-Josephus mob charges him with treason. Josephus promises a
protective wall for Tarichaea. John plots against Josephus in Tiberias, tries to get him
assassinated, develops further plots. Josephus entraps pro-Roman Tiberians, allows Tiberias to
be pillaged as well as Sepphoris. Galilean dissension has been quelled.42
Legate Lucilius Bassus determines it is necessary to destroy the fortress Machaerus (built by
Alexander). He begins a siege there. 3000 Jews are massacred with no survivors. The Syrian
Paetus invades the land of Antiochus king of Commagene 72 73, defeats him. The Alanis inv
ade Mede. 43
Bassus has died, replaced by Flavius Silva as governor of Judaea. He resolves to conquer the
one remaining rebel stronghold, Masada. It is led by Eleazar son of Jairus and the Sicarii. [Note:
There are several Eleazars in this history: (1) the Bandit chief Eleazar; (2) Eleazar son of Jairus,
autocrat with the Sicarii at Masada; (3) Eleazar son of Ananias, captain of the Temple; and (4)
Eleazar son of Simon, leader of the Zealots.] The history of Masada is given, how it was impr
oved by King Herod, its layout and provisions. Romans employ rams and fire.44
God burns the walls for the Romans. Eleazar son of Jairus appeals to his followers for mass
suicide to prevent their capture and enslavement. God himself has taken away all hope of
survival. They burn their possessions. Eleazar speaks on the soul and sleep, the exterminations
of Jews in Syria, how other Roman victims have been tortured or half-eaten by beasts but kept
alive, etc. They choose 10 men to kill the others, the 9 are then killed by the one, and he kills
40
Robert J. Littman, A Concise History…, 86.
41
L.I Levine, “ Jewish War” The Anchor Bible Dictionary Volume 3 H-J Edited by
42
Shaye J. D. Cohen, Josephus in Galilee and Rome (Boston: Brill Academic Publishers, Inc., 2002),
56-60. (Hear after cited as D. Cohen, Josephus in Galilee and Rome…,)
43
D. Cohen, Josephus in Galilee and Rome… 80-81.
44
D. Cohen, Josephus in Galilee and Rome… 82.
10
himself. 960 are dead (72 or 73 CE). When the Romans arrive, they find only 2 women survi
vors, hiding in the conduits.45
Jewish armed resistance against Roman rule in Judea reached its culmination and exhausted
itself in the revolt of Bar Kokhba in this war the great number of people were participated, to
against Roman ruling, under the leader ship of Simeon Bar Kokhba.46
It is co incidence that the revolt of BarKochba was the only Jewish war fought against foreign
rule in antiquity to have been named after one leader. In Talmudic sources he is given the titles
nasi (ruler or prince) and “Messiah” and the years of his reign are described as “Kingship”
actual nasi refers to many ways for ex: king or lower than king, but others assumes that it refers
to the ideal king as in Ezekiel’s vision of the end of days.49
R. Akiba declared of Bar Kochba “This is the king of “Messiah” the role of Messiah, attributed
him, has also been variously interpreted as a divine and supernatural saviour and redeemer, and
as a general and leader of ordinary human stature whose title merely emphasize his royal rank.
45
D. Cohen, Josephus in Galilee and Rome…83.
46
Benjamin Issac Aharon Oppenheimer, “Bar Kokhba Revolt” The Anchor Bible Dictionary Volume 1
A –C, edited by David Noel Freedman, Gary A. Herion eds., (London: Doubleday,1992),598. (Hear
after cited as a Benjamen Issac, “Bar Kokhba Revolt”…, )
47
Benjamen Issac, “Bar Kokhba Revolt”…, 598-599.
48
Benjamen Issac, “Bar Kokhba Revolt”…, 599.
49
Benjamen Issac, Bar Kokhba Revolt…, 600.
11
50
Bar Kochba’s letters discovered in the Judean desert, give a partial but genuine impression
of his personality.51
He seems to have been a forceful general and ruler who dealt in person with details of discipline
and daily life in his army units his leadership extended beyond the sphere of military matters,
for part of his letters are concerned with the leasing of lands on his behalf. It can be seen that
with the leasing of lands on his behalf. It can be seen that he insisted on the observance of
religious commandments such as those of the Sabbath, the four types of tree branches for
Sukkot and precepts concern with the produce of the land.52
5.4.The Result:
Talmud literature gives vivid and extensive descriptions of the horrors of the Jewish defeat,
and much is written about the bitter fate of the besieged at Bethar. After the revolt the Romans
issued as series of disciplinary decrees, the nature of which has been debated.53
Conclusion:
This paper tries to bring a brief history of Greco-Roman world. The history talking about the
Hellenistic rulers and struggles of Jewish. Hellenistic world emphasising their culture and
tradition on the Jewish. For that Jews fought against Romans and countered the Hellenistic way
of life, At last, they achieve their freedom from the Hellenistic rulers but again they had
undergone various struggles in the following rulers.
Bibliography:
Books:
D. Cohen, Shaye J. Josephus in Galilee and Rome. Boston: Brill Academic Publishers, Inc.,
2002.
Koester, Helmut. Introduction to the New Testament Volume 1. History and Culture and
Religion of the Hellenistic Age Second Edition New York: Walter De Gruyter, 1995.
Lalfakmawia, H. Joseph. Understanding The New Testament: Its Historical Background and
Content. Kolkata: SCEPTRE, 2013.
Nickelsburg, George W.E. Jewish Literature between the Bible and the Mishanah. Minneapol
is: Fortress Press, 2005.
Psachoff, Naomi Robert J. Littman. A Concise History of the Jewish people. London: Rowma
n &littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2005.
Rajak, Tessa. Eds. Jewish Perspectives on Hellenistic Rulers (Berkeley: University of Califor
nia Press, 2007.
50
Benjamen Issac, Bar Kokhba Revolt…, 600.
51
Benjamen Issac ,Bar Kokhba Revolt…, 601
52
Benjamen Issac, Bar Kokhba Revolt…, 601
53
Benjamen Issac , Bar Kokhba Revolt…, 601.
12
Dictionaries and commentaries:
Levine, L.I. “Herod The Great” The Anchor Bible Dictionary Volume 3 H-J edited by David
Noel Freedman, Gary A. Herion, eds., New York: Double Day, 1992.
M. Wells, Colinj. “ Roman Empire” The Anchor Bible Dictionary volume 5 O –Sh Edited by
David Noel Freedman, Gray A. Herion eds., New York: Double Day,1992.
Oppenheimer, Aharon. Benjamin Issac. “Bar Kokhba Revolt” The Anchor Bible Dictionary
Volume 1 A –C, edited by David Noel Freedman, Gary A. Herion eds., London: Doubleday,
1992.
Rappaport, Uriel. “Maccabean Revolt” The Anchor Bible Dictionary Volume 4 K- N. Edited by
David Noel Freedman, Gary A. Herion eds., New York: Double Day, 1992.
13