2a8fb7a2 Turner 1st Sem Theory C0614ffe

TURNER
NSQF LEVEL - 5
1st Semester
TRADE THEORY
SECTOR: Production & Manufacturing
DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRAINING

MINISTRY OF SKILL DEVELOPMENT & ENTREPRENEURSHIP
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
NATIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL
MEDIA INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
Post Box No. 3142, CTI Campus, Guindy, Chennai - 600 032
(i)
Sector : Production and Manufacturing
Duration : 2 - Years
Trade : Turner 1st Semester - Trade Theory - NSQF level 5
Copyright 2018 National Instructional Media Institute, Chennai

First Edition : August 2018 Copies : 1,000
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Rs.215/-
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All rights reserved.

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No part of this publication can be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopy, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the National
Instructional Media Institute, Chennai.
Published by:
NATIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA INSTITUTE
P. B. No.3142, CTI Campus, Guindy Industrial Estate,
Guindy, Chennai - 600 032.
Phone : 044 - 2250 0248, 2250 0657, 2250 2421
Fax : 91 - 44 - 2250 0791
email : [email protected], [email protected]
Website: www.nimi.gov.in
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FOREWORD
The Government of India has set an ambitious target of imparting skills to 30 crores people, one out of every
four Indians, by 2020 to help them secure jobs as part of the National Skills Development Policy. Industrial
Training Institutes (ITIs) play a vital role in this process especially in terms of providing skilled manpower.
Keeping this in mind, and for providing the current industry relevant skill training to Trainees, ITI syllabus
has been recently updated with the help of Mentor Councils comprising various stakeholder's viz. Industries,
Entrepreneurs, Academicians and representatives from ITIs.
The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI), Chennai, an autonomous body under the Directorate
General of Training (DGT), Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship is entrusted with developing
producing and disseminating Instructional Media Packages (IMPs) required for ITIs and other related
institutions.
The institute has now come up with instructional material to suit the revised curriculum for Turner Trade
Theory 1st Semester in Production & Manufacturing Sector . The NSQF Level - 5 Trade theory will help
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the trainees to get an international equivalency standard where their skill proficiency and competency will
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be duly recognized across the globe and this will also increase the scope of recognition of prior learning.
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NSQF Level - 5 trainees will also get the opportunities to promote life long learning and skill development.
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I have no doubt that with NSQF Level - 5 the trainers and trainees of ITIs, and all stakeholders will derive
maximum benefits from these IMPs and that NIMI's effort will go a long way in improving the quality of
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Vocational training in the country.

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The Executive Director & Staff of NIMI and members of Media Development Committee deserve appreciation
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for their contribution in bringing out this publication.

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Jai Hind
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ASHEESH SHARMA
Joint Secretary
Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship,
Government of India.
New Delhi - 110 001
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PREFACE
The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) was established in 1986 at Chennai by then Directorate
General of Employment and Training (D.G.E & T), Ministry of Labour and Employment, (now under Directorate
General of Training, Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship) Government of India, with technical
assistance from the Govt. of the Federal Republic of Germany. The prime objective of this institute is to
develop and provide instructional materials for various trades as per the prescribed syllabi under the Craftsman
and Apprenticeship Training Schemes.
The instructional materials are created keeping in mind, the main objective of Vocational Training under
NCVT/NAC in India, which is to help an individual to master skills to do a job. The instructional materials are
generated in the form of Instructional Media Packages (IMPs). An IMP consists of Theory book, Practical
book, Test and Assignment book, Instructor Guide, Audio Visual Aid (Wall charts and Transparencies) and
other support materials.
The trade practical book consists of series of exercises to be completed by the trainees in the workshop.
These exercises are designed to ensure that all the skills in the prescribed syllabus are covered. The trade
theory book provides related theoretical knowledge required to enable the trainee to do a job. The test and
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assignments will enable the instructor to give assignments for the evaluation of the performance of a trainee.
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The wall charts and transparencies are unique, as they not only help the instructor to effectively present a
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topic but also help him to assess the trainee's understanding. The instructor guide enables the instructor to
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plan his schedule of instruction, plan the raw material requirements, day to day lessons and demonstrations.
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In order to perform the skills in a productive manner instructional videos are embedded in QR code of the
exercise in this instructional material so as to integrate the skill learning with the procedural practical steps
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given in the exercise. The instructional videos will improve the quality of standard on practical training and
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will motivate the trainees to focus and perform the skill seamlessly.
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IMPs also deals with the complex skills required to be developed for effective team work. Necessary care
has also been taken to include important skill areas of allied trades as prescribed in the syllabus.
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The availability of a complete Instructional Media Package in an institute helps both the trainer and
management to impart effective training.
The IMPs are the outcome of collective efforts of the staff members of NIMI and the members of the Media
Development Committees specially drawn from Public and Private sector industries, various training institutes
under the Directorate General of Training (DGT), Government and Private ITIs.
NIMI would like to take this opportunity to convey sincere thanks to the Directors of Employment & Training
of various State Governments, Training Departments of Industries both in the Public and Private sectors,
Officers of DGT and DGT field institutes, proof readers, individual media developers and coordinators, but for
whose active support NIMI would not have been able to bring out this materials.
R. P. DHINGRA
Chennai - 600 032 EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) sincerely acknowledges with thanks for the co-operation and
contribution extended by the following Media Developers and their sponsoring organisations to bring out this
Instructional Material (Trade Theory) for the trade of Turner under the Production & Manufacturing
MEDIA DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS
Shri. Natarajan _ Training officer

Govt. I.T.I Salem
Tamil Nadu
Shri. Dayala moorthy _ Assistant Training officer

Govt. I.T.I Vellore
Tamil Nadu
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Shri. N. Sampath
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Govt. I.T.I Chengalpattu
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Tamil Nadu
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Shri. G. Mani _ Junior Works Manager (Retd)

MDC Member NIMI, Chennai - 32
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Shri. M. Sampath _ Training officer (Retd)

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MDC Member
Chennai - 600032
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Shri. V. Gopalakrishnan _ Assitant Manager,

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Co-ordinator, NIMI, Chennai - 32
NIMI records its appreciation for the Data Entry, CAD, DTP operators for their excellent and devoted services in
the process of development of this Instructional Material.
NIMI also acknowledges with thanks the invaluable efforts rendered by all other NIMI staff who have contributed
towards the development of this Instructional Material.
NIMI is also grateful to everyone who has directly or indirectly helped in developing this Instructional Material.
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INTRODUCTION
TRADE THEORY
The manual of trade theory consists of theorectical information for the First Semester couse of the Turner Trade.
The contents are sequenced accoring to the practical exercise contained in the manual on Trade practical.
Attempt has been made to relate the theortical aspects with the skill covered in each exercise to the extent
possible. This co-relation is maintained to help the trainees to develop the perceptional capabilities for
performing the skills.
The Trade Theory has to be taught and learnt along with the corresponding exercise contained in the manual
on trade practical. The indicating about the corresponding practical exercise are given in every sheet of this
manual.
It will be preferable to teach/learn the trade theory connected to each exercise atleast one class before
performing the related skills in the shop floor. The trade theory is to be treated as an integrated part of each
exercise.
The material is not the purpose of self learning and should be considered as supplementary to class room
instruction.
TRADE PRACTICAL
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The trade practical manual is intented to be used in workshop . It consists of a series of practical exercies to
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be completed by the trainees during the First Semester course of the Turner trade supplemented and
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supported by instructions/ informations to assist in performing the exercises. These exercises are designed
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to ensure that all the skills in the prescribed syllabus are covered.
The manual is divided into three modules. The distribution of time for the practical in the three modules are
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given below.
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Module 1 Occupational safety 25 Hrs

Module 2 Basic Fitting 150 Hrs
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Module 3 Turning 375 Hrs

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Total 550 Hrs

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The skill training in the computer lab is planned through a series of practical exercises centred around some
practical project. However, there are few instance where the individual exercise does not form a part of project.
While developing the practical manual a sincere effort was made to prepare each exercise which will be easy
to understand and carry out even by below average traninee. However the development team accept that there
if a scope for further improvement. NIMI, looks forward to the suggestions from the experienced training faculty
for improving the manual.
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CONTENTS
Lesson No. Title of the Lesson Page No.
Module 1: Occupational Safety
1.1.01 Guidance to new corners about ITI and system 1
Job area after complition of soft skill 2
1.1.02 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) 3
1.1.03 Basic first-aid 7
Artificial respiration 11
1.1.04 Importance of house keeping introduction to ‘5s’ 16
Disposal of waste material 17
Occupational safety and health 18
1.1.05 Occupational safety hazards and avoidance 20
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1.1.06 Occupational safety
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1.1.07 Electrical safety 29
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1.1.08 Fire extinguishers 33
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Types of fire extinguishers 35

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1.1.09 Precaution to follow while working fitting job 37

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1.1.10 Precautions to follow while working fitting job 38

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Module 2: Basic Fitting

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1.2.11 Identification of tools and equipments 40
1.2.12 Selection of metals 43
1.2.13 Length measurement 45
Steel rule 46
Hacksaw frame 47
1.2.14 Chisel 49
1.2.15 Elements of a file 53
Flat file & hand file 53
Bench vice 54
Try square 55
Types of vices 56
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1.2.16 Basic fitting 58
Types of callipers 59
1.2.17 ‘V’ - Blocks 60
Straight edges 63
Surface gauges (or) scribing block 64
Surface plates 65
1.2.18 Drilling machines - Different parts 66
Types of punches 67
Scribers 68
1.2.19 Nomenclature of drill 69
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1.2.20 Hand taps and wrenches 71
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Die and die stock 72
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Tap drill size 74
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1.2.21 Tap extractor 75
Methods of removing broken studs 76

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Module 3: Turning
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1.3.22 Centre lathe and its parts 78

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1.3.23 Machine and machine tool 81

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1.3.24 Classification of lathe 83
1.3.25 Lathe parts - tail stock 86
The carriage 87
1.3.26 Lathe bed 89
1.3.27 Lathe drive - cone pulley and all gear type 91
Tumbler gerar 94
1.3.28 Back gear 95
1.3.29 Properties of good cutting tool materials 96
1.3.30 Specification of lathe - tools 98
1.3.31 Lathe cutting tools - Different types 101
Kinds of lathe cutting tools 104
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1.3.32 Combination drill 105
1.3.33 Drill chuck 108
1.3.34 Lathe accessories 110
Lathe accessories - work - holding devices : 3 jaw chuck 112
Lathe accessories - work - holding devices : 4 jaw chuck 114
Chucks other than 3 jaw and 4 jaw types and their uses 115
1.3.35 Vernier calliper 118
Graduations and reading of vernier callipers 119
1.3.36 Outside micrometers 123
Reading dimensions with an outside micrometers 124
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Error in micrometer 126
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Digital micrometers 127
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1.3.37 Lathe - cutting speed and feed & depth of cut 129
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Calculation involving cutting speed, feeds 131
1.3.38 Different types of micrometer 133

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Inside micrometer - metric 135

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Three-point internal micrometer 136

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Sources of measuring errors 138

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1.3.39 Drills - different parts 141
Drill angles 143
Cutting speed and RPM 146
Feed in drilling 147
Booring tools 147
1.3.40 Counter sinking 150
Counterboring and spot facing 154
1.3.41 Letter and number drills 156
Reamers 158
Hand reamers 160
Drill size of reaming 162
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1.3.42 Coolant and lubricant 163
Methods of applying lubricant 164
1.3.43 Lathe mandrels 167
1.3.44 The Indian standard system of limits & fits 169
Definition of terms under B.I,S. 169
Fits and their classification as per the indian standard 173
1.3.45 Knurling 180
1.3.46 Driving plate and face plate 183
Fixed steady & travelling steady 185
Lathe carriers 186
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Lathe carriers 187
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Transfer caliper 190
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1.3.47 Adjustment of tool posts 191
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Tool setting 192
Dial test indicator 194

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Production & Manufacturing
Turner - Occupational Safety Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.01
Guidance to new corners about ITI and system Organisation of the industrial
training institute
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• identify the staff structure of the institute
• identify the available trades in the institute and their functions.
The industrial training institute throughout India follow the The head of the industrial training institute is the Principal,
same syllabus pattern a given by the National Council for under whom there is one Vice-Principal, group instructor
Vocational Training (NCVT) Board. In India there are Govt. and a number of trade instructors as shown in the
ITIs and Private ITIs. Based on the Govt. of India, Ministry organisation chart of ITI.
of Labour's Annual report of 2011-2012. The Govt. ITIs in
Even though there are 62 trades selected for instructional
each state work under the Directorate of Employment and
training and 135 trades identified for apprentice training,
Training which is a department under the Labour Ministry
according to the requirement of industrial needs, area and
in most of the states. Some of the ITIs are under the Central
finance a few selected trades are established under each
Government and are attached to the Advanced Training
ITI. The trainees are advised to make a list of the trades
Institute which are named as Model Training Institutes.
available in their ITI, the type of training and the scope of
these trades in getting self or job employment in the rural
and urban areas.
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1
Job area after complition of soft skill
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be to
• state the concept of soft skill
• list the importants common soft skill
• brief the employability aspect of training
• brief the further learning scope.
Concept • Ability to accept and learn from criticism

• Flexibility adaptability
Soft skills - refer to the cluster of personality traits, social
graces, facility with language, personal habits, • Working well under pressure
friendliness, and optimism that mark people to varying
Job area completion of training: This highlights the
degrees. The same can also be defined as-ability to
employability aspect on completion of training. The trainee
interact positively & productively with others. Sometimes
should be aware of various prospects available in present
called “character skills”.
market scenario along with scope for self-employment.
For example a trainee with NTC engineering trade may
More and more business are considering soft skills as
opt for:
important job criteria. Soft skills are used in personal
and professional life. Hard skills/technical skills do not Various job available in different industries in India
matter without soft skills. and Abroad.
Common Soft Skills After successfull completion of ITI training in any one of
the engineering trade one can see appointment in
• Strong work ethic
engineering workshop/Factories (Public Sector, Private
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• Positive attitude Sector and Government Industries) in India and Abroad
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• Good communication skills
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Self employment
• Interpersonal skills
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One can start is own factory/ancillary unit or design
• Time management abilities
products manufacture and became an entreprereur.
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• Problem-solving skills
Further learning scope
• Team work
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• Apprentice training in designated trade.

• Initiative, Motivation
• Craft Instructor certificate course.
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• Self-confidence
• Diploma in Engineering.
• Loyalty
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2 Production & Manufacturing : Turner - Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.01

Turner - Occupational safety Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.02
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

• state what is personal protective equipment and its purpose
• name the two categories of personal protective equipment
• list the most common type of personal protective equipment
• list the conditions for selection of personal protective equipment.
Personal protective equipment (PPE) • Inspection of gear thoroughly to make sure that it has
the standard of quality and adequately protect the user
Devices, equipments, or clothing used or worn by the should be continuously carried out.
employees, as a last resort, to protect against hazards in
the workplace. The primary approach in any safety effort Categories of PPE’s
is that the hazard to the workmen should be eliminated or
the workmen through the use of personal protective Depending upon the nature of hazard, the PPE is broadly
controlled by engineering methods rather than protecting divided into the following two categories:
the workmen through the use of personal protective
1 Non-respiratory: Those used for protection against
equipment (PPE). Engineering methods could include
injury from outside the body, i.e. for protecting the head,
design change, substitution, ventilation, mechanical
eye, face, hand, arm, foot, leg and other body parts
handling, automation, etc. In situations ventilation,
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Mechanical handling automation etc in situations where it 2 Respiratory: Those used for protection from harm due
is not possible to introduce any effective engineering
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methods for controlling hazards, the workman shall use
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appropriate types of PPE. They are to meet the applicable BIS (Bureau of Indian
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Standards) standards for different types of PPE.
As changing times have modernized the workplace,
government and advocacy groups have brought more safety
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The guidelines on 'Personal Protective Equipment' is issued

standards to all sorts of work environments. The Factories to facilitate the plant management in maintaining an
Act, 1948 and several other labour legislations 1996 have effective programme with respect to protection of persons
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provisions for effective use of appropriate types of PPE. against hazards, which cannot be eliminated or controlled
Use of PPE is an important. by engineering methods.
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Ways to ensure workplace safety and use personal

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protective equipment (PPE) effectively.
• Workers to get up-to-date safety information from the

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regulatory agencies that oversees workplace safety in

their specific area.
• To use all available text resources that may be in work

area and for applicable safety information on how to
use PPE best.
• When it comes to the most common types of personal

protective equipment, like goggles, gloves or bodysuits,
these items are much less effective if they are not worn
at all times, or whenever a specific danger exists in a
work process. Using PPE consistently will help to avoid
some common kinds of industrial accidents.
• Personal protective gear is not always enough to protect

workers against workplace dangers. Knowing more
about the overall context of your work activity can help
to fully protect from anything that might threaten health
and safety on the job.
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Personal protective equipments and their uses and hazards are as follows
Types of protection Hazards PPE to be used
Head Protection (Fig 1) 1. Falling objects Helmets

2. Striking against objects
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3. Spatter
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Foot protection (Fig 2) 1. Hot spatter Leather leg guards

2. Falling objects Safety shoes
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3. Working wet area Gum boots

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Nose (Fig 3) 1. Dust particles Nose mask

2. Fumes/ gases/ vapours

Types of protection Hazards PPE to be used
Hand protecion (Fig 4) 1. Heat burn due to direct contact Hand gloves
2. Blows sparks moderate heat
3. Electric shock
Eye protection (Fig 5, Fig 6) 1. Flying dust particles Goggles

2. UV rays, IR rays heat and Face shield
High amount of visible radiation
(UV - ultravoilet Hand shield
IR - Infra Red) Head shield
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Face Protection (Fig 6, Fig 7) 1. Spark generated during Face shield

Welding, grinding Head shield with or
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2. Welding spatter striking without ear muff

3. Face protection from Helmets with welders
UV rays screen for welders
Production & Manufacturing : Turner - Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.02 5

Quality of PPE’s Proper use of PPEs
PPE must meet the following criteria with regard to its Having selected the proper type of PPE, it is essential
quality-provide absolute and full protection against possible that the workman wears it. Often the workman avoids using
hazard and PPE’s be so designed and manufactured out PPE. The following factors influence the solution to this
of materials that it can withstand the hazards against which problem.
it is intended to be used.
• The extent to which the workman understands the
Selection of PPE’s requires certain conditions necessity of using PPE
• The ease and comfort with which PPE can be worn
• Nature and severity of the hazard
with least interference in normal work procedures
• Type of contaminant, its concentration and location of
• The available economic, social and disciplinary
contaminated area with respect to the source of
sanctions which can be used to influence the attitude
respirable air
of the workman
• Expected activity of workman and duration of work,
• The best solution to this problem is to make 'wearing
comfort of workman when using PPE
of PPE' mandatory for every employee.
• Operating characteristics and limitations of PPE
• In other places, education and supervision need to be
• Ease of maintenance and cleaning intensified. When a group of workmen are issued PPE
for the first time.
• Conformity to Indian/ International standards and
availability of test certificate.
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Basic first-aid
• state what is first aid
• list the key aims of first aid
• explain the ABC of the first aid
• brief how to give first-aid for a victim who need first aid.
First aid is defined as the immediate care and support Training

given to an acutely injured or ill person, primarily to save
life, prevent further deterioration or injury, plan to shift Basic principles, such as knowing to use an adhesive
the victims to safer places, provide best possible comfort bandage or applying direct pressure on a bleed, are often
and finally help them to reach the medical centre/ hospital acquired passively through life experiences. However,
through all available means. It is an immediate life-saving to provide effective, life-saving first aid interventions
procedure using all resources available within reach. requires instruction and practical training. This is
especially true where it relates to potentially fatal illnesses
Imparting knowledge and skill through institutional and injuries, such as those that require cardiopulmonary
teaching at younger age group in schools, colleges, entry resuscitation (CPR); these procedures may be invasive,
point at industry level is now given much importance. and carry a risk of further injury to the patient and the
Inculcating such habits at early age, helps to build good provider. As with any training, it is more useful if it occurs
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healthcare habits among people. before an actual emergency, and in many countries,
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First aid procedure often consists of simple and basic aid instructions over the phone while the ambulance is
life saving techniques that an individual performs with on the way. Training is generally provided by attending a
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proper training and knowledge. course, typically leading to certification. Due to regular
changes in procedures and protocols, based on updated
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The key aims of first aid can be summarized in three key clinical knowledge, and to maintain skill, attendance at
points: regular refresher courses or re-certification is often
necessary. First aid training is often available through
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• Preserve life: If the patient was breathing, a first aider community organization such as the Red cross and St.
would normally place them in the recovery position, John ambulance.
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with the patient leant over on their side, which also has
the effect of clearing the tongue from the pharynx. It ABC of first aid
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also avoids a common cause of death in unconscious

patients, which is choking on regurgitated stomach ABC stands for airway, breathing and circulation.
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contents. The airway can also become blocked through

a foreign object becoming lodged in the pharynx or • Airway: Attention must first be brought to the airway
larynx, commonly called choking. The first aider will to ensure it is clear. Obstruction (choking) is a life-
be taught to deal with this through a combination of threatening emergency.
'back slaps' and 'abdominal thrusts'. Once the airway
• Breathing: Breathing if stops, the victim may die
has been opened, the first aider would assess to see if
soon. Hence means of providing support for breathing
the patient is breathing.
is an important next steps. There are several methods
• Prevent further harm: Also sometimes called prevent practiced in first aid.
the condition from worsening, or danger of further
• Circulation: Blood circulation is vital to keep person
injury, this covers both external factors, such as
alive. The first aiders now trained to go straight to
moving a patient away from any cause of harm, and
chest compressions through CPR methods.
applying first aid techniques to prevent worsening of
the condition, such as applying pressure to stop a
When providing first aid one needs to follow some rule.
bleed becoming dangerous.
There are certain basic norms in teaching and training
• Promote recovery: First aid also involves trying to students in the approach and administration of first aid
start the recovery process from the illness or injury, to sick and injured.
and in some cases might involve completing a
treatment, such as in the case of applying a plaster Not to get panic
to a small wound.
Panic is one emotion that can make the situation more
worse. People often make mistake because they get panic.
Panic clouds thinking and causes mistakes. First aider
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need calm and collective approach. If the first aider himself is greatest in the first 30 minutes, often instantly. This
is in a state of fear and panic gross mistakes may result. period is referred to as Golden period. By the time the
It's far easier to help the suffering, when they know what patient reach hospitals, they would have passed that
they are doing, even if unprepared to encounter a situation. critical period. First aid care come handy to save lives. It
Emotional approach and response always lead to wrong helps to get to the nearest emergency room as quickly
doing and may cause one to do wrong procedures. Hence as possible through safe handling and transportation. The
be calm and focus on the given institution. Quick and shorter the time, the more likely the best treatment
confident approach can lessen the effect of injury. applied.
Call medical emergencies Maintain the hygiene
If the situation demands, quickly call for medical Most importantly, first aider need to wash hands and dry
assistance. Prompt approach may save the life. before giving and first aid treatment to the patient or wear
gloves in order to prevent infection.
Surroundings play vital role
Cleaning and dressing
Different surroundings require different approach. Hence
first aider should study the surrounding carefully. In other Always clean the wound thoroughly before applying the
words, one need to make sure that they are safe and bandage lightly wash the wound with clean water.
are not in any danger as it would be of no help that the
first aider himself get injured. Not to use local medications on cuts or open wounds
Do no harm They are more irritating to tissue than it is helpful. Simple

dry cleaning or with water and some kind of bandage are
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Most often over enthusiastically practiced first aid viz. best.
administering water when the victim is unconscious,
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wiping clotted blood (which acts as plug to reduce CPR (Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation) can be life-
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bleeding), correcting fractures, mishandling injured parts sustaining
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etc., would leads to more complication. Patients often
die due to wrong FIRST AID methods, who may otherwise CPR can be life sustaining. If one is trained in CPR and
the person is suffering from choking or finds difficulty in
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easily survive. Do not move the injured person unless

the situation demands. It is best to make him lie wherever breathing, immediately begin CPR. However, if one is not
he is because if the patient has back, head or neck injury, trained in CPR, do not attempt as you can cause further
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moving him would causes more harm. injury. But some people do it wrong. This is a difficult
procedure to do in a crowded area. Also there are many
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This does not mean do nothing. It means to make sure studies to suggest that no survival advantage when
that to do something the care givers feel confident bystanders deliver breaths to victims compared to when
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through training would make matters safe. If the first aider they only do chest compressions. Second, it is very difficult
is not confident of correct handling it is better not to to carry right maneuver in wrong places. But CPR, if
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intervene to do it. Hence moving a trauma victim, especially carefully done by highly skilled first aiders is a bridge that
an unconscious one, needs very careful assessment. keeps vital organs oxygenated until medical team arrives.
Removal of an embedded objects (Like a knife, nail) from
the wound may precipitate more harm (e.g. increased Declaring death
bleeding). Always it is better to call for help. It is not correct to declare the victim's death at the accident
site. It has to be done by qualified medical doctors.
Reassurance
How to report an emergency?
Reassure the victim by speaking encouragingly with him.
Reporting an emergency is one of those things that seems
Stop the bleeding simple enough, until actually when put to use in emergency
situations. A sense of shock prevail at the accident sites.
If the victim is bleeding, try to stop the bleeding by Large crowd gather around only with inquisitive nature,
applying pressure over the injured part. but not to extend helping hands to the victims. This is
common in road side injuries. No passer-by would like to
Golden hours get involved to assist the victims. Hence first aid
management is often very difficult to attend to the injured
India have best of technology made available in hospitals persons. The first aiders need to adapt multi-task strategy
to treat devastating medical problem viz. head injury,
multiple trauma, heart attack, strokes etc, but patients
often do poorly because they don't gain access to that
technology in time. The risk of dying from these conditions,

to control the crowd around, communicate to the rescue • Stop bleeding: Control of bleeding is one of the most
team, call ambulance etc., all to be done simultaneously. important things to save a trauma victim. Use direct
The mobile phones helps to a greater deal for such pressure on a wound before trying any other method of
emergencies. Few guidelines are given below to approach managing bleeding.
the problems.
• Treat shock: Shock, a loss of blood flow from the body,
Assess the urgency of the situation. Before you report an frequently follows physical and occasionally
emergency, make sure the situation is genuinely urgent. psychological trauma. A person in shock will frequently
Call for emergency services if you believe that a situation have ice cold skin, be agitated or have an altered mental
is life-threatening or otherwise extremely disruptive. status, and have pale colour to the skin around the
face and lips. Untreated, shock can be fatal. Anyone
• A crime, especially one that is currently in progress. If
who has suffered a severe injury or life-threatening
you're reporting a crime, give a physical description of
situation is at risk for shock.
the person committing the crime.
• Choking victim: Choking can cause death or
• A fire - If you're reporting a fire, describe how the fire
permanent brain damage within minutes.
stated and where exactly it is located. If someone has
already been injured or is missing, report that as well. • Treat a burn: Treat first and second degree burns by
immersing or flushing with cool water. Don't use creams,
• A life-threatening medical emergency, explain how the
butter or other ointments, and do not pop blisters. Third
incident occurred and what symptoms the person
degree burns should be covered with a damp cloth.
currently displays.
Remove clothing and jewellery from the burn, but do
• A car crash - Location, serious nature of injures, vehicle's not try to remove charred clothing that is stuck to burns.
details and registration, number of people involved etc.
• Treat a concussion: If the victim has suffered a blow
to the head, look for signs of concussion. Common
Call emergency service
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symptoms are: loss of consciousness following the
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The emergency number varies - 100 for Police & 101 Fire,
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108 for Ambulance. nausea, and lethargy.
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• Treat a spinal injury victim: If a spinal injury is
suspected, it is especially critical, not move the victim's
head, neck or back unless they are in immediate
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danger.
Stay with the victim until help arrives
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Try to be a calming presence for the victim until assistance

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can arrive.
Unconsciousness (COMA)
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Unconscious also referred as Coma, is a serious life

Look, listen and feel for signs of breathing
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threatening condition, when a person lie totally senseless

and do not respond to calls, external stimulus. But the
Look for the victim's chest to raise and fall, listen for sounds basic heart, breathing, blood circulation may be still intact,
of breathing. or they may also be failing. If unattended it may lead to
If the victim is not breathing, see the section below death.
• If the victim is breathing, but unconscious, roll them The condition arises due to interruption of normal brain
onto their side, keeping the head and neck aligned activity. The causes are too many.
with the body. This will help drain the mouth and prevent • Shock (Cardiogenic, Neurogenic)
the tongue or vomit from blocking the airway.
• Head injury (Concussion, Compression)
Check the victim's circulation
• Asphyxia (obstruction to air passage)
Look at the victim's colour and check their pulse (the
carotid artery is a good option; it is located on either side • Extreme of body temperature (Heat, Cold)
of the neck, below the jaw bone). If the victim does not • Cardiac arrest (Heart attack)
have a pulse, start CPR.
• Stroke (Cerbro-vascular accident)
Treat bleeding, shock and other problems as needed
• Blood loss (Haemorrhage)
After establishing that the victim is breathing and has a
• Dehydration (Diarrohea & vomiting)
pulse, next priority should be to control any bleeding.
Particularly in the case of trauma, preventing shock is the • Diabetes (Low or high sugar)
priority.
• Blood pressure (Very low or very high)

• Over dose of alcohol, drugs Loss of consciousness may threaten life if the
person is on his back and the tongue has
• Poisoning (Gas, Pesticides, Bites)
dropped to the back of the throat, blocking the
• Epileptic fits (Fits) airway. Make certain that the person is
breathing before looking for the cause of
• Hysteria (Emotional, Psychological)
unconsciousness. If the injuries permit, place
The following symptoms may occur after a person has the casualty in the recovery position with the
been unconscious: neck extended. Never give anything by mouth
• Confusion to an unconscious casulaty.
• Drowsiness How to diagnose an unconscious injured person

• Headache
• Consider alcohol: look for signs of drinking, like empty
• Inability to speak or move parts of his or her body (see bottles or the smell of alcohol.
stroke symptoms)
• Consider epilepsy: are there signs of a violent seizure,
• Light headedness such as saliva around the mouth or a generally
• Loss of bowel or bladder control (incontinence) dishevelled scene?
• Rapid heartbeat (palpitation) • Think insulin: might the person be suffering from insulin
shock (see 'How to diagnose and treat insulin shock")?
• Stupor
• Think about drugs: was there an overdose? Or might
First aid the person have under dosed - that is not taken enough
• Call EMERGENCY number. of a prescribed medication?
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• Check the person's airway, breathing, and pulse
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frequently. If necessary, begin rescue breathing and
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CPR.
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• If the person is breathing and lying on the back and
after ruling out spinal injury, carefully roll the person
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onto the side, preferably left side. Bend the top leg so
both hip and knee are at right angles. Gently tilt the
head back to keep the airway open. If breathing or pulse
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stops at any time, roll the person on to his back and

begin CPR.
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• Consider trauma: is the person physically injured?

• If there is a spinal injury, the victims position may have
to be carefully assessed. If the person vomits, roll the • Look for signs of infection: redness and/ or red streaks
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entire body at one time to the side. Support the neck around a wound.
and back to keep the head and body in the same
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• Look around for signs of Poison: an empty bottle of

position while you roll. pills or a snakebite wound.
• Keep the person warm until medical help arrives. • Consider the possibility of psychological trauma: might
• If you see a person fainting, try to prevent a fall. Lay the person have a psychological disorder of some sort?
the person flat on the floor and raise the level of feet • Consider stroke, particularly for elderly people.
above and support.
• Treat according to what you diagnose.
• If fainting is likely due to low blood sugar, give the person
something sweet to eat or drink when they become Shock(Fig 3)
conscious.
DO NOT A severe loss of body fluid will lead to a drop in blood
pressure. Eventually the blood's circulation will deteriorate
• Do not give an unconscious person any food or drink. and the remaining blood flow will be directed to the vital
• Do not leave the person alone. organs such as the brain. Blood will therefore be directed
away from the outer area of the body, so the victim will
• Do not place a pillow under the head of an unconscious appear pale and the skin will feel ice cold.
person.
• Do not slap an unconscious person's face or splash
water on the face to try to revive him.

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Artificial respiration
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Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
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• state the importance of respiration
• state occasions when artificial respiration becomes a necessity
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• state the various methods of artificial respiration

• list the procedure to be followed in different methods of artificial respiration
• state the action to be taken to treat a victim with cardiac arrest
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• state the important action to be taken when a patient recovers after undergoing artificial respiration.
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RESPIRATION
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Respiration is an involuntary function of all living organisms.

– Mouth-to-mouth method.
In human beings respiration involves breathing in and
breathing out air. The air taken consists of oxygen which Basically all these methods serve the same purpose and
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is made use of the lungs to purify the blood. If a person are equally good. Therefore the person/volunteer can adopt
cannot breathe or stops breathing for any reason he will any one of the above methods in which he is trained and is
collapse in no time. confident. However, Nelson’s method and Schafer’s method
should be avoided while giving artificial respiration to those
Artificial respiration
patients who are suspected to have injuries in the chest
There are occasions when breathing/respiration becomes wall and abdomen.
difficult or feeble in a person due to sickness, shock or
Each of the above said methods has a systematic procedure
accident. When breathing becomes feeble the person
to be followed. These procedures are given below. A person
becomes unconscious. At this stage it is possible to
must practise this procedure thoroughly before giving
improve the respiration by artificial means. This is known
artificial respiration to a sick person. Any short cuts in the
as artificial respiration.
procedure is dangerous and may worsen the condition of
In artificial respiration, air containing oxygen is forced into the sick person instead of improving it.
the lungs of the unconscious person so as to maintain the
supply of oxygen to the body till the time the victim reaches NELSON’s Method (Arm-lift back-pressure method)
the hospital/clinic for further treatment.
PRECAUTION
There are several methods by which artificial respiration
can be given. Some of the well known methods are, Nelson’s arm-lift back pressure method must not
– HOLGEN-NELSON method be used in case of suspected injuries to the chest
wall or abdomen of the victim.
– SCHAFER’S method

Be brisk in carrying out this method but avoid 5 As shown in Fig 3, synchronizing the above movement
violent operations which may cause injury to the rock backwards sliding your hands downwards along
internal parts of the victim. the victim’s arms. Grasp his upper arm just above the
elbows as shown.
1 Loosen the clothing of the victim as tight clothing
interferes with the victim’s breathing. Fig 3
2 Remove any foreign materials or false teeth from the
victim’s mouth, and keep the mouth open.
NOTE: Do not delay artificial respiration for loos- HANDS DOWNWARDS
ening clothes or even if the mouth is closed
tightly.
GRASP THE UPPER ARMS
3 As shown in Fig 1, place the victim face down with his JUST ABOVE THE
ELBOWS
arms folded, palms one over the other and head resting
on his cheek over the palms. Kneel on one or both
knees at the victim’s hand. Place your hands on the
victim’s back beyond the line of the armpits. Spread
your fingers outwards and downwards with the thumbs
just touching each other.
Fig 1
HEAD RESTING ON 6 Now rock backwards. As you rock backwards,
CHEEK OVER THE
PALMS
gently raise and pull the victim’s arms towards
you as shown in Fig 4 until you feel tension in his
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HANDS ON THE
shoulders. Remain in this position for a few
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BACK BEYOND LINE
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OF ARM PIT seconds. To complete the cycle, lower the victim’s
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arms and move your hands up to the initial position.
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Fig 4
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ARMS FOLDED
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ARMS PULLED
4 As shown in Fig 2, gently rock forward the arms keeping
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them straight until they are nearly vertical, and thus

steadily pressing the victim’s back as shown to force
the air out of the victim’s lungs.
Fig 2
7 Repeat the cycles a few more times by following steps

ARMS STRAIGHT AND
NEARLY VERTICAL 3 to 6.
SCHAFER’S method
BACK PRESSED PRECAUTION
Do not use this method of artificial respiration in case

the victim has injuries on his chest or abdomen.
Be brisk in carrying out this method but avoid

violent operations which may cause injury to the
internal parts of the victim.

1 Loosen the clothing of the victim as tight clothing
Be brisk in carrying out this method but avoid
interferes with the victim’s breathing.
violent operations which may cause injury to the
2 Lay the victim on his abdomen. Extend one arm directly internal parts of the victim.
forward, and the other arm bent at the elbow as shown
in Fig 5. Keep the face turned sidewalk and resting on 1 Loosen the clothing of the victim as tight clothing
the hand or forearm as shown in Fig 5. interferes with the victim’s breathing.
2 Removeloosedenturesorotherobstructionsfromthemouth.
Fig 5
THUMB ALONG
Make sure that the victim’s nose and mouth are clear.
FINGERS
MOUTH AND 3 Lay the victim flat on his back. Place a roll of clothing
NOSE OPEN
under his shoulders such that his head is thrown well
LITTLE FINGER back as shown in Fig 8.
ALONG LOWEST
RIB
Fig 8
3 Kneel astride the victim as shown in Fig 5 such that his

thighs are between your knees. Position your fingers
and thumb as shown in Fig 5.
4 With the arms held straight, swing forward slowly so
that the weight of your body is gradually applied on the 4 Tilt the victim’s head back so that the chin points
straight upward as shown in Fig 9.
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lower ribs of the victim as shown in Fig 6. This weight
force the air out of the victim’s lungs.
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Fig 6
WEIGHT OF THE
ELBOWS STRAIGHT
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BODY ON PALM
THIGHS AND ARMS
OF THE HAND
PERPENDICULAR TO
THE GROUND
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5 Grasp the victim’s jaw as shown in Fig 10, and raise it

5 Now swing backward immediately removing all pres- upward until the lower teeth are higher than the upper
sure on the lower ribs as shown in Fig 7. This allows the
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teeth. Maintain this position throughout the artificial

lungs to get filled with air. respiration to prevent the tongue from blocking the air
passage.
Fig 7
Fig 10
CHIN STRAIGHT
UPWARDS
LOWER TEETH ARE

HIGHER THAN
UPPER TEETH
HEAD BACK
6 Take a deep breath and place your mouth over the

6 After two to three seconds, swing forward again and repeat
victim’s mouth as shown in Fig 11 making airtight
the cycle ( steps 4 and 5) twelve to fifteen times a minute.
contact. Hold the victim’s nose shut with the thumb and
Mouth-to-mouth method of artificial respiration forefinger. Blow into the victim’s mouth (gently in the
PRECAUTION case of infants) until his chest rises. Remove your
mouth and release the hold on the victim’s nose.

1 As shown in Fig 13, check if the carotid pulse in the
Fig 11
AIRTIGHT neck can be felt. If the pulse is found feeble, go head
CONTACT OF with the following steps.
TWO MOUTHS
NOSE PINCHED
Fig 13
NOTE 1: If you dislike direct contact, place a porous cloth

between your mouth and the victim’s.
NOTE 2: If air cannot be blown in, check the position of
the victim’s head and jaw. Check the mouth for obstruc-
tions. Then try again blowing air more forcefully. If the chest
2 Lay the victim on his back on a firm surface. Kneel
still does not rise, turn the victim’s face down and strike his
alongside as shown in Fig 14. Facing the chest, locate
back sharply to dislodge obstructions.
the lower part of the breastbone.
7 Let the victim exhale. Hear the out rush of air from the
victim’s mouth and nose.
Sometimes air enters the victim’s stomach as evidenced
by a swelling stomach. Expel the air by gently pressing
the stomach during the exhalation period.
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8 Repeat steps 6 and 7, eight to ten times rapidly. Then
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slow down to 10-12 times a minute. (20 times for infant)
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Sometimes it may take hours for the victim to breathe
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normally. Continue giving artificial respiration till he recov-
ers.
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Mouth-to-nose method of artificial respiration

If the victim’s mouth will not open, or has a blockage which
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you cannot clear then the mouth-to-nose method of providing

artificial respiration should be followed. In this method use
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fingers of one hand to keep the victim’s lips firmly shut. As

3 Place the palm of one hand on the centre of the lower
shown in Fig 12 seal your lips around the victim’s nostrils
part of the breastbone, keeping your fingers off the ribs.
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and blow air gently into his nose and suck back. Check if
As shown in Fig 15, cover the palm with your other hand
the victim’s chest is rising and falling.
and lock your fingers together as shown.
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Fig 15
4 Keeping your arms straight as shown in Fig 16, press

Artificial respiration in case of cardiac arrest
sharply down on the lower part of the breastbone and
In the case of cardiac arrest where the heart has stopped release the pressure.
beating, the following procedure has to followed. One must
act immediately as any delay will reduce the chances of
the patient’s recovery.

9 Checking for the carotid pulse. If the pulse is still feeble,
Fig 16
repeat step 10 till the pulse improves.
10 As soon as the heartbeat returns, stop the compressions
immediately and continue with mouth-to-mouth artificial
respiration until natural breathing is fully restored.
11 Place the victim in the recovery position as shown in Fig
18. Keep him warm and get medical help quickly.
Fig 18
3
12
6
9
5 Repeat step 6, fifteen times at a rate of approximately
one per second.
6 Recheck the carotid pulse as done in step 1, Fig 13.
IMPORTANT POINTS TO NOTE AFTER GIVING
7 Give two cycles of mouth-to-mouth artificial respiration
ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION TO VICTIMS
as shown in Fig 17.
1 Even if the victim’s breathing and heartbeat have
ed
Fig 17 recovered, do not delay in calling a doctor for a check
up and treatment.
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2 After the victim has recovered, keep the victim warm
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with a blanket, wrapped up with hot water bags. Stimulate
circulation by stroking the insides of the arms and legs
towards the heart.
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3 When the victim revives, make him lie down. Do not let
him exert himself as this may lead to a detorioration in
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his condition.
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4 Do not give the victim any stimulant such as coffee, tea

etc. until he is fully conscious.
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8 Give 10-15 more compressions of heart as done in step

5,7 and 6 follow it up with a further two cycles of mouth-
to-mouth artificial respiration.

Importance of house keeping introduction to ‘5s’
• list the benefits of a shop floor maintanance
• state what is 5S
• list the benefits of 5S
Benefits of a shop floor maintenance 5S Wheel

Some of the benefits which may be derived from the The Benefits of the ‘5s’ system
utilization of a good Shop Floor Maintenance are as follows:
• Increases in productivity
• Improved Productivity
• Increases in quality
• Improved operator efficiencies.
• Reduction in cost
• Improved support operations such as replenishment
moves and transportation of work in process and
finished goods .
• Reduction of scrap
• Better control of your manufacturing process
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•
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More timely information to assist shop floor supervisors
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in managing their assigned production responsiblities.
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• Reduction of down time due to better machine and
tool monitoring.
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• Better control of Work In Progress inventory, what is

is and where it is improved on time schedule
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performance.
5S Concept
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5S is a Japanese methodology for worksplace

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organisation. In Japanese it stands for seiri (SORT),

seiton (SET), seiso (SHINE), seiketsu(STANDARDIZE),
and shitsuke (SUSTAIN).
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The list describes how to organize a work space for

efficiency and effectiveness by identifying and storing the
items used, maintaining the area and items, and sustaining
the new order. The list describes how to organize a work
space for efficiency and effectiveness by identifying and
storing the items used, maintaining the area and items,
and sustaining the new order.
16
Disposal of waste material
• state what is waste material
• list the waste materials in a work shop
• explain the methods of disposal of waste material.
• state advantage of disposal of waste material.
Waste material
Industrial waste is the waste produced by industrial activity,
such as that of factories, mills and mines.
List of waste material (Fig 1)
• Cotton waste
• Metal chips of different material.
• Oily waste such as lubricating oil, coolant etc.
• Other waste such as electrical, glass etc.
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Methods of waste disposal Composting

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This is a natural process that is completely free of any

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hazardous by-products. This process involves breaking

down the materials into organic compounds that can be
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used as manure.
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Landfills
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Waste management through the use of landfills involves

the use of a large area. This place is dug open and filled
with the waste.
Burning the waste material
If you cannot recycle or if there are no proper places for

setting up landfills, you can burn the waste matter
generated in your household. Controlled burning of waste
at high temperatures to produce steam and ash is a
Recycling
preferred waste disposal techinque.
Recycling is one of the most well known method of
managing waste. It is not expensive and can be easily
done by you. If you carry out recycling, you will save a lot
of energy, resources and thereby reduce pollution.

Advantage of waste disposal Colour code for bins for waste segregation
• Ensures workshop neat & tidy
• Reduces adverse impact on health
Sl.no. Waste Material Color code
• Improves economic efficiency
1 Paper Blue
• Reduce adverse impact on environment
2 Plastic Yellow
3 Metal Red
4 Glass Green
5 Food Black
6. Others Sky blue
Occupational safety and health

• define occupational safety and health
• state the importance of safety and health at workplace
• state the role of employer, trade union & employee for health & safety program.
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Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) is an area
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concerned with protecting the safety, health and welfare
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of people engaged in co-workers, family members,
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employees, customers , and many others who might be
affected by the workspace environment.
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Workspace safety : Owner/Occupier of industries have

to comply with legal directions to take care for the safety,
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health and welfare of their employees. Equally the workers

have moral responsibilities to follow all safety norms and
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healthy on the shop-floor. (Fig 1)

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The joint ILO/WHO committee on occupational health

(1995) main focus in occupational health is on three
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different objectives :
(i) The maintenance and promotion of workers' health
and working capacity.
(ii) The improvement of working environment and work to
become conductive to safety and health.
(iii) Development of work organization and working
cultures in a direction which supports health and safety
at work and in doing so also promotes a positive social
climate and smooth operation and may enhance
productivity of the undertakings.
Occupational health : Health at work is also called Employment and working conditions in the formal or
occupational health. It is concerned with enabling an informal economy embrace other important determinants,
individual to undertake their day to day work fully knowing including working hours, salary, workspace policies
the health hazards they are exposed to and preventing concerning maternity leave, health promotion and
them at the workspace. protection provisions etc.
Good safety and health practices can also reduce

employee injury and illness related costs, including
medical care, sick leave and disability benefit costs.
(Fig 2)

1 Chemical hazards, in which the body absorbs toxins. In the modern context, corporate management increasingly
has viewed industrial safety measures as an investment -
2 Ergonomic hazards, in which the body is strained or
one that may save money in the long run by way of reducing
injured, often over an extended period, because of the
disability pay, improving productivity and avoiding lawsuits.
nature (design) of the task, its frequency, or intensity.
3 Physical hazards, in which the worker is exposed to
harmful elements or physical dangers, such as heat or
moving parts.
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Turner - Occupational safety Related Theory for Exercise1.1.05
Hazards and Avoidance

• explain various occupational hazard
• state occupational hygiene
• describe occupational disease disorders and its prevention.
All jobs, primarily provides many economic and other

benefits, But equally there are a wide varieties of workplace
dangers and hazards, which are risky to the health and
safety of people at work.
Basic hazards :
Employers have a responsibility to protect workers against
health and safety hazards at work. Workers have the
right to know about potential hazards and to refuse work • Electricity poses a danger to many workers. Electrical
that they believe is dangerous. Workers also have a injuries caused by contact with electric energy can be
responsibility to work safely with hazardous materials. divided into four types
Health and Safety hazards exist in every workplace. Some
are easily identified and corrected, while others create • fatal electrocution,
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extremely dangerous situations that could be a threat to
• electric shock,
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your life or long-term health. The best way to protect
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oneself is to learn to recognize and prevent hazards in the • burns,
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workplaces. • falls .
Physical hazards are the most common hazards and
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are present in most workplace at some point of time.

Examples include; live electrical cords, unguarded
machinery, exposed moving parts, constant load noise,
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vibrations, working from ladders, scaffolding or heights,

spills, tripping hazards. Physical hazards are a common
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source of injuries in many industries. Noise and vibration,

Electricity, Heat, Ventilation, Illumination, Pressure,
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Radiation etc.
• Ventilation and air circulation have major say on the
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health and working comfort of the worker. There must

be good ventilation, a supply of fresh, clean air drawn
from outside is required. It must be uncontaminated
and circulated around the workspace. Closed of
confined spaces also present a work hazard, which
has limited openings for entry and exit and unfavorable
natural ventilation, and which is not intended for Wires and electrical equipment pose safety threats in
continuous employee occupancy. the workspace. When employees mishandle electrical
equipment and wires, they are taking risks. (Fig 2)
Spaces of this kind can include storage tanks, ship • Temperature (Heat Stress) : A reasonable working
compartments, sewers, and pipelines. Asphyxiation temperature, for strenuous work, local heating or
is another potential work hazard in certain situations. cooling where a comfortable temperature is to be
Confined spaces can pose a hazard not just to workers, maintained which is safe and does not give off
but also to people who try to rescue them. dangerous or offensive fumes, Thermal clothing and
rest facilities where necessary (for example, for 'hot
• Noise and Vibration : Noise and vibration are both
work' or work in cold storage areas). Sufficient space
fluctuations in the pressure of air (or other media) which
in workrooms etc. are under the legislation for
affect the human body. Vibrations that are detected
implementation by the owner of the factories.
by the human ear are classified as sound. We use the
term 'noise to indicate unwanted sound. Noise and • Illumination (lighting) : Good lighting is essential for
vibration can harm workers when they occur at high productivity Natural light is preferred where possible.
levels, or continue for a long time. (Fig 1) Glare and flickering should be avoided.
20
CHEMICAL POISONING
HEAT EXHAUSTION/HEAT STROKE
& TREATMENT Poison : An agent or substances which may
cause structural damage or functional disor-
• NORMAL BODY CORE TEMPERATURE
MINUS 37 °C
ders when introduced into the body by :
• HEAT EXHAUSTION SIMILAR SUGGESTION MINUS 38°C - • Ingestion
40°C
• Inhalation
• HEAT STROKE 41°C AND HIGHER
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS • Absorption or

HEAT EXHAUSTION HEAT STROKE • Injection
• RESTLESS • REDUCED LEVEL OF
CONCIOUSNESS Biological hazards (Fig 3) come for working with people,
animals or infectious plant material. Examples include;
• WEAK • IRRITABLE
blood or other bodily fluids, bacteria and viruses, insect
• DIZZY • MUSCULAR PAIN bites, animal and bird droppings. Biological hazards are
due agent like bacteria, virus, fungi, mold, blood-borne
• RAPID PULSE • RAPID PULSE
pathogens etc., are main agents to cause various illness.
• LOW BLOOD PRESSURE • HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE (Fig 4)
• NAUSEA • NAUSEA
• VOMITTING • VOMITTING
• MENTAL STATUS - NORMAL • MENTAL STATUS - CONFUSED
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• BEHAVIOR - NORMAL • BEHAVIOUR - ERRATIC
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• HOT, DAY, RED SKIN
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• DEATH
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TREATMENT
• LAY PERSON DOWN & • MOVE PERSON TO COOL
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ELEVATE LEGS VENTILATED AREA
• ENSURE NORMAL • CHECK FOR BREATHING, PULSE &

BREATHING CIRCULATION
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• IF THIRSTY GIVE WATER • IF POSSIBLE COVER THE PERSON

TO DRINK WITH ICE PACKS OR COLD WATER
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TO REDUCE THE BODY

TEMPERATURE
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• REPORT INCIDENT TO • GIVE WATER TO DRINK

SUPERVISOR
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• MONITOR VITAL SIGNS
• GET PERSON TO HOSPITAL
• REPORT INCIDENT TO SUPERVISOR
Chemical hazards are present when you are exposed to

any chemical preparation (solid, liquid or gas) in the
workplace. Examples include: cleaning products and
solvents, vapours and fumes, carbon monoxide or other
gases, gasoline or other flammable materials. Chemicals
hazards are the major causes of concern. Many chemicals
are used not on generic names but on brands. The
chemicals have biological effects on the human body if
digested, inhaled or if direct skin contact with the
chemicals, injuries occurs.
Accidents involving chemical spills, exposure and inhalation

can lead to burns, blindness, rashes and other ailments.
Most of them cause acute poisoning when taken orally,
eye-skin irritation, Respiratory injuries etc. Long term
effects of chemicals on blood, nerve, bones, kidneys, livers
etc., may lead to serious diseases/disorders. The only
way is to understand their chemical nature and handle
them very carefully.
Ergonomic hazards (Fig 5)
Ergonomic hazards occur when the type of work you do,
your body position and/or your working conditions put a
strain on your body. They are difficult to identify because
you don't immediately recognize the harm they are doing
to your health. Examples include : poor lighting, improperly
adjusted workstations and chairs, frequent lifting, repetitive
or awkward movements. Musculo Skeletal Disorders
(MSDs) affect the muscles, nerves and tendons. Work
related MSDs are one of the leading causes injury and
illness.
or falling on the job is a workplace safety hazard. Broken

bones, fractures, sprained wrists and twisted ankles
constitute some of the physical injuries caused by falling
accidents.
Falls in the workplace is effectively prevented by putting

caution signs around slippery surfaces (Fig 7), having rails
on every staircase and making sure that wires on the floor
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are covered to avoid tripping. They are perhaps unavoidable
in certain industries, such as construction and mining,
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Workers in many different industries and occupations can
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be exposed to risk factors at work, such as lifting heavy
procedures to manage the risks of physical danger in the
items, bending, reaching overhead, pushing and pulling
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workplace. Employment of children may pose special
heavy loads, working in awkward body postures and
problems.
performing the same or similar tasks repetitively. Exposure
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to these known risk factors for MSDs increases a worker's

risk of injury.
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Mechanical hazards are factor arise out of varieties of

machines in industries including manufacturing, mining,
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construction and agriculture. They are dangerous to the

worker when operated without training and experience.
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Operating machines can be risky business, especially

large, dangerous machines. When employees don't know
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how to properly use machinery or equipment, they risk

such injuries as broken bones, amputated limbs and
crushed fingers. Many machines involve moving parts,
sharp edges, hot surfaces and other hazards with the
potential to crush, burn, cut, shear, stab or otherwise strike
or wound workers if used unsafely.
Various safety measures exists to minimize these hazards,

lockout-tagout procedures for machine maintenance and
Psychosocial hazards : psychosocial hazards are related
roll over protection systems for vehicles. Machines are
to the way work is designed, organized and managed, as
also often involved indirectly in worker deaths and injuries,
well as the economic and social contexts of work and are
such as in cases in which a worker slips and falls, possibly
associated with psychiatric, psychological and/or physical
upon a sharp or pointed object. Safeguarding machinery
injury or illness. Linked to psychosocial risks are issues
decreases accidents and keeps employees who use the
such as occupational stress and workplace violence which
machine safer.
are becoming a major challenge to occupational health
Falls (Fig 6) are a common cause of occupational injuries and safety.
and fatalities, especially in construction, extraction, Workplace inspections prevent hazards
transportation, healthcare, and building cleaning and
Regular workplace inspections are another important factor
maintenance. Slips and falls to be the leading cause of
in preventing injuries and illnesses. By critically examining
workplace injuries and fatalities. From slippery surfaces
all aspects of the workplace, inspections identify and record
to un-railed staircases, the possibility of slipping, tripping
hazards that must be addressed and corrected.
A workplace inspection should include Occupational disease/Disorders & its prevention
• Listening to the concerns of workers and supervisors. Occupational disease, illness incurred because of the
conditions or environment of employment. Unlike with
• Gaining further understanding of jobs and tasks. accidents, some time usually elapses between exposure
to the cause and development of symptoms. In some
• Identifying existing and potential hazards. instances, symptoms may not become evident for many
years and hence the relationship between work and
• Determining underlying causes of hazards. disease is ignored.
• Monitoring hazard controls (Personal protective Among the environmental causes of occupational disease
equipment, engineering controls, policies, procedures) are subjection to extremes of temperature leading to
heatstroke, air contaminants of dust, gas, fumes causing
• Recommending corrective action. diseases of the respiratory tract, skin, or muscles and
joints or changes in atmospheric pressure causing
Occupational hygiene decompression sickness, excessive noise causing hearing
loss, exposure to infrared or ultraviolet radiation or to
Occupational hygiene (Industrial hygiene) (Fig 8) is the radioactive substances. The widespread use of X rays,
discipline of anticipating, recognizing, evaluating and radium and materials essential to the production of nuclear
controlling health hazards in the working environment with power has led to an special awareness of the dangers of
the objective of protecting worker health and well-being radiation sickness. Hence careful checking of equipment
and safeguarding the community at large. and the proper protection of all personnel are now
mandatory.
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In addition there are industries in which metal dusts,
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substances constitute occupational hazards. The most
common of the dust and fiber inspired disorders are the
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lung diseases caused by silica, beryllium, bauxite and
iron ore to which miners, granite workers and many others
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are exposed causing pneumoconiosis and those caused

by asbestos is cancer - mesothelioma, Fumes, Smoke
and Toxic liquids from a great number of chemicals are
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other occupational dangers. Carbon monoxide, Carbon

tetrachloride, Chlorine, Creosote, Cyanides,
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Dinitrobenzene, Mercury, Lead Phosphorus and nitrous

chloride are but a few of the substances that on entering
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Occupational hygiene uses science and engineering to through the skin, respiratory tract or digestive tract cause
prevent ill health caused by the environment in which people serious and often fatal illness.
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work. It helps employers and employees to understand

the risks and improve working conditions and working Occupational hazards also are presented by infective
practices. (Fig 9) sources. Persons who come into contact with infected
animals in a living or deceased state are in danger of
9 acquiring such diseases as anthrax. Doctors, Nurses
and other hospital personnel are prime targets for the
tuberculosis bacillus and for many other infectious
organisms.

Basic provisions for OSH
• state the basic provisions of safely, health, welfare under legislation of India.
India has legislation on occupational health and safety for National Legislation
over 50 years. A safe and health work environment is the
basic right of every worker. The constitutional provision Legislation provides an essential foundation for safety. To
for occupational safety and health under the Article 24 - be meaningful and effective legislation should be reviewed
No child below the age of fourteen years shall be employed and updated regularly as scientific knowledge develops.
to work in any factory or mine or engaged in other
hazardous employment. The most important legislation cover occupational safety,
health and welfare are :
Article 39 (e & f) - The state shall in particular direct its
policy towards securing. • The Factories Act 1948. amended 1954, 1970, 1976,
1987.
e. That the health and strength of workers, men and
• The Mines Act, 1952.
women, and the tender age of children are not abused
and that citizens are not forced by economic necessity • The dock workers (safety, health and welfare) Act, 1986.
to enter vocations unsuited to their age and strength.
• The plantation labour Act, 1951.
f. That children are given opportunities and facilities to
• The Explosives Act, 1984.
develop in healthy manner and in conditions of freedom
and dignity and that childhood and youth are protected • The Petroleum Act, 1934.
against exploitation and against moral and material
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• The Insecticide Act, 1968.
abandonment.
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Article 42 - The state shall make provision for securing
just and human conditions of work and maternity relief. • The Indian Electricity Act, 1910.
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• The Dangerous Machines (Regulations) Act, 1983.
National policy
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• The Indian Atomic Energy Act, 1962.

Safety and health occupies a very significant position in • The Radiological Protection Rules, 1971.
India's constitution which prohibits employment of children
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under 14 in factories, mines and in hazardous occupations. • The Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous
Policy aims to protect the health and strength of all Chemicals Rules, 1989.
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workers. It prevents employment in occupations unsuitable

for the age and strength of the workers. It is the policy of
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the state to make provisions for securing just and humane

conditions of work. The constitution provides a broad
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framework under which policies and programmes for

occupational health and safety could be established.

Occupational safety
At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the importance of safety
• list out the safety precautions to be observed in a machine shop
• list out the personal safety precautions to be observed
• list out the safety precautions to be observed while working on the machines.
Generally accidents do not happen; they are caused. Don’t remove guards when the machine is in motion.
Most accidents are avoidable. A good craftsman, having Don’t use cracked or chipped tools.
a knowledge of various safety precautions, can avoid Don’t start the machine until:
accidents to himself and to his fellow workers and protect - the workpiece is securely mounted
the equipment from damage. To achieve this, it is essential - the feed machinery is in the neutral
that every person should follow safety procedures.(Fig 1) - the work area is clear.
Safety in a workshop can be broadly classified into 3 Don’t adjust clamps or holding devices while the machine
categories. is in motion.
General safety Never touch the electrical equipment with wet hands.
Personal safety Don’t use any faulty electrical equipment.
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Machine safety Ensure that electrical connections are made by an
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General safety
Concentrate on your work.
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Keep the floor and gangways clean and clear.
Have a calm attitude.
Move with care in the workshop, do not run.
Do things in a methodical way.
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Don’t leave the machine which is in motion.

Don’t engage yourself in conversation with others while
Don’t touch or handle any equipment/machine unless
concentrating on your job.
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authorised to do so.
Don’t distract the attention of others.
Don’t walk under suspended loads.
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Don’t try to stop a running machine with hands.

Don’t cut practical jokes while on work.
Use the correct tools for the job.
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Keep the tools at their proper place.

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Wipe out spilt oil immediately.

Replace worn out or damaged tools immediately.
Never direct compressed air at yourself or at your co-
worker.
Ensure adequate light in the workshop.
Clean the machine only when it is not in motion.
Sweep away the metal cuttings.
Know everything about the machine before you start it.
Personal safety
Wear a one piece overall or boiler suit.
Keep the overall buttons fastened.
Don’t use ties and scarves.
Roll up the sleeves tightly above the elbow.
Wear safety shoes or boots and goggles.
Cut the hair short.
Don’t wear a ring, watch or chain.
Never lean on the machine.
Don’t clean your hands in the coolant fluid.
25
Occupational Safety
• state what an accident is
• state the causes for accidents in general terms
• state what is safety attitude
• identify the four basic categories of safety signs.
What is an accident? Causes for accidents

Nobody deliberately has an accident; accidents occur
due to causes which are not foreseen. Sometimes nothing
can be done to prevent them from happening. For
example, a part of a machine fails when nobody has any
reason to think there is anything wrong with it, or the
driver of a vehicle collapses at the wheel. Most accidents
however occur as a result of human error of ignorance or
neglect, forgetfulness or recklessness. These accidents
can be prevented. If people had acted differently at some
point, the event which we call an ‘accident’ would not
have occurred.
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Normally accidents do not just happen. They are
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caused.
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Causes for accidents are many. Some of the important

causes are listed below.
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Unawareness of danger
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Disregard for safety

Negligence
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Lack of understanding of proper safety procedures

Lots of accidents still happen every year killing a lot of
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Untidy condition of work place

people. Although most people are alarmed and horrified
Inadequate light and ventilation
by this state of affairs, accidents continue to happen,
Improper use of tools
costing the industry millions of rupees every year. Older
Unsafe conditions
workers who have come to terms with the dangers, young
workers who may be reckless, employers who turn a blind
eye to the possibility of things going wrong - because
they want to get the job done, all these factors contribute
to this senseless waste. Fortunately there are many who
do not take this view. They have a different attitude to
safety - and ‘attitude’ is an all-important factor in the
chain of events which leads to someone causing, being
involved in or becoming the victim of an ‘accident’.

Safety attitudes Employee’s responsibilities
People’s attitudes govern what they do or fail to do. In You will be responsible for the way you use the equipment,
most cases where someone is working with unsafe how you do your job, the use you make of your training,
equipment or in an unsafe situation, somebody has and your general attitude to safety.
allowed that state of affairs to come about by something
A great deal is done by employers and other people to
they have done or failed to do.
make your working life safer; but always remember you
are responsible for your own actions and the effect they
have on others. You must not take that responsibility lightly.
Rules and procedures at work
What you must do, by law, is often included in the various

rules and procedures laid down by your employer. They
may be written down, but more often they not, are just
the way a firm does things - you will learn these from
other workers as you do your job. They may govern
the issue and use of tools, protective clothing and
equipment, reporting procedures, emergency drills,
access to restricted areas, and many other matters. Such
rules are essential; they contribute to the efficiency and
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safety of the job.
Most accidents don’t just happen; they are caused by
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people who (for example) damage equipment or see it is Safety signs fall into four separate categories. These can
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faulty but don’t report it, or leave tools and equipment be recognised by their shape and colour. Sometimes they
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lying about for other people to trip over. Anybody who may be just a symbol; other signs may include letters or
sees a hazard and does nothing about it is contributing figures and provide extra information such as the
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to the possibility of an accident. A worker doesn’t clearance height of an obstacle or the safe working load
necessarily need to do anything to help bring about an of a crane.
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accident; just going mindlessly about his work may be

The four basic categories of signs are as follows:
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enough to ensure a workmate being crippled for life. He

didn’t do it - but by proper and timely thinking and acting, - prohibition signs
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he could have prevented it. - mandatory signs

- warning signs
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RESPONSIBILITIES - information signs.
Safety doesn’t just happen - it has to be organised and SHAPE Circular.

achieved like the work-process of which it forms a part. COLOUR Red border and cross-ba
The law states that both an employer and his employees Black symbol on
have a responsibility in this behalf. white background.
MEANING Shows it must not be done
Employer’s responsibililties Example No smoking
The effort a firm puts into planning and organising work, Prohibition signs
into training people, into engaging skilled and competent Mandatory signs
workers, maintaining plant and equipment, and checking, SHAPE Circular.
inspecting and keeping records - all of this contributes to COLOUR White symbol on blue
the safety in the workplace. background.
MEANING Shows what must be done
The employer will be responsible for the equipment
Example Wear hand protection.
provided, the working conditions, what the employees are
asked to do, and the training given. SHAPE Triangular.
COLOUR Yellow background with
black border and symbol

MEANING Warns of hazard or dang Are you familiar with the safety laws that govern your
Example Caution, risk of electric shock. particular job?
Warning signs Do you know how to do your work without causing danger
Information signs to yourself, your workmates and the general public?
SHAPE Square or oblong. Are the plant, machinery and tools that you use really
COLOUR White symbols on green safe? Do you know how to use them safely and keep
background. them in a safe condition?
MEANING Indicates or gives
information of safety provision.
Example First aid point.
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Do you wear all the right protective clothing, and have

you been provided with all the necessary safety
equipment?
Have you been given all the necessary safety information
about the materials used?
Have you been given training and instruction to enable
you to do your job safely?
Do you know who is responsible for safety at your place
of work?
Do you know who are the appointed ‘Safety
Representatives’?
Questions about your safety
Do you know the general safety rules that cover your place
of work?

Electrical Safety
Objectives: On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
• State prevention of electrical accidents
• State the meaning of electric shock
• State the severity of shock based on the voltage level
• Rescue a person who is in contact with a live wire
• Treat a person for electric shock/injury
• State the response to emergency during power failure.
Prevention of electrical accidents Effects of electric shock
1 Have only licensed electricians should install, repair The effect of electric shock at very low voltage levels (less
and dismantle job site wiring. than 40 V) may only be an unpleasant tingling sensation.
But this shock itself may be sufficient to cause someone
2 Always plug in to a ground fault circuit interupter
to lose his balance and fall, resulting in casualty.
protection.
At higher voltage levels the muscles may contract and the
3 Check each extension cord before use.
person will be unable to break off from the contact by
4 Do a through check for electrical wiring before cutting himself. He may lose consciousness. The muscles of the
through any wall, floor or ceiling. heart may contract spasmodically (fibrillation). This may
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even turn out to be fatal.
5 Inspect power tools on a regular basis.
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6 Check insulated tools for damage before each use
shock may be thrown off his feet and will experience severe
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7 Never modify electrical plugs. pain and possibly burns at the point of contact. This in most
8 Keep extension cords in a safe place where they won’t cases is fatal.
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be stepped on or driven over. Electric shock can also cause burning of the skin at the
9 Ensure that all electrical components stay dry. point of contact.
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10 Use the right extension cord for the job. Action to be taken in case of an electric shock
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Electric shock If the victim of an electric shock is in contact with the

If a person happens to come in contact with an electrical supply, break the contact the victim is making with the
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live wire and if he has not insulated himself, then electric electricity by any one or more of the following.
current flows through his body. Since the human body – Switch off the electric power,insulate yourself and pull
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cannot withstand current flow more than a few tens of away the person from the electrical contact
milliamps, the human body suffers a phenomenon gener-
ally known as electric shock. Electric shock may turn out OR
to be hazardous to some of the parts of the human body and Remove the mains electric plug. Avoid direct contact with
some times even to the life of the person. the victim. Wrap your hands using dry cloth or paper, if
The severity of an electric shock depends on: rubber gloves are not available.
OR
– the level of current passing through the body
– how long does the current keep passing through the Remove the electric contact made by wrenching the cable/
body. equipment/point free from contact using whatever is at
hand to insulate yourself such as a wooden bar, rope, a
Therefore, the higher the current or longer the time, the scarf, the victim’s coat-tails, any dry article of clothing, a
shock may result in a causality. belt, rolled up newspaper, non-metallic hose, PVC tubing,
In addition to the above factors, other factors which baked paper, tube etc. and break the contact by pushing
influences the severity of shock are: or pulling the person or the cable/equipment/point free
– age of the person receiving a shock OR

– surrounding weather condition Stand on some insulating material such as dry wood,
– condition of the floor (wet or dry) rubber or plastic, or whatever is at hand to insulate yourself
and break the contact by pushing or pulling the person or
– voltage level of electricity
the cable/equipment/point free.
– insulating property of the footwear or wet footwear, and
so on.
29
If you are uninsulated, do not touch the victim
with your bare hands. Otherwise you also will get
a shock and become a victim.
If the victim is aloft(working on a pole or at raised place),

take suitable measures to prevent him from falling or
atleast ensure that his fall is safe.
Treatment to be given for the victim of electric shock

Electric burns on the victim may not look big/large. But it
may be deep rooted. Cover the burnt area with a clean,
sterile dressing. Get a doctor’s help to treat him as quickly
as possible. Electric burns on the victim may not cover a big area but
may be deep seated. All you can do is to cover the area with
If the victim is unconscious after an electric shock, but is a clean, sterile dressing and treat for shock. Get expert
breathing, carry out the following first aid: help as quickly as possible.
– loosen the clothing at the neck, chest and waist If the casualty is unconscious but is breathing, loosen the
clothing about the neck, chest and waist and place the
– place the victim in the recovery position as shown in Fig
casualty in the recovery position. (Fig 3)
1.
– Keep a constant check on the breathing and pulse rate.
If you find them feeble, immediately give artificial
respiration and press the lower rib to improve the
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heartbeat.
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– Keep the casualty warm and comfortable.
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– Send for a doctor immediately.
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The severity of an electric shock will depend on the level
current which passes through the body and the length of
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time of contact. Do not delay, act at once. Make sure that Keep a constant check on the breathing and pulse rate.
the electric current has been disconnected. keep the casualty warm and comfortable. (Fig 4)
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If the casually is still in contact with the supply - break the

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contact either by switching off the power, removing the plug

or wrenching the cable free. If not, stand on some insulating
material such as dry wood, rubber or plastic, or using
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whatever is at hand to insulate yourself and break the

contact by pushing or pulling the person free. (Figs 1 & 2)
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Send for help.
Do not give an unconscious person anything

through the mouth.
Do not leave an unconscious person
unattended.
A person having received electric shock may
If you remain un-insulated, do not touch the victim with your also have burn injuries. DO NOT waste time by
bare hands until the circuit is made dead or he is moved applying first aid to the burns until breathing
away from the equipment. has been restored and the patient can breathe
If the victim is aloft, measures must be taken to prevent him normally unaided.
from falling or atleast make him fall safe.

Treatment to be given in case of burns, severe
bleeding
Burns caused due to electrical shock are very painful. If a
large area of the body is burnt, clean the wound using clear
water, or with clean paper, or a clean shirt. This treatment
relieves the victim of pain. Do not give any other treatment
on your own. Send for a doctor for further treatment.
A wound which is bleeding profusely, especially in the
wrist, hand or fingers must be considered serious and must
receive a doctor’s attention. As an immediate first aid
measure, carry out the following;
– make the patient lie down and rest
– if possible, raise the injured part above the level of the
body as shown in Fig 2.
General procedural steps to be adopted for treating

a person suffering from an electrical shock
1 Observe the situation. Choose the appropriate
method(listed in earlier paragraphs) to release the
person from electrical contact.
Do not run to switch off the supply that is far
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away or start searching for the mains switch.
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2 Move the victim gently to the nearest ventilated place.
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3 Check the victim’s breathing and consciousness. Check
Squeeze together the sides of the wound as shown in Fig if there are injuries in the chest or abdomen. Give artificial
3. Apply pressure as long as it is necessary to stop the respiration/applying pressure on the heart if found
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bleeding. necessary (refer to Lesson/Exercise 1.1.01).

Use the most suitable method of giving artificial respiration
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When the bleeding stops temporarily, put a dressing over

depending upon the injuries if any on the chest/abdomen.
the wound using sterilized cotton, and cover it with a pad
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of soft material as shown in Fig 4. 4 Send for a doctor.

Till the doctor arrives, you stay with the victim and render
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If the wound is in the abdominal area (stab wound), caused

help as best as you can.
by falling on a sharp tool, keep the patient bending over the
wound to stop internal bleeding. 5 Place the victim in the recovery position.
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6 Cover the victim with a coat, socks or any such thing to

keep the victim warm.
Actions listed above must be taken sys -
tematically and briskly. Delay in treating
the patient may endanger his life.
Response to emergency during power failure

Power failure may damage sensitive equipments or
experiments. However sensitive electronic equipments,
instruments and computer should be shut down before a
planned outage.
In a power failure, equipment on emergency power will
have power supplied to it by theemergency generator.
• Turn off lights and equipment that do not need power
• Check of your cold room is on emergency power if not,
move temperature sensitive materials (or) arrange for a
dry ice delivery.

• A disruption may damage computers, equipments or • Even when using a surge protector, make sure the
instruments with automatic resets or logic functions. electrical load is not too much for the circuit.
Turn these off if it is not essential for continous operation.
Back up computers routinely. • Avoid over loading outlets with too many appliances
• Designate an emergency contact for the Manager or

coordinator. Services to contact you for your information
in the event of an unexpected shutdown.
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Fire extinguishers
• state the effects of a fire breakout
• state the causes for fire in the workshop
• state the conditions required for combustion relevant to fire prevention
• state the general precautionary measures to be taken for fire prevention.
Fire is the burning of combustible material. A fire in an Preventing fires

unwanted place and on an unwanted occasion and in
uncontrollable quantity can cause damage or destroy The majority of fires begin with small outbreaks which burn
property and materials. Fires injur people, and sometimes, unnoticed until they become big fires of uncontrollable
cause loss of life. Hence, every effort must be made to magnitude. Most of the fires could be prevented with more
prevent fire. When a fire outbreak is discovered, it must be care and by following some rules of simple common sense.
controlled and extinguished by immediate correct action.
Accumulation of combustible refuse (cotton waste soaked
Is it possible to prevent fire? Yes, by eliminating anyone with oil, scrap wood, paper, etc.) in odd corners are of fire
of the three factors that cause fire. (Fig 1) risk. Refuse should be removed to collection points.
The cause of fire in electrical equipment is misuse or
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neglect. Loose connections, wrongly rated fuses or
cables, overloaded circuits cause over heating which may
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conductors in cables also causes fire.
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Clothing and anything else which might catch fire should be
kept well away from heaters. Make sure the heater is shut
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off at the end of a working day.

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The factors that must be present in combination for a fire Highly flammable liquids and petroleum mixtures (Thinner,
to continue to burn are as follows. Adhesive solutions, Solvents, Kerosene, Spirit, LPG Gas
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etc.) should be stored in a separate place called the

Fuel Any substance, liquid, solid, or gas will flammable material storage area.
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burn if given oxygen and high enough

temperature. Blowlamps and torches must not be left burning when they
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are not in use.

Heat Every fuel will begin to burn at a certain
temperature. Solids and liquids give off Classification of fires and recommended extinguishing
vapour when heated and it is this vapour agents.
which ignites. Some liquids give off vapour
even at normal room temperature say Fires are classified into four types in terms of the nature of
15oC, eg. petrol. fuel.
Oxygen Usually it exists in sufficient quantity in air Different types of fire have to be dealt with different ways
to keep a fire burning. and with different extinguishing agents.
EXTINGUISHING OF FIRES An agent is the material or substance used to put out the
fire, and is usually (but not always) contained in a fire
Isolating or removing any of these factors from the extinguisher with a mechanism for spraying into the fire.
combination will extinguish the fire. There are three basic
ways of achieving this. It is important to know the right type of agent for a particular
type of fire; using the wrong one can make things worse.
• Starving the fire of fuel by removing the fuel in the vicinity
of fire. There is no classification for ‘electrical fires’ as such, since
• Smothering - i.e. by isolating the fire from the supply of these are only fires in materials where electricity is
oxygen by blanketing it with foam, sand etc. present.
• Cooling - i.e. by using water to lower the temperature.
33
Fuel Extinguishing
CLASS ‘A’ Fire Wood, paper, cloth etc. Most effective i.e. cooling with water. Jets of
Solid materials. water should be sprayed on the base of the fire
and then gradually upwards.
CLASS ‘B’ Fire Flammable liquids & Should be smothered. The aim is to cover the
liquifiable solids entire surface of the burning liquid. This has the
effect of cutting off the supply of oxygen to the
fire.
Water should never be used on burning liquids.
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Foam, dry powder or CO2 may be used on this
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CLASS ‘C’ Fire Gas and liquified gas Extreme caution is necessary in dealing with
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liquified gases. There is a risk of explosion and

sudden spreading of fire in the entire vicinity. If an
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appliance fed from a cylinder catches fire - shut

off the supply of gas. The safest course is to raise
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an alarm and leave the fire to be dealt with by

trained personnel.
Dry powder extinguishers are used on this type

of fire.
Special powders have now been developed which

are capable of controlling and/ or extinguishing
this type of fire.
CLASS ‘D’ Fire Involving metals The standard range of fire extinguishing agents
is inadequate or dangerous when dealing with
metal fires.
Fire on electrical equipment.
Carbon dioxide, dry powder and vapourising

liquid (CTC) extinguishers can be used to deal
with fires in electrical equipment. Foam or liquid
(e.g. Water) extinguishers must not be used on
electrical equipment under any circumstances.

Types of fire extinguishers
• distinguish different types of fire extinguishers
• determine the correct type of fire extinguisher to be used based on the class of fire
• describe the general procedure to be adopted in the event of a fire.
A fire extinguisher, flame extinguisher or simply extinguisher Must not be used where electrical equipment is involved.
is an active fire protection device used to extinguish or
control small fires, often in emergency situation. It is not
intended for use on an out off control fire.
Many types of fire extinguishers are available with different

extinguishing 'agents' to deal with different classes of fires.
(Fig 1)
Dry powder extinguishers (Fig 4)
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Water-filled extinguishers pu M
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There are two methods of operation. (Fig 2)
- Gas cartridge type

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- Stored pressure type

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Extinguishers fitted with dry powder may be of the gas

cartridge or stored pressure type. Appearance and method
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of operation is the same as that of the water-filled one. The

main distinguishing feature is the fork-shaped nozzle.
Powders have been developed to deal with class D fires.
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
This type is easily distinguished by the distinctively shaped
discharge horn. (Fig 5)
With both methods of operation the discharge can be

interrupted as required, conserving the contact and
preventing unnecessary water damage.
Foam extinguishers (Fig 3)

These may be of stored pressure or gas cartridge types.
Always check the operating instructions on the extinguisher

before use.
Foam extinguishers are most suitable for:
- flammable liquid fires
- running liquid fires

Suitable for class B fires. Best suited where contamination make sure that you have a safe exit from the fire area
by deposits must be avoided. Not generally effective in and use the buddy system.
open air.
5. To use a fire extinguisher, remember the acronym pass
Always check the operating instructions on the container
before use. Available with different gadgets of operation • Pull the pin
such as - plunger, lever, trigger etc. • Aim the extinguisher at the base of the fire
Halon extinguishers (Fig 6) • Squeeze the handle
• Sweep the extinguisher from side to side.
6. Evacutates the building as soon as the alarm sounds
and proceed to designated evacuation meeting point.
7. On your way out, warn others near by.
8. Move away from fire and smoke close doors and win
dows if time permits.
9. Don’t touch and open /close doors if it is hot.
10. If doors are hot, place a wet cloth at the base to
keep smoke from entering.
11. Use stairs only. Do not use elevators.
Theses extinguishers may be filled with carbon tetrachloride 12. Move well away from the building and go to your
and bromochlorodifluoro methene (BCF). They may be of designated meeting point.
either gas cartridge or stored pressure type.
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13. Do not reenter the building or work area untill you have
been instructed to do by the emergency responders.
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They are more effective in extinguishing small fires involving
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pouring liquids. These extinguishers are particularly suitable Response to emergency during system failure:
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and safe to use on electrical equipment as the chemicals Emergency guide outlines procedure and actions for
are electrically non-conductive. managing major emergencies that may threaten the health
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and safety of the compus community or disrupt its

The fumes given off by these extinguishers are
programs and activities. The guide identified individuals
dangerous, especially in confined space.
that are responsible for emergency response and critical
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support services.
General procedure to be adopted in the event of a fire to be
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adopted. A work place emergency is an unforeseen situation that

threatens employees or customersdisrupt or shut down
- Raise an alarm.
operations or causes physical or environmental damage.
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- Turn off all machinery and power (gas and electricity).

The committee’s main responsibility is to manage and
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- Close the doors and windows, but do not lock or bolt deal with any emergency or disastrous situation. The
them. This will limit the oxygen fed to the fire and prevent committee consists of faciity and admin staff from different
its spreading. departments can form other sub committees or an
emergency response team in case of necessities.
- Try to deal with the fire if you can do so safely. Do not
risk getting trapped. Each department should nominate a per or term to act /
follow the guidelines framed with respect their areas.
- Anybody not involved in fighting the fire should leave
calmly using the emergency exits and go to the Certain exercises like evacuation, security, safety, fire
designated assembly point. Failure to do this may medical, transportation etc.
mean that some person is unaccounted for and others
The exercise includes:
may have to put themselves to the trouble of searching
for him or her at risk to themselves. − Rescuse persons who are in immediate danger.
Response to emergency during Fire − Pull the nearest fire alarm.
− Inform security personal.
1. Inform people in the immediate area to evacute .
− Evacuate the building using the nearest exit.
2. Activate the nearest building fire alarm. − Account for all staff with service and security
3. Call if safe to do so. Otherwise evacuate the building respresentative.
and call from other side the building. − Document the situation, what happened and the out
come.
4. If the fire is small and you have been trained to use a
fire extinguisher, you may attempt to extinguish the fire, The emergency team’s main responsibility is to manage
and deal with any critical situations.

Precaution to follow while working fitting job

• list precaution to follow while working fitting job.
Fitting is the assembling to gether of parts and removal of

metal to secure necessary fit. Following safety measures
need to be taken in fitting workshop.
1. Files must have well fitted with handle. 6. Ensure that the face of the hammer is free from oil
or grease
2. See that work pieces is perfectly clamped or fixed
in the vice. 7. Use the right tools for the operation performed.
3. Never use hammer with loose/mush room splint 8. Do not use a spanner as a hammer.
heads. 9. Do not use a steel rule as a screw driver.
4. Select suitable weight of the hammer for the work. 10.Use the coolant at the time of hack shaving and
5. Check the hammer head and handle whether any drillling.
crack is there. 11. Keep the work place neat and clean after work.
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37
Precaution to follow while working fitting job

• Safe uses of hand tools
• Safe uses of machinary & equipents
Name of the tools Safety

Hammer Select correct weight of hammer for particular
work, check the handle defects.
Do not use ashroomhead hammer.
Select the suitable hammer (ball peen/cross/
straight ) for the appropriate work.
Scriber Do not use blunded point.

Place a cork on the point when not in use to
prevent accidents.
Hacksaw frame Do not use without handle

Tight the hack saw blades with correct
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tension.
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While selecting blodes, make sure atleast two
teeth of the blades will be in contact with
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the work at all times.
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Cutting plier To use insulated cutting plier for electrical

work.
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Screw driver Select the suitable screw driver to suit screw

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head.
Vernier Caliper Do not place with other hand tools.

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After the work clean and apply film of oil.

Check jaws butting and ‘0’ of main scale and
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vernier scale matching.
Micro meter Before measuring clean the measuring surface.

Do not mix with other tools.
Find and note the’Zero’ error before use.
Swage block Do not give heavy blows on the edge or corners

of the swage block without poper handle of
swages and flatters should be fitted firmly for
safe working.
Punch and drift For retaining the hardness and original shape of
punches and drifts, they should be frequenctly
cooled in water.
Handle must be secured rigidly so that the
punches Do not come off while working.

Name of the tools Safety
Machineries and Equipments Ensure that electrical connections are made by

an authorised electrician only.
Concentrate on your work
Have a calm attitude.
Do things in a methodical way
Don’t engage yourself in conversation with

others while concentrating on your job.
Don’t distract the attention of others.
Don’t try to stop a running machine with
hands.
Switch off the machine immediately if
something goes wrong.
Keep the machine clean
Replace any worn out or damaged accesso-
ries, holding devices, nuts, bolts etc as soon
as possible.
Do not attempt operating machine until
you know how to operate it properly.
Do not adjust the stroke, tool or the
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workpiece unless the power is off.
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Stop the machine before changing the speed
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Disengage the automatic feeds before switching
off.
Check the oil level before starting the machine.
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Before starting the machine, move the ram by

hand to ensure that the ram or tool-holder does
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not strike the workpiece or table.

Never start a machine unless all the safety
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guards are in position.

Take measurements only after stopping the
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machine.
Use wooden planks over the bed while loading
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and unloading heavy jobs.

Do not stop the machine before the finish of the
cutting stroke.

Production & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.11
Turner - Basic fitting
Identification of tools and equipments

• list the type of identification of tools
• state the different types of tools
• state how tools are specified.
1 Hand tools
2 Fitting tools
3 Measuring tools
1 Hand tools
a Cutting plier specified according to their length
(150mm). (Fig 1)
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d Spanner specified by across to the flat 12mm to

13mm. (Fig 4)
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b Hammer specified by their weight and shape of pein.

(Fig 2)
e Chisel are specified according to their length, width of

cutting edge, type, cross section of the body. (Fig 5)
c Screw driver specified according to the

- length of the blade
- width of the tip (Fig 3)
40
2 Fitting tools f Divider spring joint specified by its length. (Fig 11)
a Try square specified according to the length of the
blade. (Fig 6)
g Bench vice specified with & jaw. (Fig 12)
b File specified according to their length, grade, cut and

shape. (Fig 7)
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c Hacksaw frame specified by types. (Fig 8) 3 Measuring tools

a Steel rule specified by length. (Fig 13)
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d Punch specified by types. (Fig 9)
e Scriber specified by different shape and sizes. (Fig 10)
b Outside caliper spring joint specified by its length.

(Fig 14)
c Inside caliper spring joint specified by its length.
(Fig 15)

d Vernier caliper specified by its length. (Fig 16)
e Outside micro meter specified by ranges of 0 to
25mm, 25 to 50 mm etc (Fig 17)
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Selection of metals
• state the different methods of identifying ferrous metals and alloys
• state how non-ferrous metals and alloys are identified
• state the corrosion, scaling, rusting.
A fitter has to handle different types of metals in his work. - the spark test (grinding).
A knowledge about how to recognise and differentiate the
Note
commonly used metals will help him in many ways.
The above characteristics of different ferrous metals and
Ferrous metals and alloys can be identified by
alloys are given in Table 1. Apart from the above tests,
- their appearance (colour, texture etc) steel bars are also identified by the code colours painted
- their weight (light or heavy) on them.
- the sound Different colours are marked, based on the different

composition of materials and grade. Colour charts are
- cold hammering available to determine the different metals.
Table 1
Ferrous Appearance Density/ Sound Cold Spark test
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metals weight (Drop a ø 15 hamme
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& alloys pu M bar 25 cm -ring
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long, on to
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the ground)
Low Smooth scale 7.85 Medium Flattens Stream of

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carbon with blue/ medium metallic sound easily yellow white

steel black sheen/ sparks varying
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silver grey in length,

slightly ‘fiery’.
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Medium Smooth scale Weight Higher note Fairly Yellow sparks

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carbon black sheen 7.85 than that of difficult shorter than

steel medium low carbon to flattern those of low
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steel carbon steel,

finer and
more feathery.
High Rougher Weight Good ringing Difficult Sparkless

carbon scale black 7.85 sound to flattern bright, starting
steel medium near grinding
wheel and more
feathery with
secondary
branching.
High Roughness Weight 9 Lower ringing Very Faint red streak

speed scale black comparitivily more like difficult ending in fork.
steel with reddish to heavy low carbon flattern
tint steel tends
crack
easily.
43
Most non-ferrous metals and alloys can be identified by
their colour. (Table 2)
Table 2
Metal/Alloy Colour
Copper Distinctive
red colour
Aluminium Dull white
Lead Bluish-grey colour
Tin Silvery white,
with a slightly
yellowish tinge
Brass (Alloy) Distinctive
(free cutting) yellow colour
Bronze Colour between Scaling
(alloy) copper and brass Scale is hard mineral coatings and corrosion deposits made
Rusting up of solids and sediments that collect on or it distribution
system.
Rusting is the process in which iron turns into iron oxide.
It happens when iron comes into contact with water and Scaling which is the deposition of mineral solids on the
oxygen. The process is a type of corrosion that occurs interior surfaces of water lines and containers. (Fig 3)
ed
easily when natural conditions.
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Rusting is the conversion related to iron and iron-based
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alloys. Non-ferrous metals corrode but do not rust. (Fig 1)
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3
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Corrosion
The slow and continuous eating away of metallic
components by chemical or electro-chemical action is
known as corrosion. Corrosion affects the service
conditions and accuracy of the components. It is very
essential to understand the causes for corrosion and to
know the metals that resist corrosion.
Conversion is the deterioration of materials by chemical
interaction with their environments. The term corrosion is
some times also applied to the degradation of plastics,
concrete and wood, but generally refers to metals. (Fig 2)

Length measurement
• name the base unit of length measurement as per the international system of units of measurement (SI)
• state the multiples of a metre and their values.
When we measure an object, we are actually comparing The british system of length measurement : An alter-
it with a known standard of measurement. native system of length measurement is the british sys-
tem. In this system, the base unit is the imperial standard
The base unit of length as per SI is the metre. yard. Most countries, including great britain itself, have,
Length - SI units and multiples. however, in the last few years, switched over to SI units.
Base unit : The base unit of length as per the systems 12 Inch = 1 Feet
international is the metre. The table given below lists some 3 Feet = 1 Yard
multiples of a metre.
Line standards and end standards
1 Metre (m) = 1000 mm
Line standards
1 Centimetre (cm) = 10 mm
In the line standard the unit of length is defined as the
1 Millimetre (mm) = 1000μm distance between the centres of engraved lines e.g. steel
1 Micrometre (μm) = 0.001 mm rule.
ed
Measurement in engineering practice: Usually, in en- End standards
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gineering practice, the preferred unit of length measure-
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When the length being measured is expressed as the
ment is the millimetre. (Fig 1) distance between two surfaces, e.g. slip gauges.
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Difference between line standards and end standards
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The differences between line standards and end standards

are given as follows:
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Sl. Line standard End standard

No
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1 Line standards do not End standards more

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provide high accuracy. suited to accuracy

requirement of high
order.
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2 They are quick and They are time consum-

easy to use over a ing in use, and prove
wide range. only one dimension at a
Both large and small dimensions are stated in millimetres. time.
(Fig 2) 3 They are not subjec- They are subjected to
ted to wear although wear on their measuring
significiant wear on faces.
leading and leads to
under-sizing.
4 They are subjected They are not subjected
to the parallax effect, to parallax effects as
a source of both their use depends on
positive and negative ‘feel’.
reading errors.
45
Steel rule
• state the purpose of steel rule
• state the types of steel rule
• state the precautions to be followed while using a steel rule.
Engineer’s steel rule (Fig 1) are used to measure the di- Narrow steel rule : Narrow steel rule are used to mea-
mensions of work pieces. sure the depth of key-ways and depth of smaller dia, blind
holes and other jobs, where the ordinary steel rule cannot
reach. Width approximately 5mm thickness 2mm. (Fig 4)
Short steel rule (Fig 5) : This set of five small rules to-
gether with a holder is extremely useful for measurements
in confined or hard to reach locations which prevent use of
ordinary steel rules. It is used suitably for measuring
grooves, short shoulder, recesses, key ways etc. in ma-
chining operation on shapers, millers and tool and die work.
The rules are easily inserted in the slotted end of the holder
Steel rules are made of spring steel or stainless steel. and are rigidly clamped in place by a slight turn of the
ed
These rules are available in length 150mm. 300mm and knurled nut at the end of the handle. five rule lengths are
600mm. the reading accuracy of steel rule is 0.5mm and
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1/64 inch.
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ated in 32nds on one side and 64ths on the reverse side.
For accurate reading it is necessary to read vertically to
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avoid errors arising out of parallax. (Fig 2)
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Steel rule with tapered end : This rule is a favorite with

all mechanics since its tapered end permits measuring of
inside size of small holes, narrow slots, grooves, recesses
Steel rule in english measure, they can also be furnished etc. This rule has a taper from 1/2 inch width at the 2 inch
with metric and english graduation in a complete range of graduation to 1/8 inch width at the end. (Fig 6)
sizes 150, 300, 500 and 1000 mm. (Fig 3)
Other types of rule For maintaining the accuracy of a steel rule, it is impor-
tant to see to it that its edges and surfaces are protected
– Narrow steel rules
from damage and rust.
– Short steel rules
Do not place a steel rule with other cutting
– Full flexible steel rule with tapered end
tools. Apply a thin layer of oil when not in use.

Hacksaw frame
• name the different types of hacksaw frames
• specify hacksaw blades.
Hacksaw frame: A hacksaw frame is used along with a Adjustable frame (flat type) : Different standard lengths
blade to cut metals of different sections and is specified by of blades can be fitted to this frame i.e. 250mm and
the type and maximum length of the blade that can be fixed. 300mm.
Example Adjustable frame (tubular type) (Fig 1b) : This is the
most commonly used type. It gives a better grip and
Adjustable hacksaw frame-tuber-250-300 or 8” - 12”
control.
Types of hacksaw frames
Parts of a hacksaw frame
Solid frame (Fig 1a) : Only a blade of a particular standard
1 Handle
length can be fitted to this frame. e.g. 300mm or 250mm.
2 Frame
3 Tubular frame with holes for length adjustment
4 Retaining pins
5 Fixed blade-holder
6 Adjustable blade-holder
7 Wing - nut
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Hacksaw blade
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• name the different types of hacksaw blades

• specify hacksaw blades.
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A hacksaw blade is made of either low alloy steel (LA) or Type of hacksaw blades
high speed steel (HSS), and is available in standard lengths All-hard blade: The full length of the blade between the
of 250 mm and 300 mm. (Fig 1) pins is hardened and it is used for harder metals such as
tool steel, die steel and HCS.
Flexible blade: Only the teeth are hardened. Because
of their flexibility these blades are useful for cutting along
curved lines. Flexible blades should be thinner than all -
hard blades.
Pitch of the blade (Fig 2): The distance between adjacent
teeth is known as the ‘pitch’ of the blade. (Fig 2)
Classification Pitch
Parts of a hacksaw blade (Fig 1) Coarse 1.8 mm
1 Back edge Medium 1.4 mm & 1.0 mm
2 Side Fine 0.8 mm
3 Centre line
4 Pin holes

Wave set (Fig 4): In this, the teeth of the blade are arranged
in a wave-form. The types of sets for different pictures are
as follows:
Specification: Hacksaw blades are specified by the

length, pitch and type of material. (The width and thick-
ness of blade is standardised)
Example
300 x 1.8 mm, pitches LA all-hard blade.
To prevent the hacksaw blade binding when penetrating
into the material, and to allow free movement of the blade,
the cut is to be broader than the thickness of the hacksaw
blade. This is achieved by the setting of the hacksaw teeth.
There are two types of hacksaw teeth settings.
Staggered set (Fig 3): Alternate teeth or groups of teeth
are staggered. This arrangement helps for free cutting,
and provides for good chip clearance.
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Chisel
• list the uses of a cold chisel
• name the parts of a cold chisel
• state the different types of chisels
• follow the safety measures.
The cold chisel is a hand cutting tool used by fitters for • Cross-cut chisel
chipping and cutting off operations. (Fig 1) • Half-round nose chisel
• Diamond point chisel
• Web chisel
Flat chisels (Fig 3) : They are used to remove metal from
large flat surfaces and chip-off excess metal of welded
joints and castings.
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Chipping is an operation of removing excess metal with the

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help of a chisel and hammer. Chipped surfaces being

rough, they should be finished by filing.
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Parts of a chisel (Fig 2) : A chisel has the following parts.

Cross-cut or cape chisels (Fig 3) : These are used for
Head, body, point or cutting edge
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cutting keyways, grooves and slots.

Half-round nose chisels (Fig 4) : They are used for cutting
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curved grooves (oil grooves).
Chisels are made from high carbon steel or chrome-

vanadium steel. The cross-section of chisels is usually
hexagonal or octagonal. The cutting edge is hardened and
tempered.
Common types of chisels : There are five common types
of chisels.
• Flat chisel
49
Diamond point chisels (Fig 5): These are used for – type
squaring materials at the corners, joints.
– cross-section of the body
The length of chisels ranges from 100 mm to 200 mm.
The width of the cutting edge varies according to the type
of chisels.
Web chisels/punching chisels (Fig 6) : These chisels are

used for separating metals after chain drilling.
Chisels are specified according to their
– length
– width of the cutting edge
Hammer
ed
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• state the uses of an engineer's hammer
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• name the parts of an engineer's hammer
• name the types of engineer's hammers
• specify the engineer's hammer.
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An engineer's hammer is a hand tool used for striking Pein: The pein is the other end of the head. It is used for
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purposes while punching, bending, straightening, chipping, shaping and forming work like riveting and bending. The
forging and riveting. pein is of different shapes such as :
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Major parts of a hammer : The major parts of a hammer • ball pein

are the head and the handle. • cross-pein
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The head is made of drop-forged carbon steel, while the • straight pein (Fig 2)
wooden handle must be capable of absorbing shock.
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The parts of a hammer head (Fig 1) are the face (1), pein
(2), cheek (3) and the eyehole (4).
The face and the pein are case hardened.

Cheek: The cheek is the middle portion of the hammer
head. The weight of the hammer is stamped here.
This portion of the hammer-head is left soft.
Face: The face is the striking portion. A slight convexity is

given to it, to avoid digging of the edge. It is used for striking
while chipping, bending, punching etc.

Eyehole: The eyehole is meant for fixing the handle. It is
shaped to fit the handle rigidly. The wedges fix the handle
in the eyehole. (Figs 3 and 4)
The straight pein is used at the corners. (Fig 7)
ed
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their weight and the shape of the pein. Their weight varies
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from 125 gms to 750gms.
The weight of an engineer's hammer used for marking
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Application of hammer pein : The ball pein is used for purposes is 250 gms.
riveting. (Fig 5)
The ball pein hammers are used for general work in
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machine/ fitting shop.

Before using a hammer:
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• make sure the handle is properly fitted.

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• select a hammer with the correct weight suitable for the

job.
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• check the hammer head and handle whether any crack

is there.
• ensure that the face of the hammer is free from oil or
The cross-pein is used for spreading the metal in one grease.
direction. (Fig 6)
Angles of chisels
• select the point angles of chisels for different materials
• state the effect of rake and clearance angles.
Point angle and materials: The correct point/cutting
angle of a chisel depends on the material to be chipped.
Sharp angles are given for soft materials and wide angles
for hard materials.
The correct point and angle of inclination generate the
correct rake and clearance angles. (Fig 1)

Rake angle : Rake angle is the angle between the top face
of the cutting point and normal (90°) to the work surface
at the cutting edge. (Fig 2)
Clearance angle : Clearance angle is the angle between
the bottom face of the point and the tangent to the work
surface originating at the cutting edge. (Fig 2)
Crowning : A slight curvature is ground called “Crowning”

to the cutting edge of the chisel, to prevent digging or
corners, which leads to breakage of chisel point. “Crowning”
allows the chisel to move freely along a straight line while
chipping.
If the clearance angle is too low or zero, the rake angle Table 1
increases. The cutting edge cannot penetrate into the Material to Point Angle of
work. The chisel will slip. (Fig 3) be cut angle inclination
High carbon steel 65° 39.5°
Cast iron 60° 37°
Mild steel 55° 34.5°
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Brass 50° 32°
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Copper 45° 29.5°
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Aluminium 30° 22°
If the clearance angle is too great, the rake angle reduces.
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The cutting edge digs in and the cut will become deeper and
deeper. (Fig 4) The correct point angle and angle of
inclination for different materials for chipping is given in
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Table 1.
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Elements of a file
• name the parts of a file
• name and state the uses of each grade of file
• list and state the uses of different cuts of files
• state the specification of a file.
Filing is a method of removing excess material from a The length of a file is the distance from the tip to the heel.
workpiece by using a file. (Fig 1)
File grades are determined by the spacing of the teeth.
A rough file is used for removing rapidly a larger quantity of
metal. It is mostly used for trimming the rough edges of
soft metal castings (Fig 3A) and fins-burrs on forged com-
ponents.
A bastard file is used in cases where a heavy reduction of
material is required. (Fig 3B)
A second cut file is used to give a good finish on metals. It
is excellent to file hard metals. It is useful for bringing the
jobs close to the finishing size. (Fig 3C)
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Files are available in many shapes and sizes. They are rial and to give a good finish. (Fig 3D)
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made of high carbon or high grade cast steel. The teeth A dead smooth file is used to bring the material to accu-
portion of the file (body) alone is hardened and tempered. rate size with a high degree of finish. (Fig 3E)
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Parts of a file (Fig 2): The illustration above will help you
in learning the parts of a file.
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Files are specified according to their (1) length (2) grade

(3) cut and (4) shape.
Eg. File flat 300 mm bastard double cut.
Flat file & hand file

• state the features of flat and hand files
• state the application of flat and hand files
• list different cuts and their uses.
Files are made in different shapes so as to able to file and The files useful for this exercise are flat files and hand
finish components to different shapes. files.
The shape of files is usually specified by their cross sec-
tion.
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Flat files (Fig 1): These files are of rectangular cross Double cut files remove material faster than the single cut
section. The edges along the width of these files are parallel files. (Fig 4)
up to two-thirds of the length, and then they taper towards
the point. The faces are double cut and the edges single
cut. These files are used for general purposes work. They
are useful for filing and finishing external and internal
surfaces.
Rasp cut files are useful for filing wood, leather and other
soft materials and are available only in half round shape.
(Fig 5)
Hand files (Fig 2): These files are similar to the flat files in
their cross-section. The edges along the width are parallel
throughout the length. The faces are double cut. One edge
is a single cut whereas the other is a safe edge. Because
of the safe edge, they are useful for filing surfaces which
are at right angles to surfaces already finished.
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The most used grades of files are bastard, second cut, Curved cut files have deeper cutting action and are useful
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smooth and dead smooth. These are the grades recom- for filing soft materials like aluminium, tin, copper and
mended by the Bureau of Indian Standards. (BIS) plastic. (Fig 6)
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Different sizes of files with the same grade will have vary-
ing sizes of teeth. In longer files, the teeth will be coarser.
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The uses of the different cuts of files are as follows.

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Single cut files are useful for filing soft metals like brass,
aluminium, bronze and copper and also used for deburring
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the job on lathe. (Fig 3)

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Bench vice
• name the parts and uses of a bench vice
• specify the size of a bench vice
• state the uses of vice clamps.
Vices are used for holding workpieces. They are available Parts of a bench vice (Fig 2)
in different types. The vice used for bench work is the
bench vice or called Engineer’s vice. The following are the parts of a vice.
A bench vice is made of cast iron or cast steel and it is Fixed jaw, movable jaw, hard jaws, spindle, handle, box-
used to hold work for filing, sawing, threading and other nut and spring are the parts of a file.
hand operations. (Fig 1) The box-nut and the spring are the internal parts.
The size of the vice is stated by the width of the jaws.eg.
150mm parallel jaw bench vice.

Vice clamps or soft jaws (Fig 3)
To hold a finished work use soft jaws (vice clamps) made
of aluminium over the regular jaws. This will protect the
work surface from damage.
Do not over-tighten the vice as, the spindle may be
damaged.
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Try square
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• name the parts of a try square
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• state the uses of a try square.
The try square (Fig 1) is an instrument which is used to Uses

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check squareness (angles of 90°) of a surface.

The try-square is used to:
– check the squareness (Fig 2)
The accuracy of measurement by a try square is about – check the flatness (Fig 3)
0.002 mm per 10 mm length, which is accurate enough
for most workshop purposes. The try square has a blade
with parallel surfaces. The blade is fixed to the stock at
90°.
Try squares are made of hardened steel.
Try squares are specified according to the length of the
blade i.e. 100mm, 150mm 200mm.

– mark lines at 90° to the edges of workpieces (Fig 4) – set workpieces at right angles. (Fig 5)
TYPES OF VICES
• state the construction and advantages of a quick releasing vice
• state the uses of pipe vice, toolmakers vice, hand vice and pin vice
ed
There are different types of vices used for holding work-
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pieces. They are quick releasing vice, pipe vice, hand vice,
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pin vice and toolmaker’s vice.
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Quick releasing vice (Fig 1)
A quick releasing vice is similar to an ordinary bench vice
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but the opening of the movable jaw is done by using a

trigger (lever). If the trigger at the front of the movable jaw
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is pressed, the nut disengages the screw and the movable

jaw can be set in any desired place quickly.
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Pipe Vice (Fig 2)

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A pipe vice is used for holding round sections of metal, Hand Vice (Fig 3)
tubes and pipes. In this vice, the screw is vertical and Hand vice are used for gripping screws, rivets, keys, small
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movable. The jaw works vertically. drills and other similar objects which are too small to be
conveniently held in the bench vice. A hand vice is made
The pipe vice grips the work at four points on its surface. in various shapes and sizes. The length varies from 125 to
The parts of a pipe vice are shown in Figure 2. 150 mm and the jaw width from 40 to 44mm. The jaws can
be opened and closed using the wing nut on the screw
that is fastened to one leg, and passes through the other.

Pin Vice (Fig 4) Toolmarker’s Vice (Fig 5)
The pin vice is used for holding small diameter jobs. It The toolmarker’s vice is used for holding small work which
consists of a handle and a small collect chuck at one requires filing or drilling and for marking of small jobs on
end. The chuck carries a set of jaws which are operated the surface plate. This vice is made of mild steel.
by turning the handle. Toolmarker’s vice is accurately machined
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Calipers
• name the parts of the calipers
• mention the capacities of the calipers
• differentiate between the various types of calipers and their applications.
The most common devices used for measuring the out- An inside caliper has its legs bent outwards and outside
side and inside diameter of an object are the outside cali- caliper has its legs bent inwards. Inside caliper are used
pers and inside calipers. these devices cannot read the for measuring the inside diameters of a hole of bore and
sizes themselves but measurements taken by them can outside calipers are used for measuring the outside diam-
be read by transfering the sizes on to a steel rule or other eter of the workpiece.
precision measuring instruments. There are two types of
calipers namely, firm joint calipers and spring calipers.
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Firm joint calipers (Fig 1) These calipers are also used for checking the external
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and internal dimensions as well as the parallelism of

Firm joint calipers consist of two legs that are fixed to-
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external and internal surfaces. (Fig 3)

gether with a rivet or screw and nut. The capacity of the
caliper is decided, based on the maximum opening di-
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mension between the two legs. For example, 150mm ca-

pacity caliper is able to measure the maximum size or
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150mm.
Firm joint calipers can be set very quickly for various mea-
surements but there are chances of getting the set di-
mension disturbed, thereby causing errors in their use.
Spring calipers (Fig 2)
Spring calipers take more time in setting the dimensions
but eliminate the possible errors arising out of the set
being disturbed while using.
58
Types of calipers
• name the commonly used calipers
• state the advantages of spring joint calipers.
Calipers are indirect measuring instruments used for trans- – Inside caliper for internal measurement. (Fig 2 )
ferring measurements from a steel rule to a job, and vice
versa.
Calipers are classified according to their joints and their
legs.
Joint
– Firm joint calipers (Fig 1a)
– Spring joint calipers (Fig 1b)
Legs
– Outside caliper for external measurement. (Figs 1a
& b)
Calipers are used along with steel rules, and the accuracy
is limited to 0.5 mm; parallelism of jobs etc. can be checked
with higher accuracy by using calipers with sensitive feel.
Spring joint calipers have the advantage of quick setting
ed
with the help of an adjusting nut. For setting a firm joint
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pu M caliper, tap the leg lightly on a wooden surface.
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‘V’ - Blocks
• state the constructional features of ‘V’ blocks
• identify the types of ‘V’ blocks and state their uses
• specify ‘V’ blocks as per the standards recommended by B.I.S.
Constructional features - double level, single groove ‘V’ Block (Fig 3)

‘V’ blocks are devices used for marking and setting up
work on machines. The features of a common type of ‘V’
blocks are as given in Fig 1.
The included angle of the VEE is 90° in all cases. ‘V’
blocks are finished to a high accuracy in respect of di-
mension, flatness and squareness.
Types
‘V’ blocks of different types are available. As per B.I.S.
they are:
- single level, single groove ‘V’ block (Fig 1)
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- matched pair ‘V’ block. (Fig 4)
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Single level, single groove ‘V’ block (Fig 1)

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- single level, double groove ‘V’ block (Fig 2)

This type has only one ‘V’ groove and has single square
slots cut on both the sides.
This slot on both the sides, accommodates the work-
holding clamps.
Single level, double groove ‘V’ block (Fig 2)
In this case, the ‘V’ block will have two slots on both sides.
This permits for positioning the clamps depending on the
diameter of the jobs.
Matched pair ‘V’ block (Figs 4 and 5)
These blocks are available in pairs which have the same
size and same grade of accuracy. They are identified by
the number or the letter given by the manufacturer. These
sets of blocks are used for supporting long shafts parallel
to the marking off or machine tables.
‘V’ blocks are made in pairs of exactly the same size and
shape. They are ground parallel and square on all their
sides, and have the ‘Vee’ groove cut in the centre,
symmetrical to the centre line.
60
Small sizes of ‘V’ blocks are made of hardened steel, and
larger sizes are made of cast iron. The larger sizes do not
have slots on the side faces. (Fig 8)
‘V’ blocks are used to support and clamp round workpieces.

(Fig 6)
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the size of the ‘V’ block selected should be such that the
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workpiece touches the flanks of the ‘V’ groove at about
the centre. (Fig 9)
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Smaller type ‘V’ blocks have the ‘V’ grooves cut both on
the top and bottom faces. (Fig 7) Designation
‘V’ blocks are designated by the nominal size (length),
the minimum and maximum diameters of the workpiece
capable of being clamped and the grade and the number
of the corresponding B.I.S. standard.
In the case of matched pairs it should be indicated by the
letter ‘M’.
For ‘V’ blocks with clamps it should be indicated as ‘with
clamps’.
Example
1 A 50 mm long (nominal size) ‘V’ block capable of
clamping workpieces between 5 to 40 mm in diameter
The narrow slots at the apex of the ‘V’ grooves provide and Grade A will be designated as - ‘V’ block 50/5/5-40
clearance for the drill during drilling operations, and also A - B.I.S. 2949.
provide space for chips to flow away during the machining 2 In the case of a matched pair, it will be designated as
operations. ‘V’ block M50/5-40 A B.I.S. 2949.

3 For‘V’ blocks supplied with clamps, the designation
will be ‘V’ block with clamp 50/5-40 A B.I.S.2949.
Grades and materials
‘V’ blocks are available in Grade ‘A’ and Grade ‘B’.
Grade A
A grade ‘V’ blocks are more accurate and are available
only up to 100 mm length. These are made of high quality
steel.
Grade B
B grade ‘V’ blocks are not as accurate as A grade ‘V’
blocks and these are useful for general machine shop work.
These ‘V’ blocks are available up to 300 mm length. Grade
B ‘V’ blocks are made of closely grained cast iron.
Clamping devices for ‘V’ blocks
For holding cylindrical jobs firmly on V blocks, U clamps
are provided (Fig 10)
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When machining operations are likely to push the
workpiece out of position, an end stop can be used to
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prevent movement of the workpiece. The end stop is

clamped to the machine work table as shown in Fig 14.
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Because ‘V’ blocks are supplied in pairs of the same size

and shape, it is possible to support long workpieces so
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that they are parallel to the surface upon which the blocks
rest, such as on a machine, worktable or a surface table.
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(Fig 11)
‘V’ blocks Grade ‘A’ will have a hardness of 650 to 700

HV (60 to 63 HRC)
‘V’ blocks Grade ‘B’ will have a hardness of 180 to 220
HB. ‘V’ blocks of both grades should be suitably stabi-
lized.
When round workpieces have to be clamped parallel to Grade ‘B’ ‘V’ blocks are made from suitable quality closely
the edge of a machine worktable, one or two ‘V’ blocks grained cast iron.
are first set up parallel on the worktable, using clamps
In B.I.S. standard (IS: 2949-1974) a table is provided to
and setting blocks. (Fig 12)
indicate the dimensions of the ‘V’ blocks, together with
Then a second clamp or pair of clamps is used to clamp the maximum and minimum diameters of the workpiece
the workpiece in the ‘V’ block(s). (Fig 13) that can be accommodated on the ‘V’block.

Straight edges
• name the different types of straight edges
• state the features and uses of each type of straight edge
• state the different methods of testing straightness.
For testing straightness and to use a guide for marking available up to 3 metres length and are used for testing
long straight lines, straight edges made of steel or cast machine tool slideways. Cast iron straight edges have
iron are used. ribs, and bow-shaped tops to prevent distortion. These
straight edges are provided with feet to prevent distortion
Steel straight edges
under their own weight.
These are usually available up to 2 metres in length and
Use of straight edges
may be rectangular in cross-section or have one edge
bevelled. (Fig 1) Checking with feeler gauges
In certain situations when the gap between the surface
and the straight edge is more, a feeler gauge can be used
(Fig 4) to determine the extent of deviation.
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Toolmaker’s steel straight edges are available in smaller

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lengths with bevelled edge. Some of these straight edges Use of light box
will have an acute angle of 60° for checking internal angles.
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(Fig 2) Where precision straight edges (toolmaker’s) are used, a

light box which can provide uniform illumination will be of
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advantage. Through the gap between the straight edge

and the component a strip of light will be visible. (Fig 5)
By practice the quality of surface can be determined by
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the amount of light passing through the non-contact sur-

faces.
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Cast iron straight edges (Fig 3)
From practice it is said that if the gap is more

than 0.002 mm, white light will be seen, and if
it is less than 0.002 mm, it will be tinted light.
To make this judgement about the amount of deviation,
These are made from close-grained, grey, cast iron and one needs a great deal of practice. The same is appli-
can be considered as narrow surface plates. They are cable in the case of a try-square.
Surface gauges (or) Scribing block
• state the constructional features of surface gauges
• name the types of surface gauges
• state the uses of surface gauges
• state the advantages of universal surface gauges.
The surface gauge is one of the most common marking

tools used for scribing lines parallel to a datum surface.
(Fig 1)
Setting jobs on machines parallel to a datum surface.

(Fig 2)
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Universal surface gauge (Fig 5)
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Checking the height and parallelism of jobs, setting jobs

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concentric to the machine spindle. (Fig 3)

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This has the following additional features.

The spindle can be set to any position.
Fine adjustments can be made quickly.
Can also be used on cylindrical surfaces.
Parallel lines can be scribed from any datum edge with the
help of guide pins. (Fig 6)
Types of surface gauges
Surface gauges/ scribing blocks are of two types, fixed and
universal.
Surface gauge - fixed type (Fig 4)
The fixed type of surface gauge consists of a heavy flat
base and a spindle fixed upright, to which a scriber is
attached with a spug and a clamp nut.

Parts and functions of a universal surface gauge Spindle
Base the spindle is attached to the rocker arm.
The base is made of steel or cast iron with a V groove at the Scriber
bottom. The ‘V’ groove helps to seat on circular work. The
The scriber can be clamped in any position on the spindle
guide-pins, fitted in the base are helpful for scribing lines
with the help of a snug and a clamping nut.
from any datum edge.
Rocker arm
The rocker arm is attached to the base along with a spring
and a fine adjustment screw. This is used for fine adjust-
ments.
Surface plates
• state the constructional features of surface plates
• state the application of different grades of surface plates
• specify surface plates and state the constructional features and uses of marking tables.
Surface plates - their necessity For the purpose of steadiness and convenience in levelling,
a three point suspension is given. (Fig 3)
When accurate dimensional features are to be marked, it
is essential to have a datum plane with a perfectly flat
surface. Marking using datum surfaces which are not
ed
perfectly flat will result in dimensional inaccuracies.
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(Fig 1) The most widely used datum surfaces in machine
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shop work are the surface plates and marking tables.
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Smaller surface plates are placed on benches while the

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larger surface plates are placed on stands.

Other materials used
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Granite is also used for manufacturing surface plates.

Granite is a dense and stable material. Surface plates
made of granite retain their accuracy, even if the surface
Materials and construction is scratched. Burrs are not formed on these surfaces.
Surface plates are generally made of good quality cast Classification and uses
iron which are stress-relieved to prevent distortion.
Surface plates used for machine shop work are available
The work-surface is machined and scraped. The underside in three grades - Grades 1, 2 and 3. The grade 1 surface
is heavily ribbed to provide rigidity. (Fig 2) plate is more acceptable than the other two grades.
Specifications
Cast iron surface plates are designated by their length,
breadth, grade and the Indian Standard number.
Example
Cast iron surface plate 2000 x 1000 Gr1. I.S. 2285.

Drilling machines - Different parts

• name the various types of drilling machine
• name the parts of the bench and pillar type drilling machines
• compare the features of the bench and pillar type drilling machines
• state the uses of centre punch.
The principal types of drilling machines are drilling machines are mounted on the floor and driven by
more powerful electric motors. They are also used for light
- the sensitive bench drilling machine
duty work. Pillar drilling machines are available in different
- the pillar drilling machine sizes.
- the column drilling machine The larger machines are provided with a rack and pinion
mechanism to raise the table for setting the work.
- the radial arm drilling machine (radial drilling machine).
(you are not likely to use the column and radial type of
drilling machines now. Therefore, only the sensitive and
pillar type machines are explained here.)
The sensitive bench drilling machine (Fig 1)
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The simplest type of the sensitive drilling machine is shown
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in the figure with its various parts marked. this is used for
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light duty work.
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This machine is capable of drilling holes up to 12.5 mm
diameter. The drills are fitted in the chuck or directly in the
tapered hole of the machine spindle.
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for normal drilling, the work-surface is kept horizontal. If the

holes are to be drilled at an angle, the table can be tilted.
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(Tilting arrangement not shown in Fig 1)

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Different spindle speeds are achieved by changing the belt

position in the stepped pulleys. (Fig 2)
The pillar drilling machine (Fig 3): This is an enlarged
version of the sensitive bench drilling machine. These
66
Radial drilling machines (Fig 4) Centre punch
Centre punches are used to punch-mark centres of holes
that are to be drilled, where a strong blow of hammer is
needed to mark the centre point. A centre punch is made
out of tool steel or high carbon steel, hardened, tempered
and ground to an included angle of 90°. It is available in
standard sizes; ranging from 8 mm to 12 mm in diameter
to a length of 90 mm to 150 mm. The accuracy of a drilled
hole depends to a certain extent by the mark of the centre
punch. This will help the drill to guide in the required path.
(Fig 5a)
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These are used to drill : pu M
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- large diameter holes
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- multiple holes in one setting of the work
- heavy and large workpieces.
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Features
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The radial drilling machine has a radial arm on which the

spindle head is mounted.
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The spindle head can be moved along the radial arm and
can be locked in any position.
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The arm is supported by a pillar (column). It can be ro-

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tated about with the pillar as centre. Therefore, the drill

spindle can cover the entire working surface of the table.
The arm can be lifted or lowered.
The motor mounted on the spindle head rotates the spindle.
The variable-speed gearbox provides a large range of r.p.m.
Types of punches
• name the different punches used in marking
• state the features of each punch and its uses.
Punches are used in order to make certain dimensional Dot punch : The angle of the point is 60° It is used for
features of the layout permanent. There are two types of witness marks. (Fig 5b)
punches. They are centre punch and prick punch made up
of high carbon steel, hardened and ground. Prick punch : The angle of the prick punch is 30°. The 30°
point punch is used for making light punch marks needed
to postion dividers. (Fig 5c)
The witness marks should not be too close to

one another.

Scribers
• state the features of scribers
• state the uses of scribers.
In lay out work it is necessary to scribe lines to indicate While scribing lines, the scriber is used like a pencil so
the dimensions of the workpiece to be filed or machined. that the lines drawn are close to the straight edge. (Fig 2)
The scriber is a tool used for this purpose. It is made of
high carbon steel and is hardened. For drawing clear and
sharp lines, the point should be ground and lapped fre-
quently for maintaining its sharpness.
Scribers are available in different shapes and sizes. The
most commonly used one is the plain scriber. (Fig 1)
Scriber points are very sharp; therefore, do not put the

plain scriber in your pocket.
Place a cork on the point when not in use to

prevent accidents.
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Nomenclature of drill
• state the different types of drills
• identify the parts of a drill
• state the functions of each part of a drill.
Drilling is a process of making holes on workpieces. The drill used for all purposes, and especially for faster drilling
tool used for drilling is a drill and it is rotated with a of accurate holes and for harder materials - in comparison
downward pressure causing the tool to penetrate into the with the other drills.
material.
Parts of a twist drill (Fig 3)
Flat or spade drill (Fig 1)
Point
The cone shaped end which does the cutting is called the
point. It consists of a dead centre (1), lips or cutting edge
(2) and a heel (3).
Tang (4)
This is provided only on taper shank drills, for driving (giving
torque to) the drill, which when overloaded, becomes
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twisted or gets sheared off.
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This type of drill is used where the required size of twist Flutes (5)
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drill is not available. It is made from a round tool steel
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piece which is forged to shape and ground to size, and Flutes are the spiral grooves which run to the length of the
then hardened and tempered. This type of drill is used for drill. The flutes help:
hand drilling (without power) or with a ratchet brace.
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- to form the cutting edges

Straight fluted drill (Fig 2) - to curl the chips and allow these to come out
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- the coolant to flow to the cutting edge.

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Shank (8)
This is the driving end of the drill which is fitted on to the
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machine. Shanks are of two types.

It has grooves or flutes running parallel to the drill axis. It
Taper shank, with Morse taper provided, is used for larger
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is mainly used in drilling brass, copper or soft materials.

This type of drill is inconvenient in standard practice as diameter drills, and the straight shank is used for smaller
the chips do not come out from the hole automatically. It diameter drills.
is used to drill sheet metals and cores in the castings. Land/margin (6)
Twist drills (Fig 3) The land/margin is the narrow strip which extends to the
entire length of the flutes. The diameter of the drill is
measured across the land/margin.
Body clearance (7)
Body clearance is that part of the body which is reduced
in diameter to cut down the friction between the drill and
the hole being drilled.
Web (Fig 4)
In this type, two spiral flutes or grooves run lengthwise

around the body of the drill. It is the most common type of
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Web is the metal column which separates the flutes. It Material for twist drills
gradually increases in thickness towards the shank.
Twist drills, used in a machine shop, are usually made out
of high speed steel. For drilling hard materials at higher
cutting speeds, there are drills with carbide tips, brazed
at the lips of the drill.
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Hand taps and wrenches

• state the use of hand taps
• state the features of hand taps
• distinguish between the different taps in a set
• name the different types of tap wrenches
• state the uses of the different types of wrenches.
Use of hand taps: Hand taps are used for internal the purpose of holding and turning the taps.
threading of components. The end of the taps are chamfered (taper lead) for assisting,
Features (Fig 1): They are made from high carbon steel or aligning and starting of the thread.
high speed steel, hardened and ground. The size of the taps, the thread standard, the pitch of the
The threads are cut on the periphery and are accurately thread, the dia. of the tapping hole are usually marked on
finished. the shank.
To form the cutting edges, flutes are cut across the thread. Marking on the shank are also made to indicate the type
of tap i.e. first, second and plug.
The end of the shank of the tap is made of square shape for
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Types of taps in a set: Hand taps for a particular thread The taper tap is to start the thread. It is possible to form full
are available as a set consisting of three pieces. (Fig 2) threads by the taper tap in through holes which are not
deep.
These are:
The bottoming tap (plug) is used to finish the threads of a
– first tap or taper tap
blind hole to the correct depth.
– second tap or intermediate tap
For identifying the type of taps quickly - the taps are either
– plug or bottoming tap numbered 1,2 and 3 or rings are marked on the shank.
These taps are identical in all features except in the taper The taper tap has one ring, the intermediate tap has two
lead. and the bottoming tap has three rings. (Fig 2)
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T-handle tap wrench (Fig 4): These are small, adjustable
chucks with two jaws and a handle to turn the wrench.
This tap wrench is useful to work in restricted places, and
is turned with one hand only. Most suitable for smaller
sizes of taps.
Tap wrenches: Tap wrenches are used to align and drive

the hand taps correctly into the hole to be threaded.
Tap wrenches are of different types, such as double-ended Solid type tap wrench (Fig 5): These wrenches are not
adjustable wrench, T-handle tap wrench, solid type tap adjustable.
wrench etc.
Double-ended adjustable tap wrench or bar type tap
wrench (Fig 3): This is the most commonly used type of
tap wrench. It is available in various sizes - 175, 250, 350
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mm long. These tap wrenches are more suitable for large
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diameter taps, and can be used in open places where there
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is no obstruction to turn the tap.
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They can take only certain sizes of taps. This eliminates
the use of wrong length of the tap wrenches, and thus
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prevents damage to the taps.

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It is important to select the correct size of wrench.

Die and die stock
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• list the different types of dies

• state the features of each type of die
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• state the uses of each type of die

• name the type of the stock for each type of die
• determine the diameter of blank size for external thread cutting.
Threading dies are used to cut external threads on cylindrical Types of dies: The following are the different types of dies.
workpieces. (Fig 1)
– Circular split die (Button die)
– Half die
– Adjustable screw plate die.
Circular split die/button die (Fig 2): This has a slot cut
to permit slight variation in size.

When held in the die stock, variation in the size can be This is another type of a two-piece die similar to the half die.
made by using the adjusting screws. This permits increas-
This provides greater adjustment than the split die.
ing or decreasing of the depth of cut. When the side screws
are tightened the die will close slightly. (Fig 3) For The two die halves are held securely in a collar by means
adjusting the depth of cut, the centre screw is advanced of a threaded plate (guide plate) which also acts as a guide
and locked in the groove. This type of die is called the while threading.
button die. When the guide plate is tightened after placing the die
pieces in the collar, the die pieces are correctly located and
rigidly held.
The die pieces can be adjusted, using the adjusting screws
on the collar.
The bottom of the die halves is tapered to provide the lead
for starting the thread. On one side of each die head, the
serial number is stamped. Both pieces should have the
Half die (Fig 4): Half dies are stronger in construction. same serial numbers.
This type of die stock is called quick cut die stock. (Fig 6)
ed
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or reconditioning the damaged threads.
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Adjustments can be made easily to increase or decrease
the depth of cut.
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These dies are available in matching pairs and should be

used together.
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By adjusting the screw of the die, the die pieces can be

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brought close together or can be moved apart.

They need a special die-holder.
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Adjustable screw plate die (Fig 5) Die nuts are not to be used for cutting new
threads.
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The die nuts are available for different standards and sizes
of threads.
The die nut is turned with a spanner.
Determining the diameter of blank size for external
thread cutting
Why should the blank size be less?
It has been observed from practice that the threaded
diameters of steel blanks show a slight increase in diam-
eter. Such increase in the diameter will make the assem-
bly of external and internal threaded components very
difficult. To overcome this, the diameter of the blank is
slightly reduced equal to 0.1 x pitch of the thread before
commencing the threading.

Tap drill size
• state what is tap drill size
• choose the tap drill sizes for metric and BSW thread tables
• calculate the tap drill sizes for metric ISO metric and ISO inch.
What is tap drill size? Tap drill size = major diameter minus pitch
Before a tap is used for cutting internal threads, a hole is = 10 mm - 1.5 mm
to be drilled. The diameter of the hole should be such that
= 8.5 mm.
it should have sufficient material in the hole for the tap to
cut the thread. Compare this with the table of tap drill sizes for ISO met-
ric threads.
Tap drill sizes for different threads
BSW inch (1”) threads formula 1” = 8 T.P.I
ISO metric thread
Tap drill size =
Tap drill size for M10 x 1.5 thread
Minor diameter = Major diameter - (2 x depth) 1 inch
Major diameter -
No.of threads per inch
Depth of thread = 0.6134 x pitch of a screw
2 depth of thread = 0.6134 x 2 x pitch "
" 1 " 8 −1 "
= 1.226 x 1.5 mm =1 − = =7
8 8 8
= 1.839 mm
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"
Minor dia. = 10 mm - 1.839 mm =7
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= 8.161 mm or 8.2 mm.
Compare this with the table of drill sizes for unified inch
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This tap drill will produce 100% thread because this is threads.
equal to the minor diameter of the tap. For most fastening
What will be the tap size for the following threads?
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purposes a 100% formed thread is not required.

A standard nut with 60% thread is strong enough to be a) M20
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tightened until the bolt breaks without stripping the thread. b) BSW 3/8
Further it also requires a greater force for turning the tap if
Refer to the chart for determining the pitches
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a higher percentage formation of thread is required.

of the thread.
Considering this aspect, a more practical approach for
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determining the tap drill sizes is

Table for tap drill size
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ISO Metric (60°) B.S.W. (55°)

Nominal Tap drill
diameter M.M Pitch Tap drill Nominal Threads per sizes
sizes diameter (inch) inch (mm)
3 0.5 2.50 1/8 40 2.5
4 0.7 3.30 5/32 32 3.2
5 0.8 4.20 3/16 24 4.0
6 1.0 5.00 1/4 20 5.0
8 1.25 6.80 5/16 18 6.5
10 1.50 8.0 3/8 16 8.0
12 1.75 10.20 1/2 12 10.5
14 2.00 12.00 9/16 12 12.5
16 2.00 14.00 5/8 11 14.00
18 2.50 15.50 3/4 10 16.00
20 2.50 17.50 13/16 10 18.00
22 2.50 19.50 7/8 9 19.5
24 3.00 21.00 1 8 22.2

Tap extractor
• name the different methods of removing broken taps
• state the methods of removing broken taps.
A tap broken above the surface of the workpiece can be In this method the point of the punch is placed in the flute
removed using gripping tools like pliers. of the broken tap in an inclination and struck with a hammer.
Taps broken below the surface pose a problem for remov- The positioning of the punch should be such that the broken
ing. Any one of the several methods given below can be tap is rotated anticlockwise when struck.
used. Annealing and drilling the tap
Use of tap extractor (Fig 1) This is a method adopted when other methods fail. In this
process the broken tap is heated by flame or by other
methods for annealing. A hole is then drilled on the
annealed tap. The remaining piece can be removed either
by using a drift or using an EZY-OUT (extractor). This
method is not suitable for workpieces with low melting
temperatures such as aluminium, copper etc.(Fig 3)
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This is a very delicate tool and needs very careful han-

Use of arc welding
dling.
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This is a suitable method when a small tap is broken at

This extractor has fingers which can be inserted on the
the bottom of materials like copper, aluminium etc. In this
flutes of the broken tap. The sliding collar is then brought
method the electrode is brought in contact with the broken
to the surface of the work and the extractor turned
tap and stuck so that it is attached with the broken tap.
anticlockwise to take out the broken tap.
The tap may be removed by rotating the electrode.
A light blow on the broken tap with a punch will help to
Use of nitric acid
relieve the tap if it is jammed inside the hole.
In this method nitric acid diluted in a proportion of about
Use of punch (Fig 2)
one part acid to five parts of water is injected inside. The
action of the acid loosens the tap and then it is removed
with an extractor or with a nose plier. The workpiece
should be thoroughly cleaned for preventing further ac-
tion of the acid.
While diluting acid mix acid to water.
Use of spark erosion
For salvaging certain precision components damaged due
to breakage of taps, spark erosion can be used. In this
process, the metal (broken tap) is removed by means of
repetitive spark discharges. The electrical discharge occurs
between an electrode and the electro-conductive workpiece
(tap) and the minute particles are eroded both from the
75
electrode and the workpiece. In many cases it may not The shape of the electrode also need not be round. It can
be necessary to remove the broken tap completely. (After be square or in the form of a slot on the workpiece for
a small portion has been eroded, a screwdriver or punch assisting the tools for rotating the broken tap.
can be used to remove the remaining portion of the tap.)
Methods of removing broken studs

• name the different methods used for removing broken studs
• state the situations in which each of the above methods is applied.
When studs or screws are broken the following methods

are used for removing them.
Screw extractor (Fig 1)
Punch and hammer (Fig 4)
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Screw extractors are available in different sizes. Depend-
ing on the size of the broken stud a hole is first drilled. A
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screw extractor is then inserted into the hole and turned

anticlockwise until it is tight. Turning further will loosen
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the stud.
Tapered square drift (Fig 2)
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If the breakage of the stud is near the surface, sometimes

it can be removed by using a punch. The punch is used to
direct blows at different points to loosen the stud. Be
sure the punch is used in the direction of unscrewing.
Using spanner (Fig 5)
First a hole approximately to half the diameter and to about
half the length of the broken stud may be drilled. A ta-
pered drift with a square head is then driven into the hole.
Use a tap wrench or spanner and rotate the drift for un-
screwing the stud.
Using a screwdriver (Fig 3)
If there is sufficient projection of the broken stud, cut a
slot with a saw and unscrew it with a screwdriver. This
method is suitable only for small diameter studs.
Large diameter studs which are broken above the surface
can be removed by shaping a square head and then re-
moving by a spanner.

By drilling (Fig 6)
Broken studs which are very stubborn can be drilled
through. The remaining metal can be removed using a tap
or a scriber point.
Sometimes it may be necessary to remove the stud com-
pletely by drilling and re-threading for oversize stud.
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Turner - Turning
Centre lathe and its parts

• name the main parts of a lathe
• state the safety precautions to be observed when working on a lathe.
Turning and centre lathe Headstock

Turning is a machining process to bring the raw material Tailstock
to the required shape and size by metal removal. This is
Carriage
done by feeding a cutting tool against the direction of
rotation of the work. Cross-slide
The machine tool on which turning is carried out is known Compound slide
as a lathe. Bed
Constructional features of a lathe Quick change gearbox
A lathe should have provision : Legs
- to hold the cutting tool, and feed it against the direction Feed shaft
of rotation
Lead screw
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- to have parts, fixed and sliding, to get a relative
movement of the cutting tool with respect to the rotation Safety precautions
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of the work
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Before working
- to have accessories and attachments for performing
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Ensure that the electrical power supply is as needed for
different operations. the machine.
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The following are the main parts of a lathe. (Fig 1 & 2 ) Ensure that the safety guards are in proper condition.
Ensure that the work area is clean and tidy.
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Ensure that the meshing gears are in proper mesh, and Avoid wearing rings and watches when working. Wear
the power feed levers are in neutral. shoes to avoid injury to your feet.
Ensure that the automatic lubricating system is Remove the chips by a hook, and use a brush to clear
functioning. them.
During working After working
Shift the levers to change the speeds and feeds only when Clean the machine with a brush and wipe with cotton
the rotating parts are fully stationary. waste.
Wear an apron (not too loose) with the sleeves of the shirt Oil the bed-ways and the lubricating points.
folded.
Clean the precision instruments and hand them over to
the instructor for safe keeping.
78
Clean the cutting tools and place them in their respective 9 Change gear bearings - put a few drops No.10 motor
places. oil or equivalent on the change gear bearings each time
the lathe is used.
Clean the area surrounding the lathe by wiping the spilt oil
and coolant, and remove the swarf. 10 Lead screw stub bearing and reversing gears - put a
few drops of No. 10 motor oil or equivalent in the three
oil holes on the top of the reversing gear box every
time the lathe is used.
11 Carriage traverse gear case - every time the lathe is in
use, put a few drops of No. 10 motor oil in oil hole on
top of gear case on back of carriage apron.
12 Carriage hand wheel bearing - put a few drops of No.10
motor oil or equivalent in the ball spring oil hole every
13 Cross feed gear bearing - put a few drops of oil in the
ball spring oil hole every time lathe is used.
14 Half-nut lever bearing-put a few drops of No.10 motor
oil or equivalent in the ball spring oil hole every time
the lathe is used.
15 Thread dial-once a week put a few drops of No.10 motor
oil or equivalent around the rim of the top of the thread
dial.
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Various Lubrication Points 16 Wipers (front and back) - saturate the felts in the four
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1 Place a few drops of oil on the rockershaft bearing and wipers, located on the carriage with oil every time the
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cams every time the lathe is in use. lathe is used.
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2 Countershaft roller bearing - Fill both grease cups with 17 Cross slide screw - Put a few drops of No.10 motor oil
automotive cup grease every two weeks. Give the or equivalent in the oil hole above the front cross slide
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grease cup caps a turn or so every time the lathe is screw bearing after removing the small screw. Replace
used. the screw. This should be done every time the lathe is
used. Clean the cross slide screw regularly with a small
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3 Place a few drops of oil on the rockershaft lever bearings stiff brush. Oil the screw threads by running the
and lever fulcrum bearing every time lathe is used. compound rest back and forth.
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4 Motor bearings - sleeve type motors have two oil cups 18 Cross feed gears - put a few drops of oil in the oil hole
which should be filled once a week with S.A.E. No. 10.
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above the cross feed screw after removing the small

Motor oil or equivalent. Ball bearing motors have a screw. Replace the screw. This should be done every
sealed in - type bearing-every six months the small
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headless screw in these bearings should be removed
and a moderate quantity of automotive cup grease forced 19 Cross slide ways - clean regularly and apply a liberal
around the bearing. quantity of No. 10 motor oil or equivalent to the ways
whenever the lathe is used.
5 Left and right headstock bearings - oil with No.10 motor
oil or equivalent every time the lathe is used. 20 Compound slide screw - every time the lathe is used
put a few drops of No.10 motor oil or equivalent in the
6 Spindle pulley - every time the lathe is used in backgear, oil hole on top of the compound rest and above the
remove the small screw in the bottom of the second compound screw bearing.
step of the idler pulley and oil freely with No. 10 motor
oil or equivalent. Replace screw. 21 Compound slide ways - clean regularly and apply a
liberal quantity of No.10 motor oil or equivalent to the
7 Back gear spindle - every time the back gears are ways whenever the lathe is used.
used, remove the small screw in the centre of the back
gear spindle and oil freely with No.10 motor oil or 22 Lead screw - about once a month clean the lead screw
equivalent. Replace screw. threads with kerosene and a small stiff brush and apply
a small amount of No.10 motor oil or equivalent.
8 Back gears and change gears - A small amount of
keystone No.122 heavy outer gear lubricant or 23 Rack (on bed, under front way) - about once a month
equivalent applied to the gear teeth will aid in obtaining apply a small amount of cup grease to the rack after
smoother, more quiet operation. Be sure to remove all cleaning with kerosene and a small stiff brush.
oil in the gear teeth before applying this lubricant or it 24 Lead screw bearing (right end of lathe) - put a few drops
will not adhere. of No.10 motor oil or equivalent in the oil hole on top of
the bearing every time the lathe is used.
25 Place a few drops of oil between the handwheel and 28 Lathe bed ways - keep the bed ways oiled at all times
screw bearing when ever using lathe. with No.10 motor oil or equivalent and free from chips.
Wipe off the ways before using and cover with fresh oil.
26 Tailstock center lubricant - fill the small cup on the
Always leave a generous film of oil on the ways when
tailstock with a mixture of white lead and oil and apply
the lathe is not in use. The lathe should be completely
to the tailstock center whenever turning between
covered when not in use. During all grinding operations
centres. If white lead is not available, use a liberal
cover bed ways with canvas or carboard.
amount of cup grease on the center.
27 Tailstock ram - keep the outside surface of the tailstock Keep all the lathe bearing surfaces perfectly
ram well oiled. clean. Dirt is the natural enemy of accurate
lathe work.
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Turner - Turning
Machine and machine tool

• distinguish between machine and machine tool
• history of lathe.
Machine Classification of machine tools

Machine is a device that perform a particular work like 1 According to the type of the surface generated.
sewing machine. Sewing machine sew and stich cloth. i) Cylindrical work machine tools - Lathes, capstan,
But can’t make its own parts. turret etc.,
Fundamentals of amchine tools ii) Flat surface machine tools - milling m/c, shapping
Introduction m/c, planning m/c etc.,
A machine tool is a device that utilizes electric energy for 2 Classification based on the purpose of the m/c tool.
shaping and sizing a product by removing excess material i) Single - purpose
in the form of chips, with the help of cutting tool.
ii) Multi purpose
Machine tools are used for producing components at a
rapid rate. Optimum productivity from machine tool calls iii) Special purpose
for a fairly high degree of skill. Properly carried out
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iv) Transfer machine
operations are capable of producing a large number of
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components at a fairly rapid rate. v) Numerically controlled
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Machine tools and machines are two different things. 3 Classification based upon the size of chip
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Machine tools when taken as a group cam produce a i) Machine tools using cutting tools - lathe, milling,
machine tool, which is not true of machines. planner, slotter etc.,
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Lathe, milling machine, shaping machine, slotter etc., are ii) Machine tools using abrasives - honing, lapping etc.,
all machine tools.
Machine tool performance criteria
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Define
While designing a machine tool the following factors need
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A machine tool is a power driver machine, capable of consideration.

holding and supporting the work and tool and the same
1 It should be safe and easy to operate.
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time directing and guiding the cutting tool or job or both to

perform various metal cutting operations for providing 2 It should be accurate.
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different shapes and sizes.

3 It should have good production capacity.
Every metal working machine cannot be called a machine
4 The operational cost should be low.
tool merely because it removes material. Forging
hammers, drawing dies, extruders, rolling machine etc., 5 Controls should be located at convenient points.
are not machine tools.
6 Blanks should be such that they can be loaded and
Functions of machine tools clamped easily.
1 To hold and support the workpiece to be machined. Factors in machining operations
2 To hold and support the cutting tool. The operations of removing metal by means of a cutting
tool using some sort of machine tool in order to obtain a
3 To provide requisite motion to the workpiece tool or
desired shape is called machining.
both.
It includes number of operations such as turning boring,
4 To regulate the cutting speed and feed of the tool and
shaping, milling etc.,
workpiece.
The selection of a machine tool for a particular operation
5 To hold variuos attachments for different operations.
depends upon many factor such as
Jobs and tools are held in properly designed devices
on a machine tool. Different machine tools are provided 1 The shape and size of the product required.
with different holding devices.
2 The quantity of material to be removed.
In a workshop, a machine tool is generally used for
3 The type of operation to be performed.
producing different shapes and for finishing the surfaces.
4 The number of components required.
81
5 The type of material to be handed. and water wheels were attached to the lathe to turn the
work piece at higher speed which made the work faster
6 the degree of accuracy required.
and easier. After 1950, many new designs were made
The - longitudinal axis tool holding equipment improved the precision of work.
Lathe introduction Lathes are classified depending upon their application and
functionality as
Lathe is a machine widely used for wood works and
machining of metal parts. Lathe is a machine which turns Light duty lathe - These machine find their application in
the work piece against a machine tool. The lathe is used automobile, electronic, electrical industries and are
for facing, turning, knurling, taper cutting, threading, gear manufactured from quality tested raw materials.
cutting and many other metal and wood works. Medium duty lathe - These machines are powerful than
History of lathe the light duty lathes and can work on bigger work pieces
and have more strength than the light duty lathes.
Lathe is a very ancient tool and its first use dates back to
1300 BC in Egypt. LAthe was also known and used in Heavy duty lathe - these machines are manufactured
assyria and greece. Ancient romans came to know about from hightest grades of materials like iron and steel. They
this machine and they further developed this machine. are designed for high precision heavy duty operations.
During the medieval period, the use of this machine had All geared lathe - In all geared lathe, all the rotating
spread to most parts of Europe and it was during the components of the machines are driven by the same
industrial revolution when this machine gained popularity source at different speeds by using gears to perform various
with its use in all the industries. After the development of operations.
electronics, automated lathes have been developed.
Imported lathe - Imported lathes are high quality lathes
Evolution of lathe used for high precision operations.
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The first lathe was a simple lathe which is now referred to Depending upon the modes of operation, the lathes can
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as two person lathe. One person would turn the wood be classified as
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work piece using rope and the other person would shape
the work piece using a sharp tool. This design was improved Manual lathe - In these lathes, the tool handling is done
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by ancient romans who added a turning bow which eased manually and so the precision of work also depends upon
the wood work. Later a pedal (as in manual sewing the skill of the person handling the machine.
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machines) was used for rotating the work piece. This type CNC lathe - CNC lathes are completely automated lathes.
of lathe is called “spring pole” lathe which was used till the We just have to feed the instructions into the computer
early decades of the 20th century. In 1772, a horse-powered
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and the lathe will perform the operations according to the

boring machine was installed which was used for making data fed to the computer.
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cannons. During the industrial revolution, steam engines

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Turner - Turning
Classification of lathe
• state the different types of lathes and their uses
• state the method of specifying a centre lathe.
Types of lathe • Belt drive lathe gets power from an over head line shaft
equipped with speed cone and one or more back gears.
1 Speed lathe
a) Wood working • Individual motor driven lathe gets power from individual
motor.
b) Centering
• A geared head lathe gets its power from constant speed
c) Polishing motor and all speed changes are obtained by shifting
d) Spinning various gears located in the headstock.
2 Engine lathe (or) centre lathe Bench lathe
a) Belt drive • It is mounted on bench and has the same features like
b) Individual motor drive engine lathe.
c) Gear head lathe Tool room lathe (Fig 1)
3 Bench lathe
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• It has the same features like engine lathe and has very
low to high speed up to 2500rpm.
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5 Capstan and turret lathe
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6 Special purpose
a) Wheel lathe
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b) Gap bed lathe

c) T-lathe
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d) Duplicating lathe
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7 Automatic lathe
8 CNC machine
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Speed lathe
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• The speed lathe has been so named because of very

high speed head stock spindle.
• It consists of head stock, tailstock and tool post
mounted on adjustable slide.
• It has taper turning attachment, draw in collet
• Tool is fed into the work by hand control.
attachment, thread chasing dial, relieving attachment,
• It has no gear box lead screw and carriage. steady and follower rest, pump for coolant.
• Different speeds are obtained by cone pulley (1200- • Used for precision work on tools, dies, gauges.
3600rpm)
Capstan and turret lathe (Fig 2 & 3)
• Wood working, spinning, polishing, centering operations
can be performed.
Engine lathe (or) centre lathe
• The term engine is because of that early lathes were
driven by steam engine.
• It consists of basic parts like bed, head-stock and tail
stock but head-stock is more robust and has additional
drive mechanism for multiple speeds.
• Engine lathe can feed cutting tool both in cross and
longitudinal directions with the help of carriage, feed
rod, and leadscrew.
83
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• These are developed from engine lathe, used for Special purpose lathe
production work.
• These are high speed, heavy duty, mass production
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• Tailstock of an engine lathe is replaced by hexagonal lathes with complete automatic control.
turret where number of tools can be mounted.
• Once the tools are set and machine is started it
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• Number of identical parts can be produced in minimum performs automatically all the operations to finish at a
time.
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time.
Special purpose lathe • Change of tools, speeds and feeds can be done
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• These are used for special purposes. automatically, operator can run 5 to 6 machines at a
time.
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• Wheel lathe is used for finishing the journal and turning

the thread on locomotive wheels. CNC machine (CNC Fig)
• The gap bed lathe can accommodate the jobs having • Complex shapes machined easily.
extra diameter. • High production rate.
• T-lathe is intended for machining the rotors for jet • Accuracy and repeatability is achieved.
engines, axis of bed is right angles to the axis of head
stock spindle. • Less operation skill and involvement.
• Duplicating lathe is used for duplicating the shape of • Reduced space.

given tamplate using mechanical or hydraulic system.
Centre lathe specification

Objective: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• specify the size of a lathe.
The size of a lathe is generally specified by the following b) Maximum length of the job that can be held between
means: head stock and tailstock centres.
a) Swing or maximum diameter that can be rotated over c) Bed length, which may include head stock length also,
the bed ways.
d) Maximum diameter of the bar that can pass through
spindle or collect chuck of capstan lathe.

Fig 1 illustrates the elements involved in specifications of • Maximum swing over bed.
a lathe. the following data also contributes to specify a
• Maximum swing over carriage.
common lathe machine.
• Height of centers over bed.
• Maximum distance between centers.
• Length of bed.
• Width of bed.
• Morse taper of center
• Diameter of hole through spindle.
• Face plate diameter.
• Capacity of tool post.
• Number of spindle speeds
• Lead screw diameter and number of threads per inch
or pitch in mm.
• Capacity of electrical motor.
• Pitch range of metric and inch threads etc.
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Turner - Turning
Lathe parts - tail stock

• name the parts of a tailstock
• state the purposes of a tailstock
• state the functioning of a tailstock.
Tailstock - clamping unit (k)
It is a sliding unit on the bed-ways of the lathe bed. It is - set over screw (i).
situated on the right hand side of the lathe. It is made in
two parts, namely the ‘base’ and the ‘body’. The base Functioning of tailstock
bottom is machined accurately and has ‘V’grooves By rotating the hand wheel the screw rod is operated.
corresponding to the bed-ways. It can be slided over the This causes the barrel, which carries the nut, to move
bed and clamped in any position on the bed by means of forward and backward according to the direction of rotation.
the clamping unit. The body of the tailstock is assembled The key, which fits in the keyway milled at the bottom of
to the base and has a corresponding longitudinal movement the barrel, prevents the barrel from rotation. The thread in
as to that of the base, along the bed. It has a limited the screw rod is mostly of left hand square thread to have
transverse movement as well, with respect to the base. forward movement for anticlockwise rotation of the hand
Graduations are marked on the rear end of the base and a wheel. The barrel may be locked in any required position.
zero line is marked on the body. The hollow end of the barrel at the front is provided with a
ed
When both zero lines coincide the axis of the tailstock is Morse taper to accommodate the cutting tools with the
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in line with the axis of the headstock.pu M taper shank. Graduations may be marked on the barrel to
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indicate the movement of the barrel. The screw rod is made
The body and base are made of cast iron. The parts of a
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of alloy steel and the operating nut is made of bronze.
tailstock are: (Fig 1) With the help of the adjusting screws, the body can be
moved over the base laterally and the amount of movement
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may be read approximately referring to the graduations

marked.
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Purpose of the tailstock

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To accommodate the dead centre to support a lengthy

work for carrying out lathe operations.
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To hold cutting tools like drills, reamers, drill chucks which

are provided with taper shank. (Fig 2)
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- base (a)
- body (b)
- spindle (barrel) (c)
- spindle-locking lever (f)
- operating screw rod (e)
- operating nut (I)
- tailstock hand wheel (h)
- key(m)
86
To turn the external taper by offsetting the body of the To perform external operations on the shaft held between
tailstock with respect to the base. (Fig 3) centres. (Fig 4)
The carriage
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the purpose of a carriage
• list out the parts of a carriage
ed
• state the functioning of the carriage.
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Purpose of a carriage pu M
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The carriage is the part of the lathe which slides over the
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bed-ways between the headstock and the tail stock.
(Fig 1)
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It provides various movements for the cutting tool manually

as well as by power feed.
The carriage can be locked on the bed at any desired
position by tightening the carriage lock-screw.
The tool is provided with the following three movements by
the carriage.
Longitudinal feed - with the help of the carriage move-ment
(parallel to the axis of work). (Fig 2)
Cross-feed - with the help of the cross-slide movement
(perpendicular to the axis of the work). (Fig 3)

Angular feed - with the help of the compound slide slide. The automatic feeding is achieved through gearing.
movement positioned at an angle to the axis of the work. A graduated collar mounted on the screw-rod along with
(Fig 4) the hand wheel helps to set the fine, movements of the
cross slide.
The carriage consists of the following parts. (Fig 5)

Saddle
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Cross-slide
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Compound rest swivel and top slide. pu M
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Tool post
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Apron The compound rest (Fig 8)
The saddle (Fig 5)
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It is ‘H’ shaped casting and has ‘V’ guide grooves and flat
grooves machined at the bottom face corresponding to
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the lathe bed-ways for mounting the saddle on the lathe

bed and for sliding over the bed by the operation of the
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hand wheel.
The cross-slide (Fig 6 & 7)
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It is of two parts.
• The swivel base
• The top slide
The swivel base is assembled to the top of the cross-slide
and may be clamped at any required position between 0°
to 360° by tightening the T’ bolts. The head of the bolts
The bottom of the cross-slide has got a dovetail groove
moves in the T slot groove on the top of the cross-slide.
machined, which corresponds to the external dovetail
The swivel base is provided with a dovetail on its top surface
machined on the saddle. The cross-slide is assembled to
and the top slide has a corresponding dovetail groove. The
the saddle with the help of a tapered jib. The adjustment
assembly of the top slide to the swivel base is done by a
of the jib facilitates the required fit for the movement of the
tapered jib which can be adjusted to control the top slide
cross-slide on the saddle. The cross-slide functions
movement. The sliding of the top slide on the swivel base
perpendicular to the lathe axis either by hand feed or by
is accomplished by the help of a screw-rod fitted with a
automatic feed.
hand wheel and a graduated collar. Only manual operation
A left hand square or acme thread screw-rod fitted with a is possible for the top slide. The top slide assists in feeding
hand wheel helps in the manual movement of the cross- the tool to the work.
Turner - Turning
Lathe bed
• state the functions of a lathe bed
• list the different types of bed - ways
• state the reasons for manufacturing a lathe bed out of cast iron.
Functions of a lathe bed

The two functions of a lathe bed are :
- to locate the fixed units in accurate relationship to each
other
- to provide slideways upon which the operating units
can be moved.
Constructional features of a lathe bed (Fig 1)
In the majority of cases, the bed generally, a single iron
casting. In larger machines, the bed may be in two or
more sections, accurately assembled together. Web Flat bed-ways (Fig 3)
bracings are often employed to increase the rigidity. For
ed
absorbing shock and vibration, the bed should be of
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considerable weight. Bed castings are usually rough
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machined and then allowed to ‘age’ naturally before finish
machining to remove distortions.
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‘V’ bed (Fig 4)
A swarf or a combined swarf and a coolant tray are provided

on the lathes. This may be an integral part with the lathe
bed. This increases the rigidity of the bed.
The bed generally rests on cast iron or welded sheet metal
legs of box section. This provides the necessary working
height for the lathe. Very often the electrical switch gear
unit and the coolant pump assembly are housed in the
box section legs at the headstock end.
Bed-ways (Fig 2)
The surfaces of the bed in contact with the sliding units of
the Iathe are known as bed-ways or guideways or guide
shoars. The beds are classified according to the shape ot
of the ways. They are:
89
Combination bed (Fig 5) A few lathes have at this point a detachable section of the
bed which can be fitted when desired to enable the saddle
to operate close to the headstock without over hanging
the gap. (Fig 6)
In the case of flat bed shears, the machined bases of
saddle and tailstock rest and they are guided by their
machined edges. The inverted V ways support and guide
the sliding units.
The bed-ways are fine-finished by grinding. Some lathes
have their bed-ways hand- scraped. Some have their bed-
ways hardened and ground. The wear resisting qualities
Gap bed (Fig 6) of bearing surfaces are improved by employing chilled iron
castings.
The beds are mostly made of close-grained grey cast iron.
The advantages are :
- easily available and costs comparatively less
- under load, cast iron will not bend but break
- in its molten state its fluidity is more so that it can
occupy intricate parts of the mould
- carbon is in free state which has self-lubricating property
ed
- grey cast iron is easily machinable
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pu M - can withstand more compressive load
ish
Normally the bed is positioned at several centimeters from
the headstock, and the bed is reduced at this point. This
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- resists vibration.
enables for the swing of larger diameters of work.
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Turner - Turning
Lathe drive - cone pulley and all gear type

• state the functions of the headstock
• differentiate between cone pulley headstock and all geared headstock.
Headstock sliding gears are mounted. The main spindle is the last
It is a fixed unit of lathe on the left hand side. (Fig 1) driven shaft in the headstock assembly. The nose of the
spindle is outside the headstock casting and is designed
to accommodate the work-holding devices.
ed
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The levers operating the forks of the sliding gears are

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situated outside in the front of the headstock casting. A

sight glass is provided on the top to indicate the functioning
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of the automatic lubricating system and side of sight glass

is provided oil length of the machine.
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Cone pulley headstock (Fig 3)

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Its main functions are to :

- provide a means to assemble work-holding devices
- transmit the drive from the main motor to the work to
make it revolve
- accommodate shafts with fixed and sliding gears for
providing a wide range of work speeds
- have shift levers to slide gears to bring in mesh for
different speeds
- have a means for lubricating the gears, shafts and
bearings.
Constructional features of all-geared headstock
(Fig 2)
It has a stepped cone pulley mounted on the main spindle
It is a box-section alloy iron casting having a top cover and is free to revolve. It is connected by means of a flat belt
which can be removed, if needed. It has internal webs for to a similar cone pulley, the steps arranged in a reversing
stiffening and taking shaft bearings. It has an input shaft order. This cone pulley gets the drive from the main motor.
which is connected by means of 'V' belts to the main motor,
and runs at constant speed. It is equipped with clutches The spindle is mounted on the bush bearings in the
and a brake. headstock casting and a gear wheel called 'bull gear' keyed
to it. A pinion is coupled to the cone pulley. The back gear
There may be two or more intermediate shafts on which
91
unit has a shaft which carries a gear and a pinion. The A three-stepped cone pulley headstock provides three
number of teeth of the gear and pinion on the back gear direct ranges of speeds through the belt connection, and
with the back gear in engagement, three further ranges of
shaft corresponds to the number of teeth on the bull gear
reduced speeds.
and the pinion on the cone pulley. The axis of the back gear
shaft is parallel to the axis of the main spindle, and the back Advantages
gear is brought in engagement or disengagement with the
Easy for maintenance.
cone pulley system by means of a lever. The back gear unit
is engaged to have reduced spindle speeds. (Fig 4) Can take up heavy load.
Less noise during functioning.
During overloads, the belt slips off, and hence, no major
damage to the lathe is caused.
Positive drive when the back gear is in engagement.
Disadvantages
Number of spindle speeds limited to the number of steps
in the cone pulley.
Takes time to change spindle speeds.
Needs adjustments of bush bearings.
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Back gear unit has a shaft which carries a gear and a If three stepped cone pulley headstock provides three
pinion. The number of teeth of the gear and pinion on the direct ranges of speeds through the belt connection and
back gear shaft corresponds to the number of teeth on the with the back gear in engagement, three further ranges of
pull gear and the pinion on the cone pulley. The axis of the reduced speeds.
back gear shaft is parallel to the axis of the main spindle, Advantages
and the back gear is brought in engagement or
disengagement with the cone pulley system by means of Easy for maintenance.
a ever. The back gear unit is engaged to have reduced Can take up heavy load.
spindle speeds. (Fig 6)

Less noise during functioning. Difference between individual drive vs group drive
During overloads, the belt slips off, and hence, no major
damage to the lathe is caused.
Positive drive when the back gear is in engagement.
Disadvantages
Number of spindle speeds limited to the number of steps
in the cone pulley.
Takes time to change spindle speeds.
Needs adjustments of bush bearings.
ed
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Difference between individual drive vs group drive

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Individual Group drive

drive
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Initial cost Low High

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Speed More variation Wider variation

possible possible
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Running cost One More than one

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One time of Only one machine All machine

breakdown get affected connected to
group drive get
affected
More likely For job produc- For mass
used tion production
Efficiency High Less
Power required Less More

Tumbler gear
• state the purpose of the tumbler gear mechanism
• state the construction details of the tumbler gear mechanism
Tumbler gear mechanism (Fig 1) In practice, the first driver gear of a screw cutting train is
not fitted directly to the lathe spindle but is mounted on a
The tumbler gear mechanism is used for changing the
driver stud which rotates at the same speed as the
direction of rotation of the lead screw and feed shaft. It is
spindle.
normally situated between the spindle drive and the feed
gear box. It consists of 3 gears arranged in a simple gear The driving gear on the spindle drives the fixed stud gear,
train, mounted on a bracket. The bracket can be shifted and, since they have the same speed, they must be of the
into 3 positions. same size. Tumbler gear A is always in mesh with the
driven gear and in mesh with the fellow tumbler gear B. In
the figure, the drive is direct through the tumbler gear A,
and tumbler gear B is idle.
If the tumbler bracket is moved upwards, tumbler gear A
rolls around the driven gear until it is out of mesh with the
driver gear, and tumbler gear B moves into mesh with the
driver, reversing the direction of the driven gear. Thus the
two trains available are:
Forward: Driver —>A—>Driven
ed
Reverse: Driver —>B—>A—>Driven.
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pu M In yet another position of the tumbler bracket, tumbler
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gears A or B do not mesh with the driver gear and no drive
is transmitted to the driven gear. No feed movement or
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thread cutting is possible.
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• For forward rotation of the lead screw and feed shaft.

o ht
• For neutral position (no rotation of lead screw and feed

shaft).
t t rig
• For the reverse rotation of the lead screw and feed shaft.
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Turner - Turning
Back gear
• State the construction details of Back gear assembly
• State the function and purpose of Back gear.
Back gear
As its name implies “back gear” is a gear mounted at the A three-stepped cone pulley headstock provides three
back of the head stock. It is used to reduce the speed. direct ranges of speeds through the belt connection, and
The spindle is mounted on the bush bearings in the with the back gear in engagement, three further ranges of
headstock casting and a gear wheel called 'bull gear' keyed reduced speeds.
to it. A pinion is coupled to the cone pulley. The back gear
unit has a shaft which carries a gear and a pinion. The
number of teeth of the gear and pinion on the back gear
shaft corresponds to the number of teeth on the bull gear
and the pinion on the cone pulley. The axis of the back gear
eccentric shaft is parallel to the axis of the main spindle,
and the back gear is brought in engagement or
disengagement with the cone pulley system by means of
ed
a lever. The back gear unit is engaged to have reduced
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spindle speeds. (Fig 1) pu M
ish
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95
Turner - Turning
Properties of good cutting tool materials

• state the qualities of good cutting tool material
• distinguish between the characteristics of cold hardness, red hardness and toughness
• state the factors to be noted when selecting a tool material.
Tool materials
Metal cutting tool materials perform the function of cutting. due to friction between tool and work, tool and chip, heat
These materials must be stronger and harder than the is generated, and the tool loses its hardness, and its
material to be cut. They must be sufficiently tough to resist efficiency to cut diminishes. If a tool maintains its cutting
shock loads that result during cutting operations. They efficiency even when the temperature during cutting
must have good resistance to abrasion and a reasonable increases, then that metal possesses the property of red
tool life. hardness.
The three most important basic qualities that any cutting Toughness
tool material should possess are: The property possessed by a material to resist sudden
- cold hardness load that results during metal cutting is termed as
toughness. This will avoid the breakage of the cutting edge.
- red hardness
ed
Points to be noted when selecting a tool material
- toughness.
bl I
pu M - Condition and form of material to be machined.
ish
Cold hardness
- Material to be machined.
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It is the amount of hardness possessed by a material at
normal temperature. Hardness is the property possessed - Condition of the machine tool available.
by a materially which it can cut other metals, and has the - The total quantity of production and the rate of production
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ability to scratch on other metals. involved.

When hardness increases, brittleness also increases, and
o ht
- The dimensional accuracy required and the quality of

a material which is having too much of cold hardness is surface finish.
not suitable for the manufacture of cutting tools.
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- The amount of coolant applied and the method of

Red hardness application.
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It is the ability of a tool material to retain most of its cold - The skill of the operator.
hardness even at very high temperature. During machining
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Different tool materials

• classify the tool materials
• list the tool materials under each group
• state the merits and demerits of each tool material.
Classification of tool material

The tool materials may be classified into three categories, Non-ferrous tool materials
namely:
Non-ferrous tool materials do not have iron, and they are
- ferrous tool materials casted by alloying elements like tungsten, vanadium,
- non-ferrous tool materials molybdenum etc. Stellite belongs to this group.
- non-metallic tool materials. Carbides which are also of non ferrous tool material are
manufactured by powder metallurgy technique. Carbon and
Ferrous tool materials tungsten are the chief alloying elements in this process.
Ferrous tool materials have iron as their chief constituent. Non - Metallic tool materials
High carbon steel (tool steel) and high speed steel belong Non-metallic tool materials are made out of non-metals.
to this group. Ceramics and diamonds belong to this category.
96
High carbon steel is the first tool material introduced for
manufacturing cutting tools. It has poor red hardness
property, and it loses its cutting efficiency very quickly.
By adding alloying elements like tungsten, chromium and
vanadium to high carbon steel, high speed steel tool
material is produced. Its red hardness property is more
than high carbon steel. It is used as solid tools, brazed
tools and as inserted bits. It is costlier than high carbon
steel.
Carbide cutting tools can retain their hardness at very high
temperatures, and their cutting efficiency is higher than
that of high speed steel. Due to its brittleness and cost,
carbide cannot be used as a solid tool. It is used as brazed
tool bit and throw-away tool bit.
ed
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Turner - Turning
Specification of lathe - tools

• state the necessity of providing angles and clearances on cutting tools
• name the angles of a lathe cutting tool
• state the characteristics of a rake angle
• state the characteristics of a clearance angle
• refer to a chart to determine the recommended rake and clearance angles for turning different metals.
Need to provide angles and clearances the cutting edge must be ground to a less acute angle to
give greater strength as can be seen in Fig 2.
The cutting action of a lathe tool during turning is the
wedging action. The wedge-shaped cutting edge has to The angle shown in Fig 1 is known as a clearance angle
penetrate into the work and remove the metal. This and that shown in Fig 2 is a wedge angle.
necessitates the grinding of the solid tool bit to have the Angles ground on a lathe cutting tool (Fig 3)
wedge formation for the cutting edge.
When we sharpen a pencil with a pen knife by trial and
error, we find that the knife must penetrate into the wood
at a definite angle, if success is to be achieved. (Fig 1)
ed
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Side cutting edge angle

(Approach angle) (Fig 4)
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If, in the place of a wooden pencil, a piece of soft metal,

such as brass is cut, it will be found that the cutting edge
of the blade soon becomes blunt, and the cutting edge
has crumbled. For the blade to cut brass successfully,
This is ground on the side of the cutting tool. The cutting

will be oblique. The angle ground may range from 25°to
40° but as a standard a 30° angle is normally provided.
The oblique cutting has certain advantages over an or-
thogonal cutting, in which the cutting edge is straight.
More depth of cut is given in the case of oblique cutting
since when the tool is fed to the work, the contact surface
of the tool gradually increases as the tool advances,
whereas, in the case of orthogonal cutting, the length of
the cutting edge for the given depth fully contacts the work
from the beginning itself, which gives a sudden maximum
load on the tool face. The area, over which heat is distrib-
uted, is more in oblique cutting. (Fig 5)
98
If the slope is from the front towards the back of the tool, it
is known as a positive top rake angle. When turning soft
materials which form curly chucks and good surface fin-
ish. Cutting tool life is very short.
Negative top rake angle (Fig 7B)
If the slope is from the back of the tool towards the front of
the cutting edge, it is known as the negative top rake
angle. When turning the hard brittle metals with carbide
tools it is usual practice to give a negative top rake.
End-cutting edge angle (Trial angle) (Fig 6)
Negative top rake tools have more strong than positive top
The end-cutting edge angle is ground at 30° to a line per- rake angle tools. Tool life is too long. Chip should be bro-
pendicular to the axis of the tool, as illustrated in Fig 3. ken and rough surface finish.
The side-cutting edge angle and the end-cutting edge
angle, when ground, form a nose (wedge) angle of 90° for Zero top rake angle (Fig 7C)
the tool. If the cutting edge is straight line is called zero top rake
angle when turning soft, ductile materials i.e. aluminium,
brass, copper.
Side rake angle (Fig 8)
ed
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Top or back rake angle (Fig 7)
The rake angle ground on a tool controls the geometry of
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chip formation for any given material. It controls the me-

chanics of the cutting action of the tool. The top or back
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rake angle of the tool is ground on the top of the tool, and The side rake angle is the slope between the side of the
it is a slope formed between the front of the cutting edge cutting edge to the top face of the tool widthwise. The
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and the top face. slope is from the cutting edge to the rear side of the tool.
It varies from 0° to 20° according to the material to be
Resistive top rake angle (Fig 7A)
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machined. The top and side rakes, ground on a tool,

control the chip flow and this results in a true rake angle
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which is the direction in which the chip that shears from

the work passes.
Front clearance angle (Fig 9)
This angle is the slope between the front of the cutting
edge to a line perpendicular to the axis of the tool drawn
downwards. The slope is from the top to the bottom of the
tool, and permits only the cutting edge to contact the work,
and avoids any rubbing action. If the clearance ground is
more, it will weaken the cutting edge.

Side clearance angle (Fig 10) This permits clearance between the sides of the tool and
the groove walls formed by the plunging action of the tool,
thereby, preventing the tool from getting jammed in the
groove and causing breakage. The relief is kept as mini-
mum as possible. Too much of relief will weaken the tool
cutting edge, and also permit the chips to clog in the gap,
causing the tool in both cases to break. Side relief is also
provided sometimes to the main cutting edge of the facing
tools, permitting only the cutting point performing the op-
eration, when the tool axis is set perpendicular to the lathe
axis. The side relief angle normally does not exceed 2°.
The side clearance angle is the slope formed between the

side cutting edge of the tool with a line perpendicular to
the tool axis drawn downwards at the side cutting edge of
the tool. The slope is from the top of the side cutting edge
to the bottom face. This is also ground to prevent the tool
from rubbing with the work, and allows only the cutting
edge to contact the work during turning. The side clear-
ance angle needs to be increased when the feed rate is
ed
increased.
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When grinding the rake and clearance angles, it is better
ish
to refer to the standard chart provided with the recom-
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mended values, and then grind. However, actual opera-
tion will indicate the performance of the tool and if any Relationship between rake, clearance and wedge
angles (Fig 13)
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modification is needed for the angles ground on the tool.

Side relief angle (Fig 11) The rake angle (∝), clearance angle ( γ) and the wedge
angle (β) have close relationship for efficiency in cutting.
o ht
Excessive rake angle reduces the wedge angle, which

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helps in good penetration and it is particularly useful for

cutting soft metals. A decreased wedge angle weakens
the tool strength. Therefore, for cutting hard metals, the
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rake angle is zero or negative. The clearance angle is

generally fixed depending on the geometry of the surface
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being cut.
This angle is ground on the parting and the undercutting

tools on both sides. This will provide the width of the
cutting edge slightly broader than the back of the cutting
edge.
Turner - Turning
Lathe cutting tools - Different types

• classify lathe cutting tools
• list the types of lathe cutting tools
• state the features of each type.
Cutting tool classification (Fig 1) left hand tool operates from the headstock end towards
the tailstock. The cutting edge is formed accordingly.
ed
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End cutting tools

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End cutting tools have their cutting edge at the front end
Cutting tools are classified as: of the tools and are used on lathes for plunge cut
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operations.
- single point cutting tools
Multi-point cutting tools
- multi-point cutting tools
These tools have more than one cutting edge, and they
- form tools.
remove metal from the work simultaneously by the action
Single point cutting tools of all the cutting edges. The application of the multi-point
Single point cutting tools have one’ cutting edge which cutting tools on the lathe is mostly done by holding the
performs the cutting action. Most of the lathe cutting tools tool in the tailstock and feeding it to the work.
are single point cutting tools. Form tools (Fig 1)
Single point cutting tools used on lathes may be grouped These tools reproduce on the work the form and shape of
into: the cutting edge to which they are ground. The form tools
- side cutting tools perform the operations on the work by a plunging action,
and are fixed on the tool post square to the axis of the
- end cutting tools.(Fig 2) work and fed by a cross-slide. They may have their cutting
Side cutting tools edges formed on square or rectangular section tool blanks
acting radially. The form tools may be circular form tools
Side cutting edge tools have their cutting edges formed and tangential form tools. They may require special holders
on the side of the cutting tool, and are used on lathes for to which they can be fixed, and the holders are clamped
most of the operations. They are again classified as right on the tool posts for operation.
hand tools and left hand tools. (Fig 3) A right hand tool
operates from the tailstock end towards headstock and a Lathe cutting tool types
101
The tools used on lathes are classified as : the brazed type. Tungsten carbide bits of square,
rectangular and triangular shape with proportionately less
- solid type tools
thickness are brazed to the tips of the shank metal.
- brazed type tools
The tips of the shank metal pieces have machined top
- inserted bits with holders surface according to the shape of the bit to accommodate
- throw-away type tools. the carbide bits. These tools are economical and give better
rigidity to the tools than the inserted bits clamped in the
solid bits of square, rectangular and round cross sections. tool-holders. This is applicable to high speed steel brazed
Most of the lathe cutting tools are of solid type, and high tools also.
carbon steel and high speed steel tools are used. The
length and cross-section of the tool depend upon the
capacity of the machine, the type of tool post and the
nature of the operation.
Throw-away type tools (Fig 7)
ed
Carbide-brazed tools, when blunt or broken, need grinding
Inserted bits with holders (Fig 5)
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pu M which is time absorbing and expensive. Hence they are
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Solid high speed steel tools are costly, hence they are used as throw-away inserts in mass production. Special
sometimes used as inserted bits. These bits are small in tool-holders are needed, and the carbide bits of rectangular,
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sizes and inserted in the holes shaped according to the square or triangular shapes are clamped in the seating
cross-section of the bit to be inserted. These holders are faces machined in these types of special holders.
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held and clamped in the tool posts to carry out the The seating faces are machined such that the rake and
operations. clearances needed for the cutting bits are automatically
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The disadvantage in these types of tools is that the rigidity achieved when the bits are clamped. As these tools are
of the tool is poor in the slot. to be operated at very high cutting speeds, the capacity
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of the machine must also be high and the rigidity of the

machine must be good as well.
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Brazed tools (Fig 6)

These tools are made of two different metals. The cutting
portions of these tools are good cutting tool materials,
and the body of the tools does not possess any cutting
ability and is tough. Tungsten carbide tools are mostly of
Types and specifications of carbide tools

• identify the different types of carbide tools
• state the specifications of carbide tools.
Cemented carbide tools are available as brazed tipped Standard shapes of carbide-tipped turning and facing tools
tools and throw away tips held in specially designed tool are shown in the Figs. Carbide tipped cut off and boring
holders. tools are also available. these tools are resharpened as
needed using special silicon carbide and diamond wheels.
Standard terms for carbide tools as specified in ISO
ISO 1 straight turning tool (Fig 1)
ISO 6 Offset side cutting tool (Offset knife tool) (Fig 6)
ISO 2 Cranked turning tool (Fig 2)

ISO 7 Recessing tool (parting tool) (Fig 7)
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ISO 3 Offset facing tool (Fig 3)
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ISO 9 Corner boring tool (finishing) (Fig 9)

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ISO 4 Wide nose square turning tool (Fig 4)
The carbide tools are specified according to (1) the

operations (rough and finish) (2) right hand or left hand (3)
material being turned and machining conditions.
ISO 5 Offset turning and facing tool (Fig 5)
Kinds of lathe cutting tools
• list out the kinds of lathe cutting tools
• state their constructional and functional features.
Kinds of lathe cutting tools (Fig 10)

The different types of lathe cutting tools are distinguished
by the shape of the cutting edge and the operations which
they have to perform. Some of the lathe cutting tools are
listed here.
• Facing tool
• Knife edge tool
• Roughing tool
• Round nose finishing tool
• Broad nose finishing tool
• Chamfering tool
• Undercutting tool
• External threading tool
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• Parting off tool
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• Boring tool
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• Internal recessing tool
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• Internal threading tool
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The tools and their application are illustrated in the figures.

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Turner - Turning
Combination drill
• state what is centre drilling
• state the purpose of centre drilling
• state the defects in centre drilling
• indicate the causes for the defects
• state the remedies to avoid the defects.
Centre drilling (Fig 1)

It is an operation of drilling and countersinking a hole on
the face of the work, and on the axis of the work. It is done
by a cutting tool known as centre or combination drill held
in a drill chuck. The drill chuck is mounted in a tailstock
spindle and the feeding on the drill to work is done by
rotating the tailstock hand wheel. The spindle speed for
the work rotation is calculated, taking into consideratiion
the plain drilling diameter and the recommended cutting
speed for the drilling. (Fig 2) The first defect results in making the tip of the centre to
contact the work surface, and the conical portion of the
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centre does not have any contact with the bearing surface
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will be noticed which will damage the tip of the centre.
Sometimes breakage is also possible and the broken part
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of the centre may get welded to the centre hole. By feeding
the centre drill up to 3/4th of the 60° countersink, this
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defect is avoided.
when the centre arm feeding is too much, a plain drilled
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portion by the body of the centre drill will be formed at the

nose of the bearing surface of the centre hole, and the
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area of contact between the bearing surface and the work-

supporting centre will be the only point of contact, as
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illustrated in Fig 4. This will not provide proper support to

the work and any operation if carried out, may result in
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dimensional inaccuracy, chatter and poor surface finish.

To rectify this defect, face the work, if the length of the
work permits, and feed the centre drill to the recommended
length.
Centre drills
Defects in centre drilled holes It is made of high speed steel and is cylindrical in shape.
The two major defects in centre drilling are: At both the ends, it has a plain drill and countersink as its
integral part. It is hardened and ground. It is available in
- insufficient depth of plain drilled portion (Fig 3) standard sizes.
- centre drilling-done too deep. (Fig 4) Classification as per Indian Standard
Indian Standard classifies centre drills into three types.
They are Type A, Type B and Type R.
The difference lies in the formation of the countersink by
each type.
105
Uses and specifications TABLE 1
Type ‘A’ centre drill is used to produce centre holes with d d1
plain drilled portion and countersink. It is designated as K12 hg
Centre Drill A. 1.6 x 4.0 JS : 6708 which means that the
centre drill is of Type ‘A’ with the plain drill portion having a (0.5) 3.15
diameter .of 1.6 mm and a shank diameter 4 mm. (0.63) 3.15
(Fig 5a and b) (0.8) 3.15
1.0 3.15
(1.25) 3.15
1.6 4.0
2.0 5.0
2.5 6.3
3.15 8.0
4.0 10.0
(5.0) 12.5
6.3 16.0
Type ‘B’ centre drill is used to produce a centre hole with (8.0) 20.0
a plain drilled portion and a countersink, and has a further 10.0 25.0
conical portion to form additional countersinking to protect
TABLE 2
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the centre hole. The countersinking for providing the
d d1 d2
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bearing surface for centres has an angle of 60° and the
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countersinking surface has an angle of 120°. This type is K12 hg K12
designated as Centre Drill B1.6 x6.3 IS: 6709 which means
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that the pilot diameter is 1.6 mm and shank diameter is 1.0 4.0 2.12
6.3 mm (Fig 6) (1.25) 5.0 2.65
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1.6 6.3 3.35

2.0 8.0 4.25
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2.5 10.0 5.30

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3.15 11.2 6.70

4.0 14.0 8.50
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(5.0) 18.0 10.60

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6.3 20.0 13.20

(8.0) 25.0 17.00
The third type, ‘R’ is designated as Centre Drill R 1.6 x 4.0
IS : 6710. This also has provision to provide a protected 10.0 31.5 21.20.
centre hole. This has an enlarged radius, machined along TABLE 3
with the countersinking portion. (IS : 6710) (Fig 7)
d d1
K12 hg
1.0 3.15
(1.25) 3.15
1.6 4.0
2.0 5.0
2.5 6.3
3.15 8.0
4.0 10.0
(5.0) 12.5
6.3 16.0
(8.0) 20.0
10.0 25.0
Data for centre Holes : Types A, B and R
(Dimensions in mm )
Figure 6 is an additional class of centre hole formed. The

end of the bearing surface has a protective countersinking
of its convex radius.
The protective countersinking and convex radius are
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provided to safeguard the bearing surface of the centre
holes from getting damaged. (Fig 8 & Fig 9)
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Any damage caused to the bearing surface will not allow
the work to run true.
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Turner - Turning
Drill chuck
• state what is a drill chuck
• list out the various types of drill chucks
• name the parts of a 3 jaw drill chuck
• state the constructional features and functioning of the 3 jaw drill chuck
• brief the number drills and letter drills.
Drill chuck
A drill chuck is a holding device, used to hold straight
shank drill bits up to 13 mm diameter. It can be fitted in
the tapered bores of the lathe tailstock spindle and in the
drilling machine spindle.
Types of drill chucks
Various types of drill chucks are available according to
the construction and utility. The three commonly used drill
chucks are:
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- 3 jaw drill chuck (Fig 1)
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6 Chuck key
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7 Taper to fit the arbor hole in the chuck body

8 Chuck key slot
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Constructional features and functioning of a 3 jaw

drill chuck (Fig 3)
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- 2 jaw drill chuck

- quick releasing drill chuck.
Parts of a 3 jaw drill chuck (Fig 2)
The figure shows the different parts of a 3 jaw drill chuck.
They are :
1 Sleeve
2 Jaws
3 Tang
4 Shank
5 Arbor hole in chuck body (the arobor assembled in the
hole)
108
The figure shows the sectional view of a 3 jaw drill chuck. pinion’ which meshes with the bevel teeth of sleeve (3).
The drill bit is gripped by the jaws (6). These jaws can When the chuck key is rotated, the sleeve rotates along
expand grid contract while moving in the slot of the body with the ring which drives the jaw up and down, according
(2). The jaws have teeth which are in mesh with threads of to the direction of rotation. The taper shank (1) serves to
the inside surface of the ring (4). The chuck key (5) has a mount the chuck into the tailstock spindle.
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Turner - Turning
Lathe accessories
• identify and name the accessories used on a centre lathe.
• identify the accessories used for in-between centre work.
• name the types of lathe carriers.
• state the uses of each type of lathe carriers.
The lathe accessories are machined, independent units

supplied with the lathe. The accessories are essential for
the full utilization of the lathe. The accessories can be
grouped into:
- work-holding accessories
- work-supporting accessories.
Work-holding accessories
The work can be directly mounted on these accessories
and held.
The accessories are :
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- four jaw independent chuck (Fig 1)
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These accessories do not hold the work themselves. They

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support the work. The following are the work sup-porting

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accessories.
• Catch plate (Fig 5)
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- three jaw self-centering chuck (Fig 2)
• Driving plate (Fig 6)
- face plates (Fig 3)

- lathe mandrels. (Fig 4)
110
• Lathe centres (Fig 7) • Lathe travelling steady (Fig 10)
• Lathe carriers (Fig 8)
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• Lathe fixed steady (Fig 9)
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Lathe accessories - work - holding devices : 3 Jaw chuck
• name the parts of a 3 jaw chuck
• state the constructional features of a 3 jaw chuck
• distinguish between a 3 jaw chuck and a four jaw chuck
• state the merits and demerits of the 4 jaw chuck over a 3 jaw chuck
• specify a chuck.
The 3 jaw chuck (Fig 1) Back plate

The 3 jaw chuck is also known as self-centering chuck. The The back plate is fastened at the back of the body by
majority of the chucks have two sets of jaws for holding means of allen screws. It is made out of cast iron. Its bore
internal and external diameters. Only perfectly round work, is tapered to suit the taper of the spindle nose. It has a key-
or work with equally spaced flats, divisible by three, should way which will fit into the key provided on the spindle nose.
be held in a 3 jaw chuck. There is a step in the front on which the thread is cut. The
The construction of a 3 jaw chuck shows that the scroll not threaded collar, which is mounted on the spindle, locks the
only clamps a component in place but also locates the chuck by means of the thread, and locates by means of the
component. This is fundamentally a bad practice, since taper and the key.
any wear in the scroll and / or the jaws impairs the accuracy Body
of location. Further, there is no means of adjustment
possible to compensate for this wear. The body is made out of cast steel, and the face is
hardened. The body has three openings - 120° apart to
The jaws of this type of chuck are not reversible, and assemble the jaws and operate them. Three pinions are
separate internal and external jaws have to be used.
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fixed on the periphery of the body to operate the jaws by
Parts of a 3 jaw chuck (Fig 1) means of a chuck key. The body is hollow in cross-section.
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Jaws
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The jaws are made out of high carbon steel, hardened and
tempered, which slide on the openings of the body.
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Generally there are two sets of jaws, viz. external jaws and
internal jaws. External jaws are used for holding solid
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works. Internal jaws are used for holding hollow works. The
steps on the jaws increase the clamping range. The back
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side of the jaws are cut out of scroll thread. Each jaw is
numbered in a sequential manner, which will help in fixing
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the jaws in the corresponding numbered slots.

Crown wheel
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The crown wheel is made out of alloy steel, hardened and

tempered. On one side of the crown wheel a scroll thread
is cut to operate the jaws and the other side is tapered on
which bevel gear teeth are cut to mesh the pinion. When the
pinion is rotated by means of the chuck key, the crown
wheel rotates, thus causing the jaws to move inward or
• Back plate outward depending upon the rotation.
• Body Pinion
• Jaws The pinion is made out of high carbon steel, hardened and
• Crown wheel tempered. It is fitted on the periphery of the body. On the
top of the pinion, a square slot is provided to accommodate
• Pinion the chuck key. It has a tapered portion on which the bevel
gear teeth are cut, which match with the crown wheel.
Comparison Between a 3 Jaw Chuck and 4 Jaw Chuck
3 Jaw Chuck 4 Jaw Chuck
Only cylindrical or hexagonal work can be held A wide range of regular and irregular shaped
Internal and external jaws are available Jaw are reversible for external and internal
Setting up of work is easy Setting up of work is difficult
Less gripping power More gripping power
Depth of cut is comparatively less More depth of cut can be given
Heavier jobs cannot be turned Heavier jobs can be turned
Workpieces cannot be set for ecentric turning Workpieces can be set for ecentric turning
Concentric circles are not provided on the face Concentric circles are provided
Accuracy decreases as chuck gets worn out There is no loss of accuracy as the chuck gets
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Merits of a 4 jaw chuck Accuracy decreases as chuck gets worn out.
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A wide range of regular and irregular shapes can be held. Run out cannot be corrected.
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Work can be set to run concentrically or eccentrically Only round and hexagonal components can be held.
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at will. When accurate setting or concentricity with an existing
diameter is required, a self-centering chuck is not used.
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Has considerable gripping power; hence, heavy cuts can

be given. Specification of a chuck
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The jaws are reversible for internal and external work. To specify a chuck, it is essential to provide details of the:
Work can be readily performed on the end face of the job. - type of chuck
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There is no loss of accuracy as the chuck gets worn out. - capacity of the chuck
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De-merits of a 4 jaw chuck - diameter of the body

Workpieces must be individually set. - width of the body
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The gripping power is so great that a fine work can be easily - the method of mounting to the spindle nose.
damaged during setting.
Examples
Merits of a 3 jaw chuck
3 jaw self-centering chuck
Work can be set quickly and trued easily.
Gripping capacity 450 mm
A wide range of cylindrical and hexagonal work can be held.
Diameter of the body 500 mm
Internal and external jaws are available.
Width of the body 125 mm
De-merits of a 3 jaw chuck
Tapered or threaded method of mounting
Lathe accessories - work - holding devices : 4 Jaw chuck
• name the parts of a 4 jaw chuck
• state the constructional features of a 4 jaw chuck.
4 jaw chuck (Fig 1) The parts of a 4 jaw chuck are:

- back plate
- body
- jaws
- screw shaft
Back plate
The back plate is fastened to the back of the body by
means of Allen screws. It is made out of cast iron/steel. Its
bore is tapered to suit the taper of the spindle nose. It has
a keyway which fits into the key provided on the spindle
nose. There is a step in front on which the thread is cut. A
threaded collar which is mounted on the spindle locks the
chuck by means of the thread, and locates by means of the
taper and key. Some chucks do not have back plates.
Body
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is flame-hardened. It has four openings at 90° apart to
The four jaw chuck is also called as independent chuck,
assemble the jaws and operate them. Four screw shafts
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since each jaw can be adjusted independently; work can
are fixed on the periphery of the body by means of finger
be trued to within 0.001" or 0.02 mm accuracy.
pins. The screw is rotated by means of a chuck key. The
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This type of chuck is much more heavily constructed than body, hollow in the cross-section, has equi-spaced circular
the self-centering chuck, and has much greater holding rings provided on the face, which are marked by numerical
power. Each jaw is moved independently by a square numbers. Number 1 starts in the middle and increases
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thread screw, and is reversible. towards the periphery.

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The independent 4 jaw chuck has four jaws, each working Jaws
independently of the others in its own slot in the chuck body
Jaws are made out of high carbon steel. hardened and
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and actuated by its own separate square thread screw. By

tempered, which slide on the openings of the body. These
suitable adjustment of the jaws, a workpiece can be set to
jaws are reversible for holding hollow work.
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run either true or eccentric as required. 'T' slots are provided

on the face of the chuck to accommodate 'T' bolts for The back side of the jaws are square-threaded which will
clamping irregular works or for assembling balance weights. help in fixing the jaws with the operating screws.
To set the job for the second time it can be trued with the Screw shaft
help of a dial test indicator. The check on the workpiece Screw shaft is made out of high carbon steel, hardened,
should be carried out near the chuck and repeated as far tempered and ground. The top portion of the screw shaft is
from it as the workpiece permits, to ensure that the work provided with a square slot to accommodate the chuck
is not held in the chuck at an angle to the axis of rotation. key. On the body portion, a left hand square thread is cut.
In the middle of the screw shaft, a narrow step is made and
The independent adjustment also provides the facility of
held by means of finger pins. The finger pins permit the
deliberately setting the work off-centre to produce an
screws to rotate but not to advance.
eccentric workpiece.
Figure 1 shows a setting of an independent 4 jaw chuck for
turning on eccentric crankpin.
Chucks other than 3 Jaw and 4 Jaw types and their uses
• list the name of the chucks other than the 3 jaw and 4 jaw types
• state their constructional features
• state the uses of each of these chucks.
Apart from the four jaw independent chucks and self-

centering chucks, other types of chucks are also used on
a centre lathe. The choice depends upon the component,
the nature of the operation, the number of components to
be machined.
Some of the other types of chucks are:
- two jaw concentric chuck
- combination chuck
- collect chuck
- magnetic chuck
There are three most commonly used types of collet chucks.
- hydraulic chuck or air operated chuck.
• Push-out chucks
Two jaw concentric chuck (Fig 1)
• Draw-in chucks
• Dead length bar chucks
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hydraulic or electrical. They are mainly used to hold round,
square, hexagonal or cast profile bars. (Fig 3)
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The constructional features of this chuck are similar to

those of 3 jaw and 4 jaw chucks.
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Each jaw is an adjustable jaw which can be operated

independently. In addition to this feature, both jaws may
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Push-out chucks (Fig 4)

be operated concentric to the centre. Irregular shaped
works can be held. The jaws may be specially machined the collet closes on the workpiece in a forward direction
to hold a particular type of job. and consequently an end-wise movement of the work
results. The cutting pressure tends to reduce the grip of
Combination chuck
the collet on the workpiece.
The combination chuck is normally a four jaw chuck in
which the jaws may be adjusted either independently as
done in a 4 jaw chuck, or together, as done in a 3 jaw
universal chuck.
This kind of chuck is used in places where duplicate
workpieces are to be machined. One piece is accurately
set as done in a 4 jaw chuck, and the subsequent jobs
are held by operating the centering arrangement.
Collet chuck (Fig 2)
A collet is a hardened steel sleeve having slits cut partly
along its length. It is held by a draw-bar which can be
drawn in or out in the lathe spindle. The collet is guided in
the collet sleeve, and held with the nose cap. It is possible
to change the collet for different cross-sections depending
on the cross-section of the raw material.
Production & Manufacturing : Turner - Related Theory for Exercise 1.3.34

115
Draw-in chuck (Fig 5)
The collet closes on the workpiece in a backward direction
and movement of the work. Take special care to avoid
increases the grip of the collet on the workpiece.
Dead length bar chucks (Fig 6)

These chucks are widely used in modern machines as
they provide an accurate end-wise location of the
workpiece. The chuck does not move end-wise during
gripping or closing operation. These chucks are made to
hold round, hexagonal or square bars, and when they are
not gripping, they maintain contact with the core thus
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preventing swarf and chips collecting between the collet
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and the core pu M
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The disadvantage with these chucks is that each collet
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cannot be made to grip bars which vary by more than
about 0.08 mm without adjustment.
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Magnetic chuck (Figs 7a & 7b)

This chuck is designed to hold the job by means of
magnetic force. The face of the chuck may be magnetized
by inserting a key in the chuck and turning it to 180°. The
amount of magnetic force may be controlled by reducing Uses of a two jaw concentric chuck
the angle of the key. The truing is done with a light magnetic It is mainly employed to hold an irregularly shaped job. As
force, and then the job is held firmly by using the full the chuck is designed with two jaws, it can be used as a
magnetic force. turning fixture.
Hydraulic chuck or air-operated chuck (Fig 8) Uses of a combination chuck
These chucks are mainly used for getting a very effective This chuck may be used both as a universal 3 jaw chuck
grip over the job. This mechanism consists of a hydraulic and as a 4 jaw independent chuck. This chuck is very
or an air cylinder which is mounted at the rear end of the useful where duplicate workpieces are involved in the
headstock spindle, rotating along with it. In the case of a turning.
hydraulically operated chuck the fluid pressure is
Uses of a collet chuck
transmitted to the cylinder by operaring the valves. This
mechanism may be operated manually or by power. The It is mainly used for holding jobs within a comparatively
movement of the piston is transmitted to the jaws by means small diameter. The main advantage of collets lies in their
of connecting rods and links which enable them to provide ability to centre work automatically and maintain accuracy
a grip on the job. for long periods. It also facilitates to hold the bar work.
Uses of a magnetic chuck Uses of hydraulic or air-operated chuck
This type of a chuck is mainly used for holding thin jobs These chucks are mainly used in mass production because
which cannot be held in an ordinary chuck. These are of their speedy and effective gripping capacity.
suitable for works where a light cut can be taken on the
job.
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Turner - Turning
Vernier caliper
• list out the parts of a vernier calliper
• state the constructional features of the vernier calliper
• state its functional features
• read a measurement .
One of the precision instruments having the principle of application to take outside, inside and depth
vernier applied to it is the vernier caliper. It is known as a measurements. Its accuracy is 0.02 mm.
vernier caliper because of its
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Parts of a vernier caliper To the left of the beam the fixed jaws for external and
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internal measurements are fixed as integral parts., The

A universal vernier caliper consists of a:
vernier unit slides over the beam.
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• Beam
At the bottom face of the beam a keyway-like groove is
• Fixed jaw for external measurements machined for its full length, permitting the blade to slide in
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the groove.
• Movable jaw for external measurements
At the bottom right hand end, a unit is fixed serving as a
• Movable jaw for internal measurements
support for the blade when it slides in the groove.
• Blade for depth measurement
The vernier unit has got the vernier graduations marked on
• Main scale it. The movable jaws for both external and internal
• Vernier scale measurements are integral with this.
• Fine adjustment screw The fixed and movable jaws are knife-edged to have better
accuracy during measurement. When the fixed and
• Set of locking screws. movable jaws are made to contact each other, the zero of
All parts are made out nickel-chromium steel or invested the vernier scale coincides with the zero of the main scale.
heat-treated and ground. They are machined to a high At this position in the blade will be in line with the right
accuracy. They are stabilized to avoid distortion due to hand edge of the beam.
temperature variations.
When the vernier scale unit slides over the beam, the
Constructional features movable jaws of both the measurements as well as the
The beam is the main part and the main scale graduations blade advance to make the reading.
are marked on it. The markings are in millimeters and To slide the vernier unit, the thumb lever is pressed and
every tenth line is drawn a little longer and brighter than pulled or pushed according to the direction of movement
the other graduations and numbered as 1,2,3 …. of the vernier unit.
118
Sizes Never use a vernier caliper for any purpose other
than measuring.
Vernier calipers are available in sizes of 150 mm, 200
mm, 900 mm and 1200 mm. The selection of the size Vernier calipers should be used only to measure
depends on the measurements to be taken. Vernier machined or filed surfaces.
calipers are precision instruments, and extreme care
They should never be mixed with any other tools.
should be taken while handling them.
Clean the instrument after use, and store it in a
box.
Graduations and reading of vernier calipers

• determine the least count of vernier calipers
• state how graduations are made on vernier calipers with 0.02mm least count
• read vernier caliper measurements.
Vernier calipers
Vernier calipers are available with different accuracies. The divisions of the vernier scale occupy 49 divisions (49 mm)
selection of the vernier caliper depends on the accuracy on the main scale.
needed and the size of the job to be measured.
This accuracy/least count is determined by the graduations
of the main scale and vernier scale divisions.
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Determining least count of vernier calipers
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In the vernier caliper shown in Fig 1, the main scale
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divisions (9mm) are divided into 10 equal parts in the vernier
scale.
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i.e One main scale division (MSD) = 1mm

One Vernier scale division? (VSD) = 49/50 mm
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Least count = 1 MSD - 1 VSD

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= 1mm - 49/50
= 50 - 49/50 = 1/50 = 0.02 mm
i.e. One main scale division (MSD) = 1 mm
Example for vernier caliper (Fig 3)
One vernier scale division? (VSD) = 9/10 mm
Main scale reading 60 mm.
Least count is 1 mm - 9/10 mm = 1/10 mm
The vernier division coinciding with the main scale is the
The difference between one 28th division. Value = 28 x 0.02
MSD and one VSD = 0.1 mm
= 0.56 mm
Example
Reading = 60+0.56 = 60.56mm
Calculate the least count of the vernier given in Fig 2.
Reading vernier measurements
Vernier calipers are available with different graduations and
least counts. For reading measurements with a vernier
caliper the least count should be determined first. (The
least count of calipers is sometimes marked on the vernier
slide).
The figure above shows the graduations of a common type
of vernier caliper with a least count of 0.02 mm. In this, 50
Classroom Exercise 1 Calculate the least count.
In figures 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7, 49 main scale divisions are 2 Record the reading of each, figure in the space
divided into 50 equal parts on the vernier scale. Value of- pro-vided.
one M.S.D. is 1 mm.
Disadvantages
Accuracy of reading depends on the skill of the operator.
Loses its accuracy by constant usage as slackness in
the sliding unit develops.
Cannot be used to measure components having devia-tions
less than ± 0.02 mm.
Possibility of parallax error during noting down the
coinciding line may cause the reading of the measurement
to be wrong.
To read a measurement
Note the number of graduations on the main scale passed
by the zero of the vernier. This gives the full mm.
Note which of the vernier scale division coincides with any
one line on the main scale.
Multiply this number with the least count.
Add the multiplied value to the main scale reading.
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Metric vernier reading exercises
ed
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pu M
ish
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Digital vernier caliper
• state the uses of digital caliper
• name the parts of a digital caliper
• brief the zero setting of a digital caliper.
The digital caliper (sometime incorrectly called the digital The digital caliper requires a small battery whereas the
vernier caliper) is a precision instrument than can be used manual version does not need any power source.The digital
to measure internal and external distance accurately to calipers are easier to use as the measurement is clearly
0.01mm, The digital vernier caliper is shown in Fig 1. The display and also, by pressing inch/mm button the distance
distance or the measurements are read from LED drawing. can be read as metric or inch.
The parts of digital calipers are similar to the ordinary
The display is turned on with the ON/OFF button. before
vernier caliper except the digital display and few other
measuring, the zero setting to be done, by bringing the
parts. The parts are indicated in Fig 1.
external jaws together until they touch each other and then
Earlier versions of the type of measuring instrument had to press the zero button. Now the digital caliper is ready to
read by looking carefully at the inch or metric scale and use.
there was a need for very good eye sight in order to read the
Always set zero position when turning on the
small sliding scale. Manually operated vernier caliper are
display for the first time.
remain popular because they are much cheaper than the
digital version.
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Turner - Turning
Outside micrometers
• list the parts of an outside micrometer
• state the functions of the main parts of an outside micrometer.
A micrometer is a precision instrument used to measure a

job, generally within an accuracy of 0.01 mm. Barrel/Sleeve
Micrometers used to take the outside measurements are The barrel or sleeve is fixed to the frame. The datum line and
known as outside micrometers. (Fig 1) graduations are marked on this.
Thimble
On the bevelled surface of the thimble also, the graduation
is marked. The spindle is attached to this.
Spindle
One end of the spindle is the measuring face. The other end
is threaded and passes through a nut. The threaded
mechanism allows for the forward and backward movement
ed
of the spindle.
bl I
pu M Anvil
ish
The anvil is one of the measuring faces which is fitted on the
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micrometer frame. It is made of alloy steel and finished to
a perfectly flat surface.
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Spindle lock nut

The spindle lock nut is used to lock the spindle at a desired
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position.
The parts of a micrometer are listed here.
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Ratchet stop
Frame
The ratchet stop ensures a uniform pressure between the
The frame is made of drop-forged steel or malleable cast
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measuring surfaces.
iron. All other parts of the micrometer are attached to this.
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Graduations of metric outside micrometer

• state the principle of a micrometer
• determine the least count of an outside micrometer.
Working principle 1 mm & 0.5 mm). The graduations are numbered as 0, 5,

10, 15, 20 & 25 mm.
The micrometer works on the principle of screw and nut.
The longitudinal movement of the spindle during one The circumference of the bevel edge of the thimble is
rotation is equal to the pitch of the screw. The movement graduated into 50 divisions and marked 0-5-10-15 .......
of the spindle to the distance of the pitch or its fractions can 45-50 in a clockwise direction.
be accurately measured on the barrel and thimble. The distance moved by the spindle during one rotation of
Graduations (Fig 1) the thimble is 0.5 mm.
In metric micrometers the pitch of the spindle thread is Movement of one division of the thimble = 0.5 x 1/50
0.5 mm. = 0.01 mm
Thereby, in one rotation of the thimble, the spindle advances Accuracy or least count of a metric outside
by 0.5 mm. micrometer is 0.01mm.
On the barrel a 25 mm long datum line is marked. This line
is further graduated to millimetres and half millimetres (i.e.
123
Reading dimensions with an outside micrometers
• select the required range of a micrometer
ed
• read micrometer measurements.
bl I
pu M
ish
Ranges of outside micrometer
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Outside micrometers are available in ranges of 0 to 25
mm, 25 to 50 mm, 50 to 75 mm, 75 to 100 mm, 100 to 125
be @
mm and 125 to 150 mm.

For all ranges of micrometers, the graduations marked on
o ht
the barrel is only 0-25 mm. (Fig 1)

Method of reading
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Read on the barrel scale the number of whole millimeters

No py
that are completely visible from the bevel edge of the

thimble. It reads 4 mm. (Fig 1)
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Add to this any half millimeters that are completely visible

from the bevel edge of the thimble. The total reading of the micrometer.
The figure reads 1/2 = 0.5 mm.(Fig 2) a 4.00 mm
Add the thimble reading to the two earlier readings. b 0.50 mm
The figure shows the 5th division of the thimble is coincid- c 0.05 mm
ing with the index line of the sleeve. Therefore the reading Total reading 4.55 mm (Fig 3)
of the thimble is 5x0.01 mm = 0.05 mm. (Fig 3)
Reading micrometer measurements Some examples of metric micrometer readings and
their solution
How to read a measurement with an outside micrometer?
(Fig 4)
i 5.00 mm
0.50 mm
0.12 mm
----------------
Total 5.62 mm
-----------------
iii 12.00 mm
0.50 mm
0.19 mm
----------------
Total 12.69 mm
----------------
First note the minimum range of the outside micrometer.
While measuring with a 50 to 75 mm micrometer, note it as
50 mm. iiii 23.00 mm
0.50 mm
Then read the barrel graduations. Read the value of the 0.49 mm
visible lines on the left of the thimble edge. ----------------
ed
13.00 mm Total 23.99 mm
bl I
pu M ----------------
ish
+ 00.50 mm
---------------
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iv 1.00 mm
13.50 mm
0.50 mm
----------------
0.39 mm
be @
Next read the thimble graduations. ----------------

Total 1.89 mm
Read the thimble graduations in line with the barrel datum
o ht
----------------
line, 13th div. (Fig 5)
t t rig
v 5.00
0.50 mm
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0.00 mm
----------------
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Total 5.50 mm
----------------
vi 0.00 mm
0.50 mm
Multiply this value with 0.01 mm (least count). 0.00 mm
----------------
13 x 0.01 mm = 0.13 mm. Total 0.50 mm
Add ----------------
Minimum range 50.00 mm

Barrel reading 13.50 mm vii 7.00 mm
0.00 mm
Thimble reading 00.13 mm 0.22 mm
--------------- ----------------
Total 63.63 mm Total 7.22 mm
---------------- ----------------
The micrometer reading is 63.63 mm.
viii 19.00 mm x 21.00 mm
0.50 mm 0.00 mm
0.05 mm 0.14 mm
---------------- ----------------
---------------- ----------------
ix 2.00 mm xi 9.00 mm
0.50 mm 0.00 mm
0.25 mm 0.10 mm
---------------- ----------------
---------------- ----------------
Error in micrometer
Objective: This shall help you to
• check outside micrometer for ‘0’ error.
No zero error
When the measuring faces are in contact if the zero of the
thimble should be coincide with the datum line No zero
ed
error (Fig 1).
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Positive error: When the anvil and spindle faces are in

t t rig
contact in case of a 0-25 mm micrometer or 0-1 micrometer

and with a test piece inbetween the measuring faces in
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case of a higher range micrometer. If the zero of the thimble

rest below the datum line of the sleeve the error is called as
Co
“Positive”. (Fig 3)
Zero error
When the measuring faces are in contact, (Fig 2) if the zero
of the thimble do not coincide with the datum line (the zero
of the thimble will be above or below the datum line) the
micrometer is said to be with zero error. There are two
types of zero error.
a) Positive error
b) Negative error To get the correct reading the amount of error should be
All micrometers should be checked for its zero substracted from the reading dimension.
error and the error should be noted if any Negative error: When the anvil and spindle faces are in
before using it on checking dimensions. contact, if the zero of the thimble passes above the datum
Clean measuring faces with clean cloth before line of the sleeve, the error is called as “Negative”. (Fig 4)
checking for zero error.
To get the correct reading the amount of negative error
should be added to the reading dimension.
Caution: When you come across with microm-
eter having “zero error”, inform your instructor
and get it corrected by him. Do not try yourself
to correct at this stage.
Digital micrometers
• state the uses of digital micrometer
ed
• list the parts of digital micrometer
• read the reading from LED display and thimble and barrel
bl I
pu M
• brief the maintenance, maintenance of digital micrometers.
ish
Re NI
Digital micrometers is one of the simplest and most widely Reading of the digital micrometer
used measuring equipment in any manufacturing industry.
The digital micrometers are provided with high precision
be @
Its simplicity and the versatile nature make Digital

micrometers so popular. Different kinds of Digital reading with LCD display. The reading is 14.054 mm as
micrometers available in the market. shown in Fig 2.
o ht
Feature of digital micrometers (Fig 1)

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No py
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Reading also by reading the marks on the sleeve and the

thimble. Usually, the reading from the large LCD display
- LCD displays measuring data and makes direct read for the digital micrometer because the digital reading is
out with resolution of 0.001mm. more accurate. The reading on the sleeve and the thimble
is just for reference. Read the markings on the sleeve and
- Origin setting mm/inch conversion, swith for absolute
the thimble, firstly, read the point which the thimble stops
and incremental measurement.
at it on the right of the sleeve (It is 14mm here, because
- Carbide tipped measuring faces. each line above the centre long line represents 1mm while
each line below the centre long line represent 0.5mm)
- Ratchet ensures invariable measurement and accurate
(Fig 3)
repeatable reading
Accuracy of digital micrometers
Digital micrometers provide 10 times more precision and
accuracy : 0.00005 inches or 0.001mm resolution, with
0.0001 inches or 0.001mm accuracy.
Secondly, read the markings on the thimble, It is between As for the battery, abnormal display (digit flashing or even
5 and 6, So you need to estimate the reading. (It is no display) shows a flat battery. Thus you should push the
0.055mm for each line here represents 0.001mm). At last, battery cover as the arrow directing and then replace with
add all the reading up : 14mm + 0.055 mm = 14.055mm. a new one. Please note that the positive side must face out
So the total reading is 14.055mm. If the battery bought from market dosen’t work well (the
power may wear down because of the long-term storage or
Maintenance of a digital micrometers
the battery’s automatic discharge and etc.) Please do not
Never apply voltage (e.g. engraving with an electric pen) on hesitate to contact the supplier.
any part of the Digital Micrometers for fear of damaging the
Flashing display shows dead battery. If this is the case
circuit.
please replace the battery at once. No displace shows
Press the ON/OFF button to shut the power when the poor contact of a battery or short circuit of both poles of the
Digital micrometers stands idle; take out the battery if it battery. Please check and adjust pole flakes and battery
stands idle for a long time. insulator cover. In case water enters the battery cover,
open the cover immediately and blow the inside of the
battery cover at a temperature of no more than 400C till it
gets dry.
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Turner - Turning
Lathe - cutting speed and feed & depth of cut

• distinguish between cutting speed and feed
• read and select the recommended cutting speed for different materials from the chart
• point out the factors governing the cutting speed
• state the factors governing feed.
Cutting speed (Fig 1) When more material is to be removed in lesser time, a

The speed at which the cutting edge passes over the higher cutting speed is needed. This makes the spindle to
material, which is expressed in metres per minute is called run faster but the life of the tool will be reduced due to
the cutting speed. When a work of a diameter ‘D’ is turned more heat being developed. Recommended cutting speeds
in one revolution the length of portion of the work in contact are given in a chart form which provides normal tool life
with the tool is π x D. When the work is making ‘n’ rev/ under normal working conditions. As far as possible the
min, the length of the work in contact with the tool is recommended cutting speeds are to be chosen and the
π x D x n. This is converted into metres and is expressed spindle speed calculated before performing the operation.
in a formula form as (Fig 2)
πDN
V=
ed
1000
bl I
pu M
ish
Where V = cutting speed in metre/min
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π = 3.14
D = diameter of the work in mm.
be @
N = r.p.m.
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Example Factors governing the cutting speed

Find out the rpm of the spindle for a 50 mm bar to cut at Finish required
25 m/min.
Depth of cut
πDN 1000V Tool geometry
V= N=
1000 πD Properties and rigidity of the cutting tool and its mounting
Properties of the workpiece material
1000 × 25 500
= = 159 r.p.m Rigidity of the workpiece
3.14 × 50 3.14
Type of cutting fluid used & Rigidity of machine tool
129
Relationship of r.p.m to the cutting speed on different diameter
Cutting speed 120m/min Length of metal passing cutting Calculated r.p.m of

tool in one revolution spindle
............................... 78.5 mm 1528
............................. 157.0 mm 764
............................. 235.5 mm 509.5
Feed (Fig 3) Factors governing feed

The feed of the tool is the distance it moves along the Tool geometry
work for each revolution of the work, and it is expressed in
mm/rev. Surface finish required on the work
Rigidity of the tool
Coolant used.
ed
Depth of cut (Fig 3)
bl I
pu M It is defined as the perpendicular distance measured
ish
between the machined surface (d) and the unmachined
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surface (D) expressed in mm.
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D−d
Depth of cut =
2
o ht
Rate of metal removal

t t rig
The volume of metal removal is the volume of chip that is

removed from the work in one minute, and is found by
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multiplying the cutting speed, feed rate and the depth of

cut.
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Cutting speeds and feeds for H.S.S. tools are given Note
in Table 1
For super HSS tools the feeds would remain the same,
Table 1 but cutting speeds could be increased by 15% to 20%
A lower speed range is suitable for heavy, rough cuts.
Material being turned Feed Cutting speed
A higher speed range is suitable for light, finishing cuts.
Aluminium 0.2 - 1.00 70 - 100
The feed is selected to suit the finish required and the rate
of metal removal.
Brass (alpha) - ductile 0.2 - 1.00 50 - 80
When carbide tools are used, 3 to 4 times higher cutting
Brass (free cutting) 0.2 - 1.5 70 - 100 speed than that of the H.S.S. tools may be chosen.
Bronze (phosphor) 0.2 - 1.00 35 - 70
Cast iron (grey) 0.15 - 0.7 25 - 40
Copper 0.2 - 1.00 35 - 70
Steel (mild) 0.2 - 1.00 35 - 50
Steel (medium-carbon) 0.15 - 0.7 30 - 35
Steel (alloy high tensile) 0.08 - 0.3 5 - 10
ed
Thermosetting plastics 0.2 - 1.00 35 - 50
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Calculation involving cutting speed, feeds
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• determine the spindle speed for turning jobs of different materials of different diameters with different
be @
tool materials
• determine the turning time with the given data.
o ht
The selection of the spindle speed is one of the factors 30 × 1000 × 7

t t rig
which decides the efficiency of cutting. It depends on the =

size of the job, material of the job and material of the 22 × 40
No py
cutting tool. The formula to determine cutting speed is.

30 × 25 × 7
=
Co
π×D×N 22
= metre/min. where D is in mm.
1000
= 238.6 r.p.m.
CS × 1000 The spindle speed should be set nearest to the calculated
N=
π×D r.p.m., on the lower side.
To determine the spindle speed (N) Example 2
Example 1 Determine the spindle speed to be set for a hard cast iron
round rod of ø 40 mm using a HSS tool.
Calculate the spindle speed to turn a MS rod of ø40 mm.
Using HSS tool data in the above problem, since the Data: The cutting speed for hard cast iron from the chart
material is mild steel and tool is HSS, the recommended is 15 m/min.
cutting speed from the chart is 30m/min. ø = 40 mm
ø = 40 mm
CS × 1000
CS × 1000 N=
N= π×D
π×D
15 × 1000
30 × 1000 =
= 22
22 × 40
× 40 7
7
cut.If the feed is ‘f’ and length of cut is ‘l’, then the total
15 × 1000 × 7 number if revolutions the job has to make for a cut is
=
22 × 40 l/f. If N is the rpm, the time required for a cut is found by
=
15 × 25 × 7 Time to turn = Length of cut × No.of cuts
22 Feed × r.p.m
= 119.3 r.p.m.
l×n
The spindle speed should be set nearest to the calculated T =
f ×N
r.p.m., on the lower side.
Example 3 where ‘n’ is the number of cuts and ‘N’ is the r.p.m.
Calculate the spindle speed to turn a ø40 mm MS rod Example 1

using a cemented carbide tool. A mild steel of ø 40 mm and 100 mm length has to be
Data: The cutting speed recommended for-turning mild turned to ø 30 mm in one cut for full length using a HSS
steel using a carbide tool is 92 mtr/minute. tool with a feed rate of 0.2 mm/rev. Determine the turning
time.
ø of job = 40 mm
l×n
CS × 1000 Turning time =
N= f ×N
π×D
The r.p.m. for the above is calcuIatedHand found out as
238.6 r.p.m.
92 × 1000
ed
= l = 100mm
bl I
22 pu M
× 40
ish
7 f = 0.2 mm
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n = 1
92 × 1000 × 7 N = 238.6 r.p.m.
=
be @
22 × 40
100 × 1
Time =
o ht
92 × 25 × 7 0.2 × 238.6
=
22
t t rig
100 × 10
= 731.8 r.p.m. =
2 × 238.6
No py
The spindle speed should be set to the nearest calculate

r.p.m.
Co
500
Turning time calculation =
238.6
The time factor is very important to decide the manufac
turing of the component as well as to fix the incentives to = 2.09 minutes
the operator. If the spindle speed, feed and length of the 2 minute 5.4 seconds.
cut are known, the time can be determined for a given
Turner - Turning
Different types of micrometer

• identify and name the different types of micrometers other than regular micrometers
• state the specific use of each micrometer.
In addition to regular micrometers, there are several other

types of micrometers, with the same fundamental prin-
ciple, but specifically designed to meet the various spe-
cial applications, such as external, internal, depth mea-
surement etc.
Types of micrometers other than regular
Screw thread micrometer
Tube micrometer
Digital micrometer
Depth micrometer
Flange micrometer
ed
Ball micrometer
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Stick micrometer pu M
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External micrometer with interchangeable anvils
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Keyway depth micrometer
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Screw thread micrometer (Fig 1)

o ht
t t rig
The advantage of this micrometer is, the readings are seen

on the screen or the dial directly, without any diffi-culty.
No py
We need not look on the sleeve or the thimble scale coin-

cidence. This avoids errors in reading and saves time. A
layman can also read the measurement directly.
Co
A screw thread micrometer is similar to an outside Depth micrometer (Fig 4)

micrometer except that the spindle is pointed to fit be-
tween 60° V threads, and the anvil is shaped to fit over 60°
V thread. It is used to measure the pitch diameter of the
thread. Screw thread micrometers are available in many
sizes depending on the pitch of the thread to be mea-
sured.
Tube micrometer (Fig 2)
A tube micrometer is specially designed to measure the
thickness of the material of piping, tubing and and other
parts of similar shapes.
Digital micrometer
This type of micrometer has got a dial on the frame of the
micrometer and an illuminated screen below it. The dial
pointer has an internal connection with the micrometer
screw for measuring. The graduations on the sleeve and
thimble are the same as on a regular micrometer. This
micrometer is used to measure the dimensions similar to
those measured by the outside micrometers, and the read-
ing can be noted. (Fig 3)
133
A depth micrometer is designed to measure accurately Secured joints are used for joining the end piece, exten-
the depth of grooves, bores, counterbores, recesses and sion rod and the measuring unit. The screw unit generally
holes. The graduations are read in the same manner as is has threads of 0.5 mm pitch. The extension rod is gener-
done in the case of regular micrometers. Larger ranges of ally hollow and has a minimum external diameter of 14
depth can be measured by inserting an extension rod mm.
through the top of the micrometer. The graduations are in
In this type of micrometer, there should be sufficient play
the reversed direction to those of an o/s micrometer.
between the external and internal threads of the joint to
Flange micrometer (Fig 5) permit the abutment forces of the various parts of the mi-
crometer to butt together solidly.
External micrometer with interchangeable anvils
(Fig 7)
ed
A flange micrometer is similar to a regular micrometer and
bl I
is equipped with two flanges in the place of the anvil and
pu M
ish
spindle. This is used to measure chordal thickness of the
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gear teeth and the thickness of the fins of an engine and
the collar thickness of the job.
be @
Ball micrometer (Fig 6)

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It is nothing but an external micrometer. The advantage in

this micrometer is the range of the micrometer can be
increased by merely changing the different anvils.
A set of replaceable anvils is supplied in a box and the
size of the anvil is marked on each anvil. Depending upon
In this form of micrometer, hemispherical balls are fitted at the size of the job, the anvil size can be changed, and
the anvil and spindle. Measurement is similar to that in a reading can be taken. Thus it is an economy micrometer,
regular micrometer. It is used to measure a sphere where i.e. in one micrometer itself, long ranges can be accom-
the point of contact comes in between. modated. To fix the anvils to the frame, a guide is provided
and locked by a nut.
Stick micrometer
Keyway depth micrometer
Stick micrometers are designed for the measurement of
longer internal lengths. It is similar to a depth micrometer except that the frame
has 120° inclined butting surfaces to rest on the circum-
This comprises of:
ference on a cylindrical job. It is used for measuring depth
- a 150 mm or 300 mm micrometer unit, fitted with a of keyways on a cylindrical shaft. While measuring the
micrometer of 25 mm range and having rounded termi- depth of the keyway, first take the measurement on a
nal faces cylindrical job opposite to the keyway; then take the mea-
surement of the keyway depth, subtract the initial mea-
- a series of extension rods, which together with the mi-
surement from the final measurement to know the exact
crometer unit, permits a continuous range of meas-
depth of the keyway.
urement up to the maximum length required.
Inside micrometer - metric
• name the parts of an inside micrometer
• determine the reading of the bore or hole
• determine the reading with a spacing collar & extension rods
• determine the distance between internal parallel surfaces.
The inside micrometer is similar to an ordinary outside Similarly, each extension rod has to be used without the
micrometer but without the ‘U’ frame. (Fig 1) The collar for measuring a minimum range up to 13mm variation
measurement is taken over the contact points. As the and with the collar for a maximum range of measurements.
thimble opens or closes, the contact points get opened or a clamping screw is also provided to clamp the extension
closed. The inside micrometer consists of a sleeve, thimble, rod firmly.
anvils, a spacing collar and extension rods. It is also
equipped with a handle to measure deep bores. The least Determining the size of a bore or hole
count of the instrument is also 0.01 mm Fig 3 shows an inside micrometer with a spacing collar
and extension rod of 125-150mm range. The size of the
bore is 125mm + 12mm + barrel reading + thimble reading
which is equal to 125 + 12 + 1.5 + 0.00 = 138.50mm.
ed
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pu M
ish
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The inside micrometer is equipped with a 12mm spacing
collar and 4 extension rods for measuring holes of ranges.
be @
50-75mm, 75-100 mm, 100-125mm and 125-150mm. The

sleeve is marked with the main scale and the thimble with
o ht
the thimble scale. The barrel has a limited adjustment of

13mm. when the inside micrometer is closed (when zero
t t rig
of thimble coincides with the zero of the barrel), it is capable

of reading the minimum dimension of 25mm. In addition to
No py
this, it is possible to read up to 38mm with the thimble

opening to the extreme right. In order to read further higher
ranges, a standard spacing collar of 12mm width is to be
Co
added. This facilitates the micrometer to read a minimum Determining the distance between internal parallel
range of 50mm (Fig 2). surfaces
While checking parallelism between two surfaces of a deep
bore, a handle must be used along with the inside
micrometer. The figure shows the inside micrometer with
a handle. In order to ascertain the parallelism., a minimum
of two readings has to be taken, i.e. one at the top surface
of the bore. If there is no difference in the two readings, we
may take it for granted that the surfaces are perfectly
parallel. Any variation in the reading shows the bore has
an error between the two surfaces. (Fig 4)
Three point internal micrometer (Fig 5)
A three-point internal micrometer is used for a direct
measurement of an internal diameter accurately and
efficiently. It is also used to measure the diameter of a
deep hole, the end of a blind hole, internal recess etc.
The instrument is checked for its zero error with a master
ring gauge. (Fig 6)
ed
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pu M
ish
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Three-point internal micrometer

No py
• state the uses of a three-point internal micrometer

• identify the parts of a three-point micrometer
Co
• state the features of a three-point micrometer.
The three-point internal micrometer (Fig 1) is useful and backward uniformly. The three measuring anvils
for : facilitate self-alignment of the instrument within the bore.
- measuring the diameters of through and blind holes
- checking cylindricity and roundness of bores.
The commonly used three-point internal micrometers have
a least count of .005mm
Parts
- The measuring head (consisting of three measuring
anvils)
- Ratchet stop
- Thimble
- Barrel
This micrometer has a cone spindle which advances when
the thimble is rotated clockwise. The movement of the
cone spindle makes the measuring anvils to move forward
Three-point internal micrometers are available in sets. Each The position of the anvil can be reset by loosening the
set consists of 3 or 4 micrometers. The measuring range barrel using a screw driver provided for this purpose.
of each of them will be 10mm.
Depending on the depth of the bore the length of the
The ratchet stop permits uniform pressure between the micrometer can be varied using the extension rod. (Fig 4)
anvils and the work surfaces being measured. A set of spanners is provided for assembling and
disassembling the extension rod. (Fig 5)
These micrometers are provided with one or more zero
setting rings. (Fig 2) The instruments are available in various sizes and forms
for measuring different sizes.
They are also available in analogue or digital readouts.
Before taking measurement, the zero setting has to be

checked using the setting ring. (Fig 3)
ed
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pu M
ish
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No py
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Sources of measuring errors
• state what is meant by measuring errors
• name the different types of measuring errors
• identify each of the measuring errors.
Measuring errors occur each time when we measure a The result of all the unknown systematic errors is referred
workpiece. We must, therefore, always allow for a certain to as the degree of inaccuracy of the measuring device.
inaccuracy when we measure a workpiece. The degree of
Random or accidental errors
this inaccuracy depends on the skill of the person mea-
suring it and the inaccuracy of the measuring instrument. Random errors are caused by external conditions, such
as differences in temperature, air humidity, dirt and vibra-
Measuring errors can be grouped as follows.
tions and also the human factor such as viewing errors
• Systematic errors and fatigue.
• Random errors Geometric errors
• Geometrical errors Geometric errors can be subdivided into:
• Contact errors - macro-geometrical errors
• Gauge and instrument errors - micro-geometrical errors.
• Elastic deformation Macro-geometrical errors occur when the workpiece mea-
sured does not correspond to the theoretical form indi-
• Parallel errors
cated in the drawing. For example, when a cylinder is
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• Observation errors tapered or out of round as shown in Fig 2, it results in a
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• Cosine errors
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ish
• Temperature errors
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Systematic errors
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Measuring errors which are due to the measuring instru-

ment are known as systematic errors. The systematic
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errors can be subdivided into:

- known systematic errors
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- unknown systematic errors.

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The known systematic errors are those which always in-

fluence the measuring result to the same extent and in
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the same direction (+ or -); for example, a subdividing

error for a scale as shown here. The value to be read off
This type of error cannot be detected with the two point
here can then be corrected. (Fig 1)
measurement as shown in Fig 3.
The unknown systematic errors give different values in

different directions (+ and - ) in different measurements.
An example of this type of error is errors due to friction
changes in the measuring instrument.
By placing the shaft on a ‘V’ block (three point measure- main scale can, in this case, produce an error which could
ment), this defect can be immediately noticed. have a considerable effect on the result. (Fig 7)
(Figs 4 and 5)
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In the case of a micrometer an angular error is negligible

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but a parallel error will occur. Other errors that come un-
der this heading are errors due to changes in friction, and
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backlash in measuring instruments. (Fig 8)

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This error can also occur when measuring holes.

Micro-geometrical errors are due to surface roughness. In
the case of a surface with considerable profile depth, the Elastic deformation
measuring tip could drop down in a profile recess, thereby
In order to keep the elastic deformation within reasonable
giving a faulty reading.(Fig 6)
limits, the indicator stands, measuring clamps and mea-
Contact errors suring fixtures must be robustly constructed. By using a
small and constant measuring force, this error can also
Impurities between the measuring tip and the workpiece
be brought to a minimum. Eg. the ratchet drive provided in
being measured can often cause measuring errors. In or-
micrometers.
der to eliminate the contact errors (considered quite seri-
ous), always keep the measuring instruments clean. Parallel errors (Fig 9)
Gauge and instrument errors If measurement is being carried out between two flat mea-
suring surfaces, these must be parallel to each other. If
In the case of the vernier caliper, the measurement is par-
the measuring workpiece surfaces are not parallel to each
allel but not in line with the scale. (See the distance ‘s’ on
other, parallel errors will result. By using a spherical mea-
the illustration). A play between the movable jaw and the
suring tip against a flat surface to be measured, parallel Cosine errors (Fig 11)
errors can be avoided.
A cosine error occurs when the plunger/lever of the mea-
suring instrument is not parallel with the workpiece being
measured.
It may be noted that the movement of the dial indicator
hand depends on the movement of the plunger or lever.
An inclination of the plunger, as shown in the figure, would
need additional movement of the plunger for a distance. X
is the deviation of the component perpendicular to the
surface of the work, and naturally the dial indicator will
show a reading of Xa. (Xa is the plunger movement.)
Observation errors (Fig 10)
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Parallax errors occur in connection with the reading of

scales and instruments with dial indicators. The error de-
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pends on the fact that the pointer has a certain distance

‘a’ from the scale. If viewed at from one side instead of
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from straight ahead as you should do, the pointer appears

to show a larger or smaller reading.
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Temperature errors
The change in temperature can cause major measuring
errors. For this reason 20°C has been set as the refer-
ence temperature for measurements.
Turner - Turning
Drills - different parts

• state what is drilling
• state the necessity of drilling
• list the types of drills used
• name the parts of a twist drill
• list the defects in a drilled hole
• state the causes and the remedies for the defects.
Drilling Parts of a twist drill

Drilling is the production of cylindrical holes of definite Drills are made from high speed steel. The spiral flutes
diameters in workpieces by using a multi-point cutting are machined at an angle of 271/2° to its axis.
tool called a ‘drill’. It is the first operation done internally
for any further operation. The flutes provide a correct cutting angle which provides
an escape path for the chips. It carries the coolant to the
Types of drills and their specific uses cutting edge during drilling. (Fig 3)
Flat drill (Fig 1)
The earliest form of drill was the flat drill which is easy to
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operate, besides being inexpensive to produce. But it is
difficult to hold during operation, and the chip removal is
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poor. Its operating efficiency is very low.
ish
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Twist drill
Almost all drilling operation is done using a twist drill. It is
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called a twist drill as it has two or more spiral or helical

flutes formed along its length. The two basic types of twist
drills are, parallel shank and taper shank. Twist drills are
available in standard sizes. Parallel shank twist drills are
available below 13mm size. (Fig 2)
The portions left between the flutes are called ‘lands’. The
size of a drill is determined and governed by the diameter
over the lands.
The point angle is the cutting angle, and for general purpose
work, it is 118°. The clearance angle serves the purpose
of clearing the back of the lip from fouling with the work. It
is mostly 8°.
141
Deep hole drills
π×D×N
Deep hole drilling is done by using a type of drill known as V=
1000
‘D’ bit. (Fig 4)
Feed
The rate at which the drill advances into the material for
each revolution of the drill is known as the feed rate and it
is expressed in mm/rev. The feed rate selection also
depends upon the machinability of the metal being drilled:
Drill grinding
Any one of the following indicates the sign that the drill
needs re-sharpening.
Drills are manufactured with varying helix angles for drilling • A need for high feed pressure to make the drill to cut
different materials. General purpose drills have a standard and advance.
helix angle of 27 1/2°. They are used on mild steel and
cast iron. (Fig 5a) • Chattering or screaming of the drill when pressure is
applied.
A slow helix drill is used on materials like brass, gun-
metal, phosphor-bronze and plastics. (Fig 5b) It is recommended that a drill grinding jig is to be used for
re-sharpening purposes as it is almost impossible to grind
A quick helix drill is used for copper, aluminium and other the drills to the correct angles by off-hand grinding. But for
soft metals. (Fig 5c) general purpose drilling, off- hand grinding may also be
done, taking care to avoid the following faults.
Grinding faults
ed
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ish
The two cutting edges are of unequal length. This fault
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causes two cuttings of unequal thickness, or one cutting
being ejected and an oversize hole results. (Figs 6 and 7)
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Quick helix drill should never be used on brass

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as it will ‘dig in’ and the workpiece may be

thrown from the machine table.
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Parallel shank drills can be held only in drill chucks. Taper

shank twist drills are mounted directly in the tailstock barrel
or fitted to a sleeve and mounted. The tang in the taper
shank twist drill provides a positive drive. When inserting
a taper shank twist drill in a socket or sleeve, tap the
sleeve with a hide mallet. To remove the drill from the socket,
a drift is used.
Factors governing drilling operations
The three factors governing drilling operations are:
- cutting speed
- feed pressure
- cooling method.
Cutting speed for drilling
The cutting speed for drilling is the peripheral speed of the
drill, and it is stated in metres per minute. The cutting
speed depends upon the machinability of the work material.
When the cutting speed for drilling a material is determined,
the revolutions for which the lathe has to be set during
drilling is calculated by the formula.
Excessive clearance angle ground. This fault will cause Pilot hole drilling
the cutting edges to chip off and break. This in turn, will
For producing large size holes by drilling, it is always
cause the drill to dig into the workpiece. (Fig 8)
advantageous to drill with smaller drills and finally use the
drill of the required size. This operation is known as pilot
drilling.
The steps to finish a required size of a drilled hole are
shown in Fig 9.
Cutting fluids for drilling
The use of an appropriate cutting fluid will always give a
better surface finish; it permits the use of a higher cutting
speed, and extends the tool life.
The cutting fluids generally used for drilling operation are
the same that are used for other lathe operations.
Soluble oil is the most commonly used cutting fluid.
Recommended cutting fluids for drilling different
metals
• Aluminium and its alloys - dry or kerosene.
Insufficient clearance angles. The drill rubs rather than
cuts. When a drill gets badly worn out, it cuts poorly and • Copper - soluble oil.
the three signs of a badly worn out drill are : • Brass - dry or soluble oil.
ed
blunt cutting edges’at the point of the drill • Cast iron- dry or cooled with compressed air.
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- too much feeding pressure to make the drill to cut
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- work and drill getting heated up. • Mild steel - soluble oil, sulphurised oil.
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It is essential to provide a bigger point angle • Alloy steels - soluble oil, sulphurised oil.
of the drill for drilling hard metals.
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Recommended helix point angles for drilling

different : Work materials
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(For guidance only)

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Material of the Helix angle Point

workpiece angle angle
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Steel, alloyed 28° 118°

and unalloyed
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cast steel, cast iron,

malleable iron
White cast iron 28° 150°
Brass, bronze 15° 118° to 140°
Bakellite 40° 118° to 140°
Drill angles
• state what is drilling
• state the necessity of drilling
• name the types of drills used
• name the parts of a twist drill
• list out the defects in a drilled hole
• state the causes and the remedies for the defects.
Like all cutting tools the drills are provided with certain There are different angles for different purposes. They are
angles for efficiency in drilling. listed below.
Angles Point angle, Helix angle, Rake angle, Clearance angle
and Chisel edge angle.
Point angle/Cutting angle (Fig 1)
The point angle of a general purpose (standard) drill is

118°. This is the angle between the cutting edges (lips).
The angle varies according to the hardness of the material
to be drilled.
Type N = for normal low carbon steel.
Helix angle (Figs 2, 3 and 4)
Type H = for hard and tenaceous materials.
Type S = for soft and tough materials.
The type of drill used for general purpose drilling work type
N.
ed
Rake angle (Fig 5)
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Rake angle is the angle of flute (Helix angle).
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Clearance angle (Fig 6)

Clearance angle is to prevent the friction of the land behind
the cutting edge. This will help in the penetration of the
cutting edges into the material. If the clearance angle is
too much, the cutting edges will be weak, if it is too
small, the drill will not cut.
Twist drills are made with different helix angles/The helix

angle determines the rake angle at the cutting edge of the
twist drill.
The helix angles vary according to the material being drilled.
According to Indian Standard, three types of drills are used
for drilling various materials.
Chisel edge angle/Web angle (Fig 7) • tool type
This is the angle between the chisel edge and the cutting • material
lip.
Example
A twist drill of 9.50 mm dia., of tool type ‘H’ for right hand
cutting and made from HSS is designated as
Diameter of drill
IS NO.
Twist drill 9.50 - H - IS5101 - HS
Tool type
Material
NOTE: If the tool is not indicated in the
Designation of drills designation, it should be taken as Type ‘N’ tool.
Twist drills are designated by the
• diameter
Drills for different materials
Recommeded drills
Material to be Point Helix angle Material to be Point Helix
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drilled angle d=3.2.5 5-10 10 drilled angle d=3.5 mm 5 mm
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Steel and cast steel Copper (up to
up to 70 kgf/mm2 30 mm drill
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strength diameter)
Gray cast iron Al - alloy, forming
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Malleable cast iron Curly chips

Brass Celluloid
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German silver, nickel

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Brass, Cuzn 40 Austenitic steels

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Magnesium alloys
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Steel, and cast steel Moulded steels

70... 120 Kgf/mm2 (with thickness S>d)
Stainless steel Moulded plastics,

Copper (drill diameter with thickness s>d
more than 30 mm ) Laminated plastics
Al-alloy, forming Hard rubber
short borken chips (ebonite)
Marble, state, coal
Zinc alloys
Cutting speed and RPM
• define cutting speed
• state the factors for determining the cutting speed
• differentiate between cutting speed and r.p.m.
• determine r.p.m. spindle speed
• select r.p.m. for drill sizes from tables.
For a drill to give satisfactory performance, it must operate Calculating r.p.m.

at the correct cutting speed and feed.
Cutting speed is the speed at which the cutting edge n× d× π
v= m/min
passes over the material while cutting, and is expressed 1000
in metres per minute.
Cutting speed is also sometimes stated as surface speed v × 1000
n= r.p.m.
or peripheral speed. d× π
The selection of the recommended cutting speed for drilling
n - r.p.m.
depends on the materials to be drilled, and the tool
material. v - Cutting speed in m/min.
Tool manufacturers usually provide a table of cutting speeds d - diameter of the drill in mm
required for different materials.
π = 3.14
The recommended cutting speeds for different materials
ed
Example
are given in the table. Based on the cutting speed
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recommended, the r.p.m., at which a drill has to be driven, Calculate the r.p.m. for a high speed steel drill Ø 24 mm
ish
is determined. to cut mild steel.
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The cutting speed for MS is taken as 30 m/min. from the
Materials being Cutting
table.
drilled for HSS speed(m/min)
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Aluminium 70-100 1000 × 30

n= = 398 r.p.m.
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Brass 35-50 3.14 × 24

Bronze(phosphor) 20-35
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It is always preferable to set the spindle speed to the

Cast iron (grey) 25-40 nearest available lower range. The selected spindle speed
is 300 r.p.m.
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Copper 35-45
The r.p.m. will differ according to the diameter of drills.
Steel (medium carbon 20-30
Co
The cutting speed being the same, larger diameter drills

/mild steel) will have lesser r.p.m. and smaller diameter drills will have
Steel (alloy, high tensile) 5-8 higher r.p.m.
Thermosetting plastic 20-30 The recommended cutting speeds are achieved only by
(low speed due to abrasive actual experiments.
properties)
Feed in drilling
• state what is meant by feed
• state the factors that contribute to an efficient feed rate.
Feed is the distance (X) a drill advances into the work in The table for the feed rate given here is based on the
one complete rotation. (Fig 1) average feed values suggested by the different manufac-
turers of drills. (Table 1)
Table 1
Drill diameter Rate of feed
(mm) H.S.S. (mm/rev)
1.0 - 2.5 0.040-0.060
2.6 - 4.5 0.050-0.100
4.6 - 6.0 0.075-0.150
6.1 - 9.0 0.100-0.200
9.1 -12.0 0.150-0.250
12.1 -15.1 0.200-0.300
15.1 -18.0 0.230-0.330
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Feed is expressed in hundredths of a millimetre.
18.1 -21.0 0.260-0.360
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Example - 0.040mm. pu M 21.1 -25.0 0.280-0.380
ish
The rate of feed is dependent upon a number of factors.
Too coarse a feed may result in damage to the cutting
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• Finish required edges or breakage of the drill.
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• Type of drill (drill material) Too slow a rate of feed will not bring improvement in sur-
face finish but may cause excessive wear of the tool point,
• Material to be drilled
and lead to chattering of the drill.
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Factors like rigidity of the machine, holding of workpiece

and the drill, will also have to be considered while For optimum results in the feed rate while drill-
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determining the feed rate. If these are not to the required ing, it is necessary to ensure the drill cutting
standard, the feed rate will have to be decreased. edges are sharp. Use the correct type of cut-
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ting fluid.
It is not possible to suggest a particular feed rate taking
all the factors into account.
Co
Boring tools
• identify and name the different types of boaring tools
• list out the advantages of the different boring tools.
Boring is the process of enlarging and truing an existing cored holes. The cutting edge of a boring tool is ground
drilled or core hole with a single point cutting tool. similar to the left hand plain turning tool. But the operation
Necessity of boring a hole being performed is from right to left. (Fig 1)
• To enlarge a drilled hole larger than the drill size as

drills are available in standard sizes only.
• To obtain concentricity of the hole.
• To maintain accuracy of the hole.
• To obtain better surface finish.
• To remove the error formed by drilling, and to facilitate
the reaming operation.
Boring tools and holders
Boring is an internal operation performed on the drilled or
Parts of a rough boring tool (Figs 1,2 & 3) The solid forged boring tool is generally made of high speed
steel, with the end forged and ground to resemble a left
hand turning tool. They are light duty tools and are used
on small diameter holes. They are held in special tool
holders which are mounted in the tool post.
Occasionally tungsten carbide or high speed steel tips
are brazed to low carbon bars, for economy.
Boring bars with inserted bit (Fig 6)
ed
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Types of boring tools
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The following are the different types of boring tools.
The boring bar tool-holder is mounted in the tool post and
• Solid forged tools is used for heavier cuts than those for the forged boring
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• Boring bars with bits tool.
• Brazed tools (Fig.4) The square tool bits are set at angles of 30°, 45° or 90° in
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the broached holes in the bar.

• Throw-away bits inserted in special holders.
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The boring bars may be plain type or end cap type. The
cutting tool of the plain type is held in position by a set
screw. The cutting tool of the end-cap type is held in posi-
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tion by the wedging action of a hardened plug.

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The round or square section tool bits may be inserted in

boring bars, the size depending on the diameter of the
bar.
The tool bit may be square to the axis of the bar for plain
boring or at an angle for facing shoulder, or threading up to
a shoulder.
The bar is held in a split or ‘V’ block holder.
Solid forged tools (Fig 5) The advantages of different boring tools
Solid boring tools
Available with square and round shank.
Enables to mount on the tool post easily.
Re-grinding is easy.
As the tool is integral, alignment is easy.
Can be easily forged to the required shape and angle.
Boring bars and inserted bits Cost is less because the boring bar is made out of low
carbon steel.
Used for heavy duty boring operation.
Boring tools can be set square to the axis of the boring
Used for deep boring operation.
bar or at an angle very quickly.
Tool changing is faster, thereby re-sharpening time is
avoided.
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Turner - Turning
Counter sinking
• state what is countersinking
• list the purpose of countersinking
• state the angles of countersinking for the different applications
• name the different types of countersinks
• distinguish between Type A and Type B countersink holes.
What is countersinking? For countersinking small diameter holes special

Countersinking is an operation of beveling the end of a counter-sinks with two or one flute are available. This will
drilled hole. The tool used is called a countersink. reduce the vibration while cutting.
Countersinking is carried out for the following purposes,

to provide a recess for the head of a countersink screw, so
that it is flush with the surface after fixing. (Fig 1)
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to deburr a hole after drilling

for accommodating countersink rivet heads
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Countersinks with pilot (Fig 3)

to chamfer the ends of holes for thread cutting and other
machining processes. For precision countersinking, needed for machine tool
assembling and after machining process, countersinks
Angles for countersinking with pilots are used.
Countersinks are available in different angles for different They are particularly useful for heavy duty work.
uses.
The pilot is provided at the end for guiding the countersink
75° countersink riveting concentric to the hole.
80° countersink self tapping screws Countersinks with pilots are available with interchange able
90° countersink head screws and deburring and solid pilots.
120° chamfering ends of holes to be threaded or other Countersink hole sizes
machine processes. The countersink holes according to Indian Standard IS
Countersinks 3406 (Part 1) 1986 are of four types: Type A, Type B, Type
C and Type E.
Countersinks of different types are available.
Type A is suitable for slotted countersink head screws,
The commonly used countersinks have multiple cutting cross recessed and slotted raised countersink head
edges and are available in taper shank and straight shank. screws.
(Fig 2)
These screws are available in two grades i.e. medium and
fine.
150
The dimensions of various features of the Type ‘A’
countersink holes, and the method of designation are given
in Table 1.
Type ‘B’ countersink holes are suitable for countersink
head screws with hexagon socket.
The dimensions of the various features and the method of
designation are given in Table II.
Type ‘C’ countersink holes are suitable for slotted raised
countersink (oval) head tapping screws and for slotted
countersink (flat) head tapping screws.
The dimension of the various features and the method of
designation are given in Table III.
Type ‘E’ countersinks are used for slotted countersink bolts
used for steel structures.
The dimensions of the various features and the method of
designation are given in Table IV.
Methods of Representing countersink holes in
drawings
Countersink hole sizes are identified by code designation
or using dimension. IS details are given in Table 1 toTable
ed
IV
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TABLE I
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Dimensions and designation of countersink - Type A according to IS 3406 (Part 1) 1986

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For Norminal Size 1 1.2 (1.4) 1.6 (1.8) 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 (4.5)
Medium d1 H13 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.9 3.4 3.9 4.5 5
Series d2 H13 2.4 2.8 3.3 3.7 4.1 4.6 5.7 6.5 7.6 8.6 9.5
(m) t13 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.4 1.6 1.9 2.1 2.3
Fine d1 H12 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 2 2.2 2.7 3.2 3.7 4.3 4.8
Series d3 H12 2 2.5 2.8 3.3 3.8 4.3 5 6 7 8 9
(f) t13 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.2 1.2 1.5 1.7 2 2.2 2.4
t2 + 0.1 0.2 0.15 0.15 0.2 0.2 0.15 0.35 0.25 0.3 0.3 0.3
0
TABLE I (Contd)
Designation : A countersink Type A with clearance hole of fine (f) series and having nominal size 10 shall be designated
as - Countersink A f 10 - IS : 3406.
For Norminal Size 5 6 8 10 12 (14) 16 (18) 20
Medium d1 H13 5.5 6.6 9 11 13.5 15.5 17.5 20 22
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Series d2 H13 10.4 12.4 16.4 20.4 23.9 26.9 31.9 36.4 40.4
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(m) t13 2.5 2.9 3.7 4.7 5.2 5.7 7.2 8.2 9.2
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Fine d1 H12 5.5 6.4 8.4 10.5 13 15 17 19 21

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Series d3 H12 10 11.5 15 19 23 26 30 34 37

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(f) t13 2.6 3 4 5 5.7 6.2 7.7 8.7 9.7

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t2 + 0.1 0.2 0.45 0.7 0.2 0.7 0.7 1.2 1.2 1.7
0
Co
Note 1 : Size shown in brackets are of second preference.

Note 2 : Clearance hold d1 according to medium and fine series of IS : 1821 ‘Dimensions for clearance
clearance holes for bolts and screws (second revision)’
TABLE II
Dimensions and designation of countersink - Type B according to IS 3406 (Part 1) 1986
90° +--1°
d3
t1
t2
d1
FINE (f)
For Norminal Size 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 (14) 16 (18) 20 22 24
Medium d1 H12 4.3 5.3 6.4 8.4 10.5 13 15 17 19 21 23 25
Series d2 H12 6.3 8.3 10.4 12.4 16.5 20.5 25 28 31 34 37 48.2
52 (f) t13 1.7 2.4 2.9 3.3 4.4 5.5 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.513.1
14 t2 + 0.1
0 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 1
Note 1 : Sizes shown in brackets are of second perference.

Note 2 : Clearance hole d1 accodring to medium and fine series of IS : 1821 - 1982.
Designation : A countersink Type B with clearance hole of fine (f) series and having nominal size 10 shall be designated
as - Countersink B f 10 - IS : 3406.
TABLE III
Dimensions and designation of countersink - Type C according to IS 3406 (Part 1) 1986
ed
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90° +--1°
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d2
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t1
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d1
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For Screw Size No. (0) (1) 2 (3) 4 (5) 6 (7) 8 10 (12) 14 (16)
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d1 H12 1.6 2 2.4 2.8 3.1 3.5 3.7 4.2 4.5 5.1 5.8 6.7 8.4
Co
d1 H12 3.1 3.8 4.6 5.2 5.9 6.6 7.2 8.1 8.7 10.1 11.4 13.2 16.6
t1 3 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.6 3 3.4 3.9 4.9
Note : Size given in brackets are of second perference.
Designation : A countersink Type C for screw size 2 shall be designated as - Countersink C 2 - IS : 3406.
TABLE IV
Dimensions and designation of countersink - Type E according to IS 3406 (Part 1) 1986
d2
t1
d1
For Screw Size No. 10 12 16 20 22 24
d1 H12 10.5 13 17 21 23 25
d2 H12 19 24 31 34 37 40
3
t1 5.5 7 9 11.5 12 13
75o 60o
Note : Clearance hold d1 according to fine series of IS : 1821 - 1982
Designation : A countersink Type C for screw size 2 shall be designated as - Countersink C 2 - IS : 3406.
Use of code designation
Use of dimension 90° +--1° 90° +--1°
0.3+0.1
The dimension of the countersink can be expressed by
0
8.6H13 8H12
diameter of the countersink and the depth of the
countersink.
90° +--1° 4.5H13 4.3H13
90° +--1°
ed
0.3 +0.1
WHEN INDICATING THE DIAMETER OF COUNTERSINK

0
2.1
8H2
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2.2
pu M 90° +--1°
ish
8.6H13
S
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4.5 H13 4.3 H13
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WHEN INDICATING THE DEPTH OF COUNTERSINK IN THE CASE OF COMPONENTS WITH: S < t1
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Counterboring and spot facing

t t rig

• differentiate counterboring and spot facing
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• state the types of counterbores and their uses

• determine the correct counterbore sizes for different holes.
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Counterboring Counterbore (Tool)
Counterboring is an operation of enlarging a hole to a The tool used for counterboring is called a counterbore.
even depth to house heads of socket heads or cap screws (Fig 2). Counterbores will have two or more cutting edges.
with the help of a counterbore tool. (Fig 1)
At the cutting end, a pilot is provided to guide the tool
Fig 1 concentric to the previously drilled hole. The pilot also
helps to avoid chattering while counterboring. (Fig 3)
Counterbores are available with solid pilots or with

COUNTER BORING
interchangeable pilots. The interchangeable pilot provides
flexibility of counterboring on different diameters of holes.
Spot facing
Spot facing is a machining operation for producing a flat

seat for bolt head, washer or nut at the opening of a drilled
hole. The tool is called a spot facer or a spot facing tool.
Spot facing is similar to counterboring, except that it is
can be used for spot facing as well. (Fig 4)
Fig 2 Spot facing is also done by fly cutters by end-cutting
action. The cutter blade is inserted in the slot of the holder,
which can be mounted on to the spindle. (Fig 5)
Fig 5
FIXING
WEDGE
REPLACEABLE
CUTTER PILOT
d2
Counterbore sizes and specification
d
Counterbore sizes are standardised for each diameter of
screws as per BIS.
ed
There are two main types of counterbores. Type H and
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Fig 3 pu M Type K.
ish
The type H counterbores are used for assemblies with
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slotted cheese head, slotted pan head and cross
recessed pan head screws. The type K counterbores are
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used in assemblies with hexagonal socket head cap-

screws.
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For fitting different types of washers the counterbore

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standards are different in Type H and Type K.
The clearance hole d1 are of two different grades i.e.

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medium (m) and fine (f) and are finished to H13 and H12
dimensions.
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Fig 4
The table given below is a portion from I S 3406 (Part 2)
1986. This gives dimensions for Type H and Type K
counterbores.
Counterbore and Clearance Hole Sizes for Different Sizes

of Screws.
SPOT FACING
Turner - Turning
Letter and number drills

• state the range of drill sizes in number and letter drill series
• determine the number and letter drills for given diameters referring to the chart
• state the core drill.
Generally drills are manufactured to standard sizes in the In the number drill and the letter drill series, the correct
metric system. These drills are available in specified diameter of the drill is gauged with the help of the respective
steps. The drills, which are not covered under the above drill gauges. A drill gauge is a rectangular or square shaped
category, are manufactured in number and letter drills. metal piece containing a number of different diameter holes.
These drills are used where odd sizes of holes are to be The size of the hole is stamped against each hole. (Fig 1)
drilled.
Letter drills
The letter drill series consists of drill sizes from ‘A’ to ‘Z’.
The letter ‘A’ drill is the smallest with 5.944 mm diameter,
and the letter ‘Z’ is the largest, with a 10.490 mm diameter.
(Table 1)
TABLE 1
Letter drill sizes
ed
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Diameter
pu M
ish
Letter Inches mm
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A .234 5.944
B .238 6.045
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C .242 6.147
D .246 6.248
o ht
E .250 6.35
F .257 6.528
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G .261 6.629
Number drills
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H .266 6.756
I .272 6.909 The number drill series consists of drills numbered from 1
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J .277 7.036 to 80. The No.1 drill is the largest, with 5.791 mm diameter,
and the No.80 drill is the smallest, with 0.35 mm diameter.
K .281 7.137
(Table 2) There is no uniform variation in the drill diameters
L .290 7.366 from number to number. To find the correct diameter of a
M .295 7.493 number drill, refer to a drill Size Chart or a Handbook.
N .302 7.671 Number drill series are also known as ‘wire gauge’ series.
O .316 8.026 TABLE 2
P .323 8.204 Number drill sizes
Q .332 8.433 Diameter
R .339 8.611
No. Inches mm
S .348 8.839
1 .228 5.791
T .358 9.093
U .368 9.347 2 .221 5.613
V .377 9.576 3 .213 5.410
W .386 9.804
4 .209 5.309
X .397 10.084
5 .2055 5.220
Y .404 10.262
Z .413 10.490 6 .204 5.182
156
Number drill sizes (contd) Number drill sizes (contd)
Diameter Diameter
No. Inches mm No Inches mm
7 .201 5.105 45 .082 2.083
8 .199 5.055 46 .081 2.057
9 .196 4.978
47 .0785 1.994
10 .1935 4.915
48 .076 1.930
11 .191 4.851
49 .073 1.854
12 .189 4.801
50 .070 1.778
13 .185 4.699
51 .067 1.702
14 .182 4.623
52 .0635 1.613
15 .180 4.572
53 .0595 1.511
16 .177 4.496
17 .173 4.394 54 .055 1.395
18 .1695 4.305 55 .052 1.321
19 .166 4.216 56 .0465 1.181

57 .043 1.092
ed
20 .161 4.089
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21 .159
pu M 4.039 58 .042 1.067
ish
22 .157 3.988 59 0.41 1.041
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23 .154 3.912 60 .040 1.016
24 .152 3.861
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61 0.0390 1.00
25 .1495 3.797
62 0.0380 0.98
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26 .147 3.734
63 0.0370 0.95
27 .144 3.658
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64 0.0360 0.92
28 .1405 3.569
65 0.0350 0.90
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29 .136 3.454
66 0.033 0.85
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30 .1285 3.264
67 0.032 0.82
31 .120 3.048
68 0.031 0.79
32 .116 2.946
33 .113 2.870 69 0.0292 0.75
34 .111 2.819 70 0.0280 0.70
35 .110 2.794 71 0.0260 0.65

36 .1065 2.705 72 0.0240 0.65
37 .104 2.642 73 0.0240 0.60
38 .1015 2.578 74 0.0225 0.58
39 .0995 2.527 75 0.0210 0.52
40 .098 2.489 76 0.0200 0.50
41 .096 2.438 77 0.0180 0.45
42 .0935 2.375
78 0.0160 0.40
43 .089 2.261
79 0.0145 0.38
44 .086 2.184
80 0.0135 0.35
Core drill
A core drill is a specifically designed to remove a cylinder
of material, much like a hole saw. The material left inside
the drill bit is referred to as the core. The earliest core
drills were those used by the ancient egyptians, invented
in 3000 BC. core drills are used for many applications,
either where the core needs to be preserved, or where
drilling can be done more rapidly since much less material
needs to be removed than with a standard bit. This is the
reason that diamond-tipped core drills are commonly used
in construction to create holes for pipes, manholes and
other large-diameter penetrations in concrete or stone.
Core drills are used frequently in mineral exploration where
the coring may be several hundred to several thousand
feet in length. The core samples are recovered and
examined by geologists for mineral percentage and
stratigraphic contact points. This gives exploration
companies the information necessary to begin or abandon
mining operations in a particular area. Before the start of
world war two, Branner Newsom, a California mining
engineer, invented a core drill that could take out large
diameter cores up to 16 feet in length for mining shafts.
This type of core drill is longer in use as modern drill
technology allows standard drilling to accomplish the same
ed
at a much cheaper cost.
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pu M
ish
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Reamers
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• state the use of reamers

• state the advantages of reaming
o ht
• distinguish between hand and machine reaming

• name the elements of a reamer and state their functions.
t t rig
What is a reamer?
A reamer is a multi-point cutting tool used for enlarging by Classification of reamers
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finishing previously drilled holes to accurate sizes.(Fig 1)

Reamers are classified as hand reamers and machine
Advantages of ‘reaming’ reamers. (Figs 2 and 3)
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Reaming produces
- high quality surface finish
- dimensional accuracy to close limits.
Reaming by using hand reamers is done manually for
Also small holes which cannot be finished by other which great skill is needed.
processes can be finished.
Machine reamers are fitted on spindles of machine tools
and rotated for reaming.
Machine reamers are provided with morse taper shanks cutting and finishing of the hole. It is not provided with a
for holding on machine spindles. circular land.
Hand reamers have straight shanks with ‘square’ at the Bevel lead angle
end, for holding with tap wrenches. (Figs 2 & 3)
The angle formed by the cutting edges of the bevel lead
Parts of a hand reamer and the reamer axis.
The parts of a hand reamer are listed hereunder. Refer to Taper lead angle
Fig 4.
The angle formed by the cutting edges of the taper and
the reamer axis.
Terms relating to cutting geometry flutes
The grooves in the body of the reamer to provide cutting
edges, to permit the removal of chips, and to allow the
cutting fluid to reach the cutting edges. (Fig 5)
Heel
The edge formed by the intersection of the surface left by
the provision of a secondary clearance and the flute.
(Fig 5)
Cutting edge
The edge formed by the intersection of the face and the
circular land or the surface left by the provision of primary
ed
clearance. (Fig 5)
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pu M Face
ish
The portion of the flute surface adjacent to the cutting
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edge on which the chip impinges as it is cut from the
work. (Fig 5)
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o ht
Axis
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The longitudinal centre line of the reamer.

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Body
The portion of the reamer extending from the entering end
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of the reamer to the commencement.

Recess
The portion of the body which is reduced in diameter below
the cutting edges, pilot or guide diameters.
Shank
The portion of the reamer which is held and driven. It can Rake angles
be parallel or tapered.
The angles in a diametral plane formed by the face and a
Circular land radial line from the cutting edge. (Fig 6)
The cylindrically ground surface adjacent to the cutting
edge on the leading edge of the land.
Bevel lead
The bevel lead cutting portion at the entering end of the
reamer cutting its way into the hold. It is not provided with
a circular land.
Taper lead
The tapered cutting portion at the entering end to facilitate
Clearance angle Helix angle
The angles formed by the primary or secondary clearances The angle between the edge and the reamer axis. (Fig 8)
and the tangent to the periphery of the reamer at the cutting
edge. They are called primary clearance angle and
secondary clearance angle respectively. (Fig 7)
Hand reamers
ed
bl I
pu M
ish
• state the general features of hand reamers
• identify the types of hand reamers
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• distinguish between the uses of straight fluted and helical fluted reamers
• name the materials from which reamers are made and specify reamers.
be @
General features of hand reamers (Fig 1)

o ht
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Hand reamers are used to ream holes manually using tap

wrenches.
These reamers have a long taper lead.(Fig 2) This allows
to start the reamer straight and in alignment with the hole
being reamed.
Most hand reamers are for right hand cutting.
Helical fluted hand reamers have left hand helix. The left
Types, features and functions
hand helix will produce smooth cutting action and finish.
Hand reamers with different features are available for
Most reamers, machine or hand, have uneven spacing of
meeting different reaming conditions. The commonly used
teeth. This feature of reamers helps to reduce chattering
types are listed here under.
while reaming. (Fig 3)
Parallel hand reamer with parallel shank (Fig 4) Taper pin hand reamer (Fig 8)
A reamer which has virtually parallel cutting edges with This reamer has tapered cutting edges for reaming taper
taper and bevel lead. The body of the reamer is integral holes to suit taper pins. A taper pin reamer is made with a
with a shank. The shank has the nominal diameter of the taper pin of 1 in 50. These reamers are available with
cutting edges. One end of the shank is square shaped for straight or helical flutes.
tuning it with a tap wrench. Parallel reamers are available
Use of straight and helical fluted reamers (Fig 9)
with straight and helical flutes. This is the commonly used
hand reamer for reaming holes with parallel sides.
Reamers commonly used in workshop produce H8 holes.
Hand reamer with pilot (Fig 5)
For this type of reamer, a portion of the body is cylindrically
ground to form a pilot at the entering end. The pilot keeps
the reamer concentric with the hole being reamed.(Fig 3)
ed
Straight fluted reamers are useful for general reaming work.
bl I
pu M Helical fluted reamers are particularly suitable for reaming
ish
holes with keyway grooves or special lines cut into them.
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The helical flutes will bridge the gap and reduce binding
and chattering.
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Material of hand reamers

When the reamers are made as a one-piece construction,
o ht
high speed steel is used. When they are made as two-

Socket reamer with parallel shank (Figs 6 and 7) piece construction then the cutting portion is made of high
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This reamer has tapered cutting edges to suit metric morse speed steel while the shank portion is made of carbon
tapers. The shank is integral with the body, and is square steel. They are butt-welded together before manufacturing.
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shaped for driving. The flutes are either straight or helical. Specifications of a reamer
The socket reamer is used for reaming internal morse
To specify a reamer the following data is to be given.
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tapered holes.
• Type
• Flute
• Shank end
• Size
Example
Hand reamer, straight flute, parallel shank of Ø 20 mm.
Drill size for reaming
• determine the hole size for reaming.
For reaming with a hand or a machine reamer, the hole Determine the drill hole sizes for the following reamers:
drilled should be smaller than the reamer size.
i 15 mm
The drilled hole should have sufficient metal for finishing
with the reamer. Excessive metal will impose a strain on ii 4 mm
the cutting edge of the reamer and damage it. iii 40 mm
Calculating drill size for reamer iv 19 mm.
A method generally practised in workshop is by applying Answer
the following formula.
i _________________________________________
Drill size = Reamed size – (Undersize + Oversize)
ii _________________________________________
Finished size
iii _________________________________________
Finished size is the diameter of the reamer.
iv _________________________________________
Undersize
Note
Undersize is the recommended reduction in size for different
ranges of drill diameter. (See Table 1) If the reamed hole is undersize, the cause is
TABLE 1 that the reamer is worn out.
ed
Undersizes for reaming
bl I
pu M Always inspect the condition of the reamer before com-
ish
Diameter of Undersize of mencing reaming.
ready reamed rough bored
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For obtaining good surface finish
hole (mm) hole (mm)
under 5 0.1.....0.2 Use a coolant while reaming. Remove metal
be @
chips from the reamer frequently. Advance the

5......20 0.2.....0.3 reamer slowly into the work.
o ht
21....50 0.3.....0.5
Defects in reaming - Causes and remedies
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over 50 0.5.....1
Reamed hole undersize
Oversize
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If a worn out reamer is used, it may result in the reamed

It is generally considered that a twist drill will make a hole hole being undersize. Do not use such reamers.
larger than its diameter. The oversize for calculation pur-
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poses is taken as 0.05 mm - for all diameters of drills. For Always inspect the condition of the reamer before using.
light metals the undersize will be chosen 50% larger. Surface finish rough
Example The causes may be any one of the following or a combina-
A hole is to be reamed on mild steel with a 10 mm reamer. tion thereof.
What will be the diameter of the drill for drilling the hole - Incorrect application
before reaming?
- Swarf accumulated in reamer flutes
Drill size = Reamed size – (Undersize + Oversize)
- Inadequate flow of coolant
(Reamed size) = 10 mm
- Feed rate too fast
Undersize as per table = 0.2 mm
While reaming apply a steady and slow feed-rate.
Oversize = 0.05 mm
Ensure a copious supply of the coolant.
Drill size = 10 mm – 0.25 mm
Do not turn the reamer in the reverse direction.
= 9.75 mm
Turner - Turning
Coolant and lubricant

• state what is cutting fluid
• state the function of cutting fluids & their advantages
• state the properties of a good cutting fluid
• list the different types of cutting fluids
• select appropriate cutting fluids for different materials.
Cutting fluids and compounds are the substances used • Straight mineral oil
for efficient cutting while cutting operations take place.
• Chemical solution (synthetic fluids)
Functions
• Compounded or blended oil
The functions of cutting fluids are:
• Fatty oils
- to cool the tool as well as the workpiece
• Soluble oil (Emulsified oil-suds)
- to reduce the friction between the chip and the tool
Straight mineral oil
face by lubricating
Straight mineral oils are the coolants which can be used
- to prevent the chip from getting welded to the tool
undiluted. Use of straight mineral oil as a coolants has
cutting edge
ed
the following disadvantages.
- to flush away the chips
bl I
pu M It gives off a cloud of smoke.
ish
- to prevent corrosion of the work and the machine.
It has little effect as a cutting fluid.
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Advantages
Hence straight mineral oils are poor coolants. But kerosene
As the cutting fluid cools the tool, the tool will retain its which is a straight mineral oil is widely used as a coolant
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hardness for a longer period; so the tool life is more. for machining aluminium and its alloys.
Because of the lubricating function, the friction is reduced Chemical solution (Synthetic oil)
o ht
and the heat generated is less. A higher cutting speed

These consist of carefully chosen chemicals in dilute
can be selected.
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solution with water. They possess a good flushing and a

As the coolant avoids the welding action of the chip to the good cooling action, and are non-corrosive and non-
tool-cutting edge, the built up edge is not formed. The tool
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clogging. Hence they are widely used for grinding and

is kept sharp and a good surface finish is obtained. sawing. They do not cause infection and skin trouble. They
are artificially coloured.
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As the chips ar flushed away the cutting zone will be neat.

The machine or job will not get rusted because the coolant Compounded or blended oil
prevents corrosion. These oils are used in automatic lathes. These oils are
Properties of a good cutting fluid much cheaper and have more fluidity than fatty oil.
A good cutting fluid should be sufficiently viscous. Fatty oil
At cutting temperature, the coolant should not catch fire. Lard oil and vegetable oil are fatty oils. They are used on
heavy duty machines with less cutting speed. They are
It should have a low evaporation rate. also used on bench-works for cutting threads by taps and
It should not corrode the workpiece or machine. dies.
It must be stable and should not foam or fume. Soluble oil (Emulsified oil)
It should not create any skin problems to the operator. Water is the cheapest coolant but it is not suitable because
it causes rust to ferrous metals. An oil called soluble oil is
Should not give off bad smell or cause itching etc. which added to water which gets a non-corrosive effect with water
are likely to irritate the operator, thus reducing his efficiency. in the ratio of about 1:20. It dissolves in water giving a
Should be transparent. white milky solution. Soluble oil is an oil blend mixed with
an emulsifier.
Types of cutting fluids
Other ingredients are mixed with the oil to give better
The following are the common cutting fluids. protection against corrosion, and help in the prevention of
skin irritations.
163
Soluble oil is generally used as a cutting fluid for centre Soft soap and caustic soda serve as emulsifying agents.
lathes, drilling, milling and sawing.
A chart showing coolants for different metals is given below.
Recommended Cutting Fluids for Various Metals and Different Operations
Material Drilling Reaming Threading Turning Milling
Aluminium Soluble oil Soluble oil Soluble oil Soluble oil Soluble oil
Kerosene Kerosene Kerosene Lard oil
Kerosene and Mineral oil Lard oil Mineral oil
lard oil Dry
Brass Dry Dry Soluble oil Soluble oil Dry

Soluble oil Soluble oil Lard oil Soluble oil
Mineral oil Mineral oil
Lard oil Lard oil
Bronze Dry Dry Soluble oil Soluble oil Dry

Soluble oil Soluble oil Lard oil Soluble oil
Mineral oil Mineral oil
Lard oil Lard oil
ed
Cast Iron Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry
Air jet Soluble oil Sulphurized oil Soluble oil Soluble oil
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pu M
ish
Copper Dry Soluble oil Soluble oil Soluble oil Dry
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Soluble oil Lard oil Lard oil Soluble oil
Steel Soluble oil Soluble oil Sulphurized oil Soluble oil Soluble oil
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alloys Sulphurized oil Sulphurized oil Lard oil Mineral

Mineral lard oil Mineral lard oil
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General Soluble oil soluble oil Sulphurized oil Soluble oil Soluble oil
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purpose Sulphurized oil Sulphurized oil Lard oil Lard oil

steel Lard oil Lard oil
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Mineral lard oil

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Methods of applying lubricant

• name the different methods of lubrication
• state the gravity feed methods of applying lubrication
• state the splash methods of applying lubrication
• name the different types of lubricators
• distinguish between the different methods of lubrication.
The following methods are used for efficient Gravity feed method
lubrication
There are numerous ways of employing this principle, vary-
- Gravity feed method ing from the simple oil hole to the more elaborate wick
- Force feed method and glass-sided drip feed lubricators in which the flow of
the oil may be controlled and observed through the glass.
- Splash method A selection of these lubricators is shown in Fig 1.
ed
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pu M
ish
Force (Pressure) feed method
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There are various systems of lubrication employing a pres-
sure feed to the lubricant, and the most important of such
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systems may be classified roughly into the following.

- Continuous feed of oil under pressure to each bearing
o ht
concerned. In this method an oil pump driven by the

machine delivers oil to the bearings and back to a sump
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from which it is drawn by the pump.

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- Pressure feed by hand pump in which a charge of oil is

delivered to each bearing at intervals (once or twice a
day) by the machine operator. (Fig 2)
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- Oil or grease gun method. The oil hole leading to each

bearing is fitted with a nipple and by pressing the nose
of the gun against this the lubricant is forced into the
bearing. (Figs 3a, b, c & d)
Splash method
In this method the shaft, or something attached to it, ac-
tually dips into the oil and a stream of lubricant is continu-
ally splashed round the parts requiring lubrication. This
method is employed for the gears and bearings inside all
gear drives, the lower parts of the gears actually dipping in
the oil. (Figs 4a, b and c)
A common method of employing splash lubrication is known
as ‘ring oiling.’
Handling and Care:-
1. Stored in clean and dry location
2. Storage temperature should remain moderate at all
times.
3. Lubricants in storage should be located away from all
types of Industrial contamination including dust and
humidity.
4. Brings must be kept tight at all times and drum covers
should be used when ever drums are stored in the up
right position.
5. Lubricants are stored in the horizontal position on
ed
proper storage racks allowing the containers to be rotate
bl I
and used on as first - in first out basis.
pu M
ish
6. Eliminate confusion with proper labeling.
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7. Be sure that the proper transfer equipment and
procedure are employed for that specific lubricants.
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Turner - Turning
Lathe mandrels
• define a mandrel
• state the constructional features of a solid mandrel
• identify and name the different types of mandrels
• enumerate the uses of different mandrels.
Types of mandrels and their uses The centres made in these mandrels are ‘B’ type i.e.
protected centres. In such centres the working portion is
Sometimes it is necessary to machine the outer surfaces deep and does not get damaged while handling.
of cylindrical works accurately in relation to a hole con-
centric that has been previously bored in the centre of the Types of mandrels
work. In such cases the work is mounted on a device • Expansion mandrel
known as a mandrel.
• Gang mandrel
Mandrel (Fig 1)
• Stepped mandrel
Lathe mandrels are devices used to hold the job for ma-
chining on lathes. They are mainly used for machining • Screw or threaded mandrel
outside diameters with reference to bores which have been • Taper shank mandrel
duly finished by either reaming or boring on a lathe.
ed
• Cone mandrel
bl I
pu M Expansion mandrel (Fig 3)
ish
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be @
o ht
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Constructional features of a solid mandrel (Fig 2)

The standard solid mandrel is generally made of tool steel
which has been hardened and ground to a specific size
and is ground with a taper of 1:2000.
The two most common types of expansion mandrels are:
- split bushing mandrel
- adjustable strip mandrel.
Split bushing mandrel
A split bushing mandrel consists of a solid tapered man-
drel, and a split bushing, which expands when forced on
to the mandrel. The range of application of each solid
mandrel is greatly increased by fitting any number of dif-
ferent sized bushings. As a result only a few mandrels are
required.
It is pressed or driven into a bored or reamed hole in a
workpiece so that it can be mounted on a lathe. The ends Adjustable strip mandrel
of the mandrel are machined smaller than the body and The adjustable strip mandrel consists of a cylindrical body
and are provided with a flat for the clamping screw of the with four tapered grooves cut along its length, and a sleeve,
lathe carrier. This preserves accuracy and prevents dam- which is slotted to correspond with the tapered grooves.
age to the mandrel when the lathe carrier is clamped on. Four strips are fitted in the slots.
167
When the body is driven in,the strips are forced out by the spindle. The extending portion can be machined to suit
tapering grooves and expanded radially. Sets of different the workpiece to be turned. Taper shank mandrels are
sized strips greatly increase the range of each mandrel. generally used to hold small workpieces.
This type of mandrel is not suitable for thin walled work,
Two common types of taper shank mandrels are:
since the force applied by the strips may distort the
workpiece. - expansion stud mandrel
Gang mandrel (Fig 4) - threaded stud mandrel.
A gang mandrel consists of a parallel body with a flange at

one end and a threaded portion at the other end. The inter-
nal diameters of workpieces are larger than the mandrel
body diameters by not more than 0.025 mm. A number of
ed
pieces can be mounted and held securely when the nut is
tightened against the ‘U’ washer. The nut should not be Expansion stud mandrel
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over-tightened, otherwise inaccuracies will result.
ish
The expansion stud mandrel is slotted and has an internal
A gang mandrel is especially useful when machining op- thread. When a tapered screw is tightened, the outside
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erations have to be performed on a number of thin pieces diameter of the stud expands against the inside of the
which might easily be distorted, if held by any other method. workpiece. This type of mandrel is useful when machining
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a number of similar parts whose internal diameters vary

Stepped mandrel slightly.
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The stepped mandrel is manufactured in order to reduce Threaded stud mandrel

the number of mandrels. It differs from the plain mandrel in
The threaded stud mandrel has a projecting portion which
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the fact that a number of steps are provided on it. Its use
saves time in holding various bored works. is threaded to suit the internal thread of the work to be
machined. This type of mandrel is useful for holding
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Screw or threaded mandrel (Fig 5) workpieces which have blind holes.

Cone mandrel (Fig 7)
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A cone mandrel is a solid mandrel. It has a portion taper

turned with a steep taper and integral with the body. One
end of the mandrel is threaded. A loose cone slides over
the plain turned portion of the body of the mandrel. It has
the same steep taper as that of the tapered integral part.
A job of large bore, can be held between these two tapers
and tightly secured by means of nut, washer and spacing
collars.
A threaded mandrel is used when it is necessary to hold

and machine workpieces having a threaded hole.
This mandrel has a threaded portion which corresponds
to the internal thread of the work to be machined. An un-
dercut at the shoulders ensures the work to fit snugly
(tightly) against the flat shoulder.
Taper shank mandrel (Fig 6)
Taper shank mandrels are not used between lathe cen-
tres. They are fitted to the internal taper of the headstock
Turner - Turning
The Indian standard system of limits & fits

• state what is mass production and interchangeable manufacture
• state the necessity of the limits system
• name the different standard systems of limits and fits accepted and adopted internationally.
Mass production
When identical components are manufactured in large though not necessarily equal to the exact size, will not
quantities it is stated that they are mass produced. These affect the functioning of the components. This necessitates
identical components should fulfil: the introduction of the limit system.
- dimensional accuracy Internationally accepted systems of limits and fits
- degree of surface finish - British Standard System of Limits and Fits (B.S.).
- interchangeability. - International Standard Organization System of Limits
- Standardization and Fits. (I.S.O.)
Mass production has the advantage of interchangeable - Bureau of Indian Standard System of Limits and Fits
manufacture of components machined by different opera- (B.I.S.)
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tors on different machine tools under different environments Apart from the above most commonly used limit systems,
that can be assembled without any rectification with their
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mating parts. This avoids selective assembly which is time
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components for some of their industries.
consuming.
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Advantages of the limit system
Necessity of limit system
• Interchangeability is assured.
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It is practically impossible to machine components to an

exact size, due to the varying skills of the operators, the • Not necessary to employ highly skilled operators.
condition of the machine tools, the quality of the cutting • Not necessary to use conventional measuring instru-
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tools and the accuracy of the precision instrument used. ments.

Hence some permissible deviations to the exact size are
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accepted and given, and the operator is expected to • Time for the manufacture of components will be com-
produce the components within the limits, which, even paratively less.
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Definition of terms under B.I.S.

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• define the terms involved in the B.I.S. system of limits
• state the terms under BIS system of limits and fits
• define each term under the BIS system of limits and fits.
The B.I.S. standard system of limits and fits is followed Maximum limit of size
by the industries in our country as the standard. It is
It is the greater of the two limit sizes..(Fig 2) (Table 1)
adopted from the I.S.O. and B.S. standards with modifi-
cations to suit our conditions and requirements. For the Minimum limit of size
purpose of B.I.S. standard, the following definitions and
it is the smaller of the two limits of size. (Fig 2).(Table 1)
symbols are followed.
Actual size
Size
It is the size of the component by actual measurement
It is a number expressed in a particular unit in the
after it is manufactured, it should lie between the two limits
measurement of length.
of size if the component is to be accepted.
Basic size
Limits of size
It is the size based on which the dimensional deviations
These are the extreme permissible sizes within which the
are given. (Fig 1)
operator is expected to make the component. (Fig 2)
(Maximum and minimum limits)
169
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Shaft
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component including those which are not cylindrical are
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designated as shaft. (Fig 3)
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Hole
In the BIS system of limits & fits, all internal features of a
component including those which are not cylindrical are
designated as * hole’. (Fig 3)
TABLE 1 (Examples)
SI. Size of Components Upper Deviation Lower Deviation Max-Limit Min-Limit

No. of Size of Size
+ 0.008
1 - 0.005
+0.008 - 0.005 20.008 19.995
20.00
+ 0.028
+ 0.007
2 20.00
+0.028 +0.007 20.028 20.007
- 0.012
- 0.021
3 -0.012 -0.021 19.988 19.979
20.00
Deviation
It is the algebraic difference between a size, to its
corresponding basic size. It may be positive, negative or
zero. (Fig 2)
Upper deviation
It is the algebraic difference between the maximum limit
of size and its corresponding basic size. (Fig 2) (Table 1)
Lower deviation
It is the algebraic difference between the minimum limit of
size and its corresponding basic size. (Fig 2) (Table 1)
Upper deviation is the deviation which gives
the maximum limit of size. Lower deviation is
the deviation which gives the minimum limit
of size.
Actual deviation
It is the algebraic difference between the actual size and
its corresponding basic size. (Fig 2)
Tolerance
It is the difference between the maximum limit of size and
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the minimum limit of size. It is always positive and is
expressed only as a number without a sign. (Fig 2)
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Zero line
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In graphical representation of the above terms, the zero
line represents the basic size. This line is also called as
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the line of zero deviation. (Figs 1 and 2).

Fundamental deviation
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There are 25 fundamental deviations in the BIS system

represented by letter symbols (capital letters for holes
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and small letters for shafts), i.e for holes - ABCD....Z

excluding I,L,O,Q & W. (Fig 4)
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Fundamental tolerance
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This is also called as ‘grade of tolerance’. In the Indian

Standard System, there are 18 grades of tolerances
represented by number symbols, both for hole and shaft,
denoted as IT01, IT0, IT1....to IT16. (Fig 8) A high number
gives a large tolerance zone.
The grade of tolerance refers to the accuracy
of manufacture.
In addition to the above, four sets of letters JS, ZA, ZB &

ZC are included. For fine mechanisms CD, EF and FG are
added. (Ref.lS:919 Part II -1979)
For shafts, the same 25 letter symbols but in small letters
are used. (Fig 5)
The position of tolerance zone with respect to the zero
line is shown in Figs 6 and 7.
In a standard chart, the upper and lower deviations for
each combination of fundamental deviation and
fundamental tolerance are indicated for sizes ranging up
to 500 mm. (Refer to IS 919)
Toleranced size
This includes the basic size, the fundamental deviation
and the grade of tolerance.
Example
25 H7 - toleranced size of a hole whose basic size is 25.
The fundamental deviation is represented by the letter
symbol H and the grade of tolerance is represented by the
number symbol 7. (Fig 9)
25.2 mm is known as the maximum limit. (Fig 12)

24.8 mm is known as the minimum limit. (Fig 13)
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25 e8 - is the toleranced size of a shaft whose basic size
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is 25. The fundamental deviation is represented by the
letter symbol ‘e’ and the grade of tolerance is represented The difference between the maximum and minimum limits
by the number 8. (Fig 10) is the TOLERANCE. Tolerance here is 0.4 mm (Fig 14)
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A very wide range of selection can be made by the

combination of the 25 fundamental deviations and 18 grades All dimensions of the hole within the tolerance zone are of
of tolerances. acceptable size as in Fig 15.
Example
In figure 13, a hole is shown as 25 ± 0.2 which means that
25 mm is the basic dimension and ± 0.2 is the deviation.
As pointed out earlier, the permissible variation from the
basic dimension is called ‘DEVIATION’.
The deviation is mostly given on the drawing with the
dimensions.
In the example 25 ± 0.2, ± 0.2 is the deviation of the hole
of 25 mm, diameter. (Fig 11) This means that the hole is of
acceptable size if its dimension is between. As per BIS 919, while dimensioning the
25 + 0.2 = 25.2 mm components as a drawing convention, the
deviations are expressed as tolerances.
or 25 - 0.2 = 24.8 mm.
Unilateral & bilateral system or negative values and have both the maximum limit and
minimum limit more than the basic size or less than the
When the deviations given for a particular combination of
basic size respectively, then it is called unilateral
the symbols are positive and negative so as to give the
tolerancing. (Fig 17)
maximum limit more than the basic size and the minimum
limit less than the basic size, then we call it bilateral
tolerancing. (Fig 16) If the deviations have only positive
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Fits and their classification as per the indian standard
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• define ‘Fit as per the indian standard
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• list out the terms used in limits and fits as per the indian standard
• state examples for each class of fit
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• interpret the graphical representation of different classes of fits.
Fit
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It is the relationship that exists between two mating parts,

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a hole and a shaft, with respect to their dimensional

differences before assembly.
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Expression of a fit
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A fit is expressed by writing the basic size of the fit first,

(the basic size which is common to both the hole and the
shaft,) followed by the symbol for the hole, and by the
symbol for the shaft.
Example 20 H7/g6
Example
With the fit given, we can find the deviations from the chart.
30 H7/g6 or 30 H7 - g6 or 30 H7/g6
For a hole 20 H7 we find in the table + 21.
Clearance
These numbers indicate the deviations in microns.
In a fit the clearance is the different between the size of (1 micrometre = 0.001 mm)
the hole and the size of the shaft which is always positive.
The limits of the hole are 20 + 0.021 = 20.021 mm and
Clearance fit 20.000 + 0 = 20.000mm. (Fig 2)
For a shaft 20 g6 we find in the table - 7
It is a fit which always provides clearance. Here the
tolerance zone of the hole will be above the tolerance zone - 20.
of the shaft. (Fig 1)
So the limits of the shaft are 20-0.007 =19.993 mm and
20 - 0.020 =19.980mm.(Fig 3)
There is always a clearance between the hole and the
shaft. This is the clearance fit.
Interference
It is the difference between the size of the hole and the
shaft before assembly, and this is negative. In this case,
the shaft is always larger than the hole size.
Interference Fit
It is a fit which always provides interference. Here the
tolerance zone of the hole will be below the tolerance zone
of the shaft. (Fig 8)
Maximum clearance
In a. clearance fit or transition fit, it is the difference between
the maximum hole and minimum shaft. (Fig 4) Example Fit 25H7/p6 (Fig 9)
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The limits of hole are 25.000 and 25.021 mm and the limits
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bigger than the hole. This is an interference fit.
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Minimum Clearance
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In a clearance fit, it is the difference between the minimum

hole and the maximum shaft. (Fig 5)
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Maximum interference
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In an interference fit or transition fit, it is the algebraic

difference between the minimum hole and the maximum
shaft. (Fig 10)
The minimum clearance is 20.000 -19.993 = 0.007mm.

(Fig 6)
The maximum clearance is 20.021 -19.980 = 0.041 mm.

(Fig 7)
Minimum interference
In an interference fit, it is the algebraic difference between

the maximum hole and the minimum shaft. (Fig 11)
In the example shown in figure 9
The maximum interference is = 25.035 - 25.000
The fundamental deviation symbol ‘H’ is chosen for the
holes, when the hole basis system is followed. This is
because the lower deviation of the hole ‘H’ is zero. It is
known as “basic hole’. (Fig 14)
= 0.035
Shaft basis system
The minimum interference is = 25.022 - 25.021 In a standard system of limits and fits, where the size of
the shaft is kept constant and the variations are given to
= 0.001 the hole for obtaining different class of fits, then it is known
as shaft basis. The fundamental deviation symbol ‘h’ is
Transition fit
chosen for the shaft when the shaft basis is followed. This
is because the upper deviation of the shaft “h” is zero. It is
It is a fit which may sometimes provide clearance, and
known as basic shaft’. (Fig 15)
sometimes interference. When this class of fit is
represented graphically, the tolerance zones of the hole
and shaft will overlap each other. (Fig 12)
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The hole basis system is followed mostly. This is be-cause,
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depending upon the class of fit, it will be always easier to
alter the size of the shaft because it is external, but it is
difficult to do minor alterations to a hole. Moreover the
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Example Fit 75 H8/j7 (Fig 13) hole can be produced by using standard toolings.
The three classes of fits, both under hole basis and shaft
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basis, are illustrated in Fig 16 & 17.

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The limits of the hole are 75.000 and 75.046 mm and those
of the shaft are 75.018 and 74.988 mm.
Maximum Clearance = 75.046 - 74.988 = 0.058 mm.
If the hole is 75.000 and the shaft 75.018 mm, the shaft is
0.018 mm, bigger than the hole. This results in interference.
This is a transition fit because it can result in a clearance
fit or an interference fit.
Hole basis system
In a standard system of limits and fits, where the size of

the hole is kept constant and the size of the shaft is varied
to get the different class of fits, then it is known as the
hole basis system.
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Hole basis tolerance applications

The hand wheel is fitted to the end of the spindle and held
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in place by a self-locking nut and washer. (Fig 18)

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Figure 21 illustrates a flanged spindle nose of a turret lathe

with a boring fixture attached. For simplicity in this
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example, the clamps holding the component to the fixture

have been omitted.
A light alloy pump impeller is shown pressed on to steel

shaft which runs on two bearings. (Fig 19)
The main bore is shown produced to an H7 limit and it is
used to provide support and location for the free end of the
boring bar, not directly but through the medium of a pilot
bush. Such a bush is made of brass or phosphor bronze.
The outside diameter of the busih is made to g6 limits to
provide for a close running location fit, and the bore to H8
limits to fit on an j7 bar end to give a normal running fit.
Such a machining operation would take place at a slow
speed. The fit of the blade tool in its bar slot can be
treated in the same way. (Fig 20)
The detail shows the end mounting of the crank shaft of a This (Fig 24) illustrates a diagram of a bevel gear driven
reciprocating type of compressor. (Fig 22) camshaft, which is supported in two bearing bushes housed
in brackets attached to a machine bed.
This (Fig 23) details a sectional view of a part of a gearbox This (Fig 25) shows a hardened steel roller fitted into a
in which the upper gears rotate with the drive shaft. soft steel holder. The roller must be free to rotate on the
hardened steel pin which does not itself rotate.
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Further classification of fits their applications and service conditions
Fit designation Classification Typical applications and service conditions

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Clearance H11 - c11 Extra loose running it Where large clearance is required and where dirty conditions
or corrosion are problems. Ex. Agricultural and steel mill pulleys.
Clearance H9 - d10 Loose running fit Large bearings or pulley and parts requiring ease of assembly.
Clearance H9 - e9 Easy running fit For smaller applications where a fairly large clearance can be
permitted, and where there is more than one bearing on a shaft
: Ex. Camshafts, selection shafts in gearboxes, rocker shafts.
Clearance H8 - f7 Normal running fit Generally used in medium and light engineering for easily
produced quality fits as required on gearbox shaft bearings,
gears on fixed shafts, guide bushes.
Clearance H7 - g6 Close running fit or Although called a running fit, the very small clearance makes it
location unsuitable for continuous running and should be used only for
intermittent or light loadings. May be used for spigot locators.
Clearance H7 - h6 Precision slide fit or Although there is zero fundamental deviation, in practice there
is very small clearance enabling this fit to be used on non-
running combinations, such as, precision sliding and jig location
fits.
Fit designation Classification Typical applications and service conditions
Transition H7 - k6 Push or easy keying fit For location fits, not requiring frequent removal or where vibration
of the part is to be prevented.
Transition H7 - n6 Tight keying fit Care needed in this selection as a transition fit. Some
combinations may, in practice, give an interference fit.
Interference H7 - p6 Light drive fit This is a true interference fit, providing a press fit for ferrous
parts which are not to be damaged or overstrained in any
subsequent dismantling.
Interference H7 - s6 Heavy drive fit For ferrous parts requiring permanent or semi-permanent
assembly. (Light and heavy drive fits are frequently used for the
assembly of non-ferrous parts such as bearing sleeves and
bushes, the actual type of fit, depending upon the size of bush
and its function.)
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TABLE 1 FOR TOLERANCE ZONES & LIMITS (DIMENSIONS IN m m)
s6 r6 p6 n6 k6 js6 h6 h7 h9 h11 g6 f7 e8 d9 c11 b11 a11 S7 R7 P7 N7 K7 JS7 H7 H8 H9 H11 G7 F8 E9 D10 C11 B11 A11
From 1 +20 +16 +12 +10 +6 +3 0 0 0 0 -2 -6 -14 -20 - 60 -140 -270 -14 -10 -6 -4 0 +5 +10 +14 +25 +60 +12 +20 +39 +60 +120 +200 +330
up to 3 +14 +10 +6 +4 0 -3 -6 -10 -25 -60 -8 -16 -28 -45 -120 -200 -330 -24 -20 -16 -14 -10 -5 0 0 0 0 +2 +6 +14 +20 +60 +140 + 270
Over 3 +27 +23 +20 +16 +9 +4 0 0 0 0 -4 -10 -20 -30 -70 -140 -270 -15 -11 -8 -4 +3 +6 +12 +18 +30 +75 +16 +28 +50 +78 +145 +215 +345
up to 6 +19 +15 +12 +8 +1 -4 -8 -12 -30 -75 -12 -22 -28 -60 -145 -215 -345 -27 -23 -20 -16 -9 -6 0 0 0 0 +4 +10 +20 +30 +70 +140 +270
Over 6 +32 +28 +24 +19 +10 +4.5 0 0 0 0 -5 -13 -25 -40 -80 -150 -280 -17 -13 -9 -4 +5 +7.5 +15 +22 +36 +90 +20 +35 +61 +98 +170 +240 +370
up to 10 +23 +19 +15 +10 +1 -4.5 -9 -15 -36 -90 -14 -28 -47 -76 -170 -240 -370 -32 -28 -24 -19 -10 -7.5 0 0 0 0 +5 +13 +25 +40 +80 +150 +280
Over 10
up to 14 +39 +34 +29 +23 +12 +5.5 0 0 0 0 -6 -16 -32 -50 -95 -150 -290 -21 -16 -11 -5 +6 +9 +18 +27 +43 +110 +24 +43 +75 +120 +205 +260 +400
Over 14 +28 +23 +18 +12 +1 -5.5 -11 -18 -43 -110 -17 -34 -59 -93 -205 -260 -400 -39 -34 -29 -23 -12 -9 0 0 0 0 +7 +16 +32 +50 +95 +150 +290
up to 18
Over 18
up to 24 +48 +41 +35 +28 +15 +6.5 0 0 0 0 -7 -20 -40 -65 -110 -160 -300 -27 -20 -14 -7 +6 +10.5 +21 +33 +52 +130 +28 +53 +92 +149 +240 +290 +430
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Over 24 +35 +28 +22 +15 +2 -6.5 -13 -21 -52 -130 -20 -41 -73 -117 -240 -290 -430 -48 -41 -35 -28 -15 -10.5 0 0 0 0 +7 +20 +40 +65 +110 +160 +300
up to 30
Over 30 -120 -170 -310 +280 +330 +470

up to 40 +59 +50 +42 +33 +18 +8 0 0 0 0 -9 -25 -50 -80 -280 -330 -470 -34 -25 -17 -8 +7 +12.5 +25 +39 +62 +160 +34 +64 +112 +180 +120 +170 +310
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Over 40 +43 +34 +26 +17 +2 -8 -16 -25 -62 -160 -25 -50 -89 -142 -130 -180 -320 -59 -50 -42 -33 -18 -12.5 0 0 0 0 +9 +25 +50 +80 +290 +340 +480
up to 50 -290 -340 -480 +130 +180 +320
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Over 50 +72 +60 -140 -190 -340 -42 -30 +330 +380 +530
up to 65 +53 +41 +51 +39 +21 +9.5 0 0 0 0 -10 -30 -60 -100 -330 -380 -530 -72 -60 -21 -9 +9 +15 +30 +46 +74 +190 +40 +76 +134 +220 +140 +190 +340
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Over 65 +78 +62 +32 +20 +2 -9.5 -19 -30 -74 -190 -29 -60 -106 -174 -150 -200 -360 -48 -32 -51 -39 -21 -15 0 0 0 0 +10 +30 +60 +100 +340 +390 +550
up to 80 +59 +43 -340 -390 -550 -78 -62 +150 +200 +360
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Over 80 +93 +73 -170 -220 -380 -58 -38 +390 +440 +600
up to 100 +71 +51 +59 +45 +25 +11 0 0 0 0 -12 -36 -72 -120 -390 -440 -600 -93 -73 -24 -10 +10 +17.5 +35 +54 +87 +220 +47 +90 +159 +260 +170 +220 +380
Over 100 +101 +76 +37 +23 +3 -11 -22 -35 -87 -220 -34 -71 -126 -207 -180 -240 -410 -66 -41 -59 -45 -25 -17.5 0 0 0 0 +12 +36 +72 +120 +400 +460 +630
up to 120 +79 +54 -400 -460 -630 -101 -76 +180 +240 +410
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Over 120 +117 +88 -200 -260 -460 -77 -48 +450 +510 +710
up to 140 +92 +63 -450 -510 -710 -117 -88 +200 +260 +460
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Over 140 +125 +90 +68 +52 +28 +12.5 0 0 0 0 -14 -43 -85 -145 -210 -280 -520 -85 -50 -28 -12 +12 +20 +40 +63 +100 +250 +54 +106 +185 +305 +460 +530 +770
up to 160 +100 +65 +43 +27 +3 -12.5 -25 -40 -100 -250 -39 -83 -148 -245 -460 -530 -770 -125 -90 -68 -52 -28 -20 0 0 0 0 +14 +43 +85 +145 +210 +280 +520
Over 160 +133 +93 -230 -310 -580 -93 -53 +480 +560 +830
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up to 180 +108 +68 -480 -560 -830 -133 -93 +230 +310 +580
Over 180 +151 +106 -240 -340 -660 -105 -60 +530 +630 +950
ish
up to 200 +122 +77 -530 -630 -950 -151 -106 +240 +340 +660
Over 200 +159 +109 +79 +60 +33 +14.5 0 0 0 0 -15 -50 -100 -170 -260 -380 -740 -113 -63 -33 -14 +13 +23 +46 +72 +115 +290 +61 +122 +215 +355 +550 +670 +1030
up to 225 +130 +80 +50 +31 +4 -14.5 -29 -46 -115 -290 -44 -96 -172 -285 -550 -670 -1030 -159 -109 -79 -60 -33 -23 0 0 0 0 +15 +50 +100 +170 +260 +380 +740
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Over 225 +169 +113 -280 -420 -820 -123 -67 +570 +710 +1110
up to 250 +140 +84 -570 -710 -1110 -169 -113 +280 +420 +820
Over 250 +190 +126 -300 -480 -920 -138 -74 +620 +800 +1240
up to 280 +158 +94 +88 +66 +36 +16 0 0 0 0 -17 -56 -110 -190 -620 -800 -1240 -190 -126 -36 -14 +16 +26 +52 +81 +130 +320 +69 +137 +240 +400 +300 +480 +920
Over 280 +202 +130 +56 +34 +4 -16 -32 -52 -130 -320 -49 -108 -191 -320 -330 -540 -1050 -150 -78 -88 -66 -36 -26 0 0 0 0 +17 +56 +110 +190 +650 +860 +1370
up to 315 +170 +98 -650 -860 -1370 -202 -130 +330 +540 +1050
Over 315 +226 +144 -360 -600 -1200 -169 -87 +720 +960 +1500
up to 355 +190 +108 +98 +73 +40 +18 0 0 0 0 -18 -62 -125 -210 -720 -960 -1560 -226 -144 -41 -16 +17 +28.5 +57 +89 +140 +360 +75 +151 +265 +440 +360 +600 +1200
Over 355 +244 +150 +62 +37 +4 -18 -36 -57 -140 -360 -54 -119 -214 -350 -400 -680 -1350 -187 -93 -98 -73 -40 -28.5 0 0 0 0 +18 +69 +125 +210 +760 +1040 +1710
up to 400 +208 +114 -760 -1040 -1710 -244 -150 +400 +680 +1350
Over 400 +272 +166 -440 -760 -1500 -209 -103 +840 +1160 +1900
up to 450 +232 +126 +108 +80 +45 +20 0 0 0 0 -20 -68 -135 -230 -840 -1160 -1900 -272 -166 -45 -17 +18 31.5 +63 +97 +155 +400 +83 +165 +290 +480 +440 +760 +1500
179
Over 450 +292 +172 +68 +40 +5 -20 -40 -63 -155 -400 -60 -131 -232 -385 -480 -840 -1650 -229 -109 -108 -80 -45 -31.5 0 0 0 0 +20 +68 +135 +230 +880 +1240 +2050
up to 500 +252 +132 -880 -1240 -2050 -292 -172 +480 +840 +1650
Turner - Turning
Knurling
• define knurling operation
• state the purpose of knurling
• list out the different types of knurls and knurling patterns
• list out the grades of knurls
• distinguish between the various types of knurling tool-holders.
Knurling (Fig 1)
It is the operation of producing straight lined, diamond

shaped pattern or cross lined pattern on a cylindrical
external surface by pressing a tool called knurling tool.
Knurling is not a cutting operation but it is a forming
operation. Knurling is done at a slow spindle speed (1/3
times the turning speed). Soluble oil is to be used as
coolant mostly and, sometimes straight cutting oil may be
used to get better finish.
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Cross knurling (Fig 4)

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It is a knurling having a square shaped pattern. It is done

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by a set of rollers, one having straight teeth the other having

Purpose of knurling teeth at right angles to the axis of knurl.
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The purpose of knurling is to provide:

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- a good grip and make for positive handling.

- good appearance
- for raising the diameter to a small range for assembly
to get a press fit.
Types of knurls and knurling patterns
Concave knurling (Fig 5)
The following are the different types of knurling patterns.
This is done by a convex knurl on a concave surface. This
Diamond knurling, Straight knurling, Cross knurling, is done only by plunging the tool. The tool should not be
Concave knurling and Convex knurling. moved longitudinally. The length of the knurling is limited to
the width of the roller.
Diamond knurling (Fig 2)
It is a knurling of diamond shaped pattern. It is done by

using a set of rolls. One roller has got right hand helical
teeth and the other has left hand helical teeth.
Straight knurling (Fig 3)
It is a knurling of straight lined pattern. This is done by using

either a single roller or a double roller with straight teeth.
180
Convex knurling (Fig 6) Single roller knurling tool-holder (Fig 8)
This is done by using a concave knurl on a convex surface. It has only one single roller which produces a straight lined
This is also done by plunging the tool. pattern.
Knuckle joint type knurling tool-holders (Fig 9)
This tool holder has a set of two rollers of the same knurling
pitch. The rollers may be of straight teeth or helical teeth.
It is self-centering.
Grades of knurling (Fig 7)
Knurling can be done in three grades.
Coarse knurling, Medium knurling and Fine knurling
Coarse knurling is done by using coarse pitched knurls of

1.75 mm pitch. (14 TPI)
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Medium knurling is done by using medium pitched knurls
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of 1.25 mm pitch. (21 TPI) pu M
ish
Fine knurling is done by using fine pitched knurls of 0.75
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mm pitch. (33 TPI)
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Revolving head knurling tool (Fig 10)

t t rig
This tool-holder is also called a universal knurling tool-

holder. It is fitted with 3 pairs of rollers having coarse,
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medium and fine pitches. These are mounted on a revolving

head which pivots on a hardened steel pin. It is also self-
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centering.
Types of knurling tool-holders
The different types of knurling tool-holders are:
- single roller knurling tool-holders (parallel knurling tool-

holders) SHANK
- knuckle joint type knurling tool-holders

- revolving type knurling tool-holders (universal knurling
tool-holders).
A knurling tool-holder has a heat-treated steel shank and
hardened tool steel knurls. The knurls rotate freely on
hardened steel pins.
Differences between different types of knurling tool-holders are given in Table -1
Table -1
Single roller Knuckle joint Revolving type
Only one roller is used. A pair of rollers are used. Three pairs of rollers are used.
Only one pattern Cross or diamond Knurling patterns of

of knurling can knurling pattern different pitches
be produced with this can be produced. can be produced.
type of knurling tool-
holder.
It is not self-centering. It is self-centering. It is self-centering.
Knurling - Speed and Feed
The tables shown be used as a guide for determining the

amount of end-feed or in-feed per revolution of the work. The
rate of the feed for diamond pattern knurling is slower than
that for straight or diagonal knurling.
ed
Straight or Diagonal
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End - FEED KNURLING pu M
ish
Approximate
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FEED per REVOLUTION
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T.P.I Alum Brass Mild Steel Alloy Steel
12 .008” .006” .004”

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16 - 20 .010” .008” .005”

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25 - 35 .013” .010” .007”

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40 - 80 .017” .012” .009”

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Straight or Diagonal
IN - FEED KNURLING
Approximate
REVOLUTION
T.P.I Alum Bras Mild Steel Alloy Steel
12 12 15 25
16-20 10 13 22
25-35 8 11 20
40-80 6 9 18
Turner - Turning
Driving plate and face plate

• name the parts of a driving plate
• distinguish between the different driving plates
• state the uses of the different driving plates
• name the parts of a face plate
• distinguish between different face plates.
• list out the accessories used along with the face plates.
Driving plates
When turning a work in between the centres, the driving

plate is used for transmitting the drive to the work.
They are grouped as catch plates and driving plates and

safety driving plates.
Catch plate
ed
It is designed with a 'u' slot and an elliptical slot to
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accommodate the bent tail of the lathe carrier. (Fig 1)
pu M
ish
The safety driving plates are made of cast steel and are
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machined to have their face perfectly at right angles to the
bore. They are provided with a stepped collar at the back.
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The bore is designed to suit the spindle nose to which the

plate has to be mounted.
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The driving plate with a straight tail carrier provides a

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positive drive for the workpiece.
A catch plate with a bent tail carrier uses a minimum

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clamping length of the workpiece for clamping purposes.

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Driving plate
A safety driving plate prevents likely injuries to the operator.
It is designed with a projected pin which locates the straight
Face plates
tail of the lathe carrier. (Fig 2)
They are similar in shape to the lathe catch plates but are
larger in diameter.
The different types of face plates are:
- face plates with elongated slots and 'T' slots (Fig 4)
Safety driving plate
It is similar in construction to a driving plate but equipped

with a cover to protect the operator from any injuries.
(Fig 3)
183
- face plates with only elongated radial slots (Fig 5) - Parallels (Fig 9)
- face plates with elongated radial slots and additional Uses

parallel slots (Fig 6)
Large, flat, irregular shaped workpieces, castings, jigs and
fixtures may be firmly clamped to a face plate for various
turning operations .
The work can be mounted on a face plate while the face

plate is on the lathe spindle or on the workbench. If the
workpiece is heavy or irregular to hold, the workpiece is
mounted while the face plate is on the workbench. Before
mounting the face plate set up to the spindle, it is
ed
advantageous to locate the workpiece on the face plate and
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pu M centre the workpiece with reference to the centre punch
ish
mark or hole approximately on the face plate. This makes
Face plates are used along with the following accessories it easier to true the work after the face plate is mounted on
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when in use. The accessories are listed here. to the spindle.
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- Clamps,'T' bolts and stepped block (Fig 7) The position of the bolts and clamps is very important, if a
workpiece is to be clamped effectively.
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If a number of duplicate pieces are to be machined, the face

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plate itself can be set up as a fixture, using parallel strips

and stop blocks.
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- Angle plate and counterweight (Fig 8)
Fixed steady & travelling steady
• state what is a steady rest
• identify and name the various types of steady rests
• distinguish between a fixed steady rest and a follower steady rest
• state the uses of a steady rest
• identify the cat head and its use.
A steady rest is a lathe accessory used to give extra

support for a long slender workpiece in addition to the
centre support during turning.
The most common types of steady rests are :
- Fixed steady rest.

- Followed steady rest (travelling steady)
Fixed steady rest (Fig 1)
ed
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ish
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Follower steady rest (Fig 3)
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The figure shows the parts of a fixed steady rest.

A fixed steady rest is fixed to the lathe bed and it is
stationary. It gives support at one fixed place only.
It consists of a frame containing three adjustable pads.
The base of the frame is machined to suit the inside ways
of the lathe bed. The top portion is hinged at the back to
permit the top to be lifted or assembled to the bottom half
for allowing the work to be mounted or removed. A fixed
steady can be clamped at any desired position on the lathe
bed by the base clamping screw. (Fig 2)
The three adjustable pads can be moved radially in or out

by means of adjusting screws. The three pads are adjusted The follower steady rest has usually two pads. One pad is
on a trued cylindrical face of the workpiece. located opposite to the cutting tool and the other pad bears
the top of the workpiece to prevent it from springing up. The
A follower steady is fixed to the saddle of the lathe. As it figure shows a travelling steady rest in action. (Fig 4)
follows the tool, it gives support where cutting actually
takes place. In the follower steady, the support is continuous
to the entire length of cutting.
for holding and centering the work. After centering the
work the fixed steady is positioned, and pads are adjusted
to hold the cat head’s centre portion. When the lathe is
running the work revolves along with the ends of the cat
head whereas the centre portion is stationary. (Fig 6)
Another type of cat head, shown in Fig 7, is a single piece
and it rotates along with the job.
Cat head
If the job shape is not round or where we cannot turn a true

cylindrical surface on the job, it is not possible to support
the job, by a fixed steady rest. For those types of jobs, a
device called cat head is fixed on the workpiece.
The cat head is a type of bush, its external surface is round.

Fig 5 shows a cat head. The middle portion is cylindrical
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and free to rotate. The two ends have the adjusting screws
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Lathe carriers
• name the types of lathe carrier
• state the use of each type of lathe carriers.
Accessories used for in-between centre work of 10, capable of accommodating work of a wide range of
diameters. The tails of the carriers are meant to locate
The accessories used during turning work held in between and drive the workpiece for turning. (Fig 1) To protect the
centres are as follows. finished surface from damages, a soft metal packing piece
is used under the clamping screw.
Live centre, Dead centre, Catch plate, Driving plate, Lathe
spindle sleeve and Lathe carriers. The following are the four types of lathe carriers.
Lathe carriers Straight tail carrier, Bent tail carrier, Clamp type carrier
and Safety clamp type carrier.
They are also called lathe dogs. They are used to drive
the work during turning between centres. The work is A straight tailed carrier locates against the driving pin of
clamped firmly in the lathe carrier. It consists of a cast the driving plate and provides a positive drive for the
iron or forged steel body and a clamping screw. It is workpiece. (Fig 2)
designed with a straight or bent tail. It is available in a set
and adjustable bolts and nuts. This carrier may be used
to hold square and rectangular sectioned rods also. They
are also useful to hold small diameter jobs because of
the provision of the ‘V’ groove. (Fig 4)
ed
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pu M
ish
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Safety clamp lathe carriers are desinged with safety - top
and bottom clamping plates. These plates provide a
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positive grip of the work during turning. (Fig 5)

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A bent tailed lathe carrier engages into a ‘u’ slot of the

catch plate and drives the workpiece. (Fig 3).
The clamp type lathe carrier is designed with a clamping

plate and adjustable screws. It holds a wide range of
diameters of work because it is provided with a ‘V’ groove
Lathe carriers
• state what is a lathe centre
• distinguish between a live centre and a dead centre
• state the purpose of lathe centres
• identify and name the different types of centres
• indicate the specific uses of each type of centre.
Lathe centre
It is a lathe accessory. It is used to support a lengthy to be provided with a centre drilled hole on the face of the
work to carry out lathe operations. When a work is held overhanging end. When the job is held in between centres
in a chuck, the centre is assembled to the tailstock, and to carry out the operation, it functions together with a
it supports the overhanging end of the work. The work is driving plate and a suitable lathe carrier.
construction, both centres are identical, made as one
unit that consists of a conical point of 60° included angle,
a body provided with a Morse taper shank and a tang.
The dead centre is made out of high carbon steel, hardened

and around whereas the live centre need not have its
conical tip hardened as it revolves with the work. A good
lubricant should be used for the dead centre.
Types of centres and their uses
The following table gives the names of the most widely

used types of lathe centres, their illustrations and their
specific uses. (Fig 2)
ed
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The centre, which is accommodated in the main spindle
pu M
ish
sleeve, is known as a ‘live centre’ and the centre fixed in
the tailstock spindle is known as a dead centre. In
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Various Types of Lathe Centres

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1 Ordinary centre- Used for general purpose.

common type
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Though it is termed as half centre, little

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less than half is relieved at the tip portion.

2 Half centre eved at the tip portion. Used while facing
the job without disturbing the setting.
A carbide or a hard alloy tip is brazed

3 Tipped centre into an ordinary steel shank. The hard
tip is wear- resistant.
4 Ball centre Minimum wear and strain. Particularly

suitable for taper turning.
Used for supporting pipes, shells and

5 Pipe centre hollow end jobs.
Frictionless. Used for supporting
heavy jobs and jobs revolving with high
6 Revolving speeds. A high-speed steel inserted
centre centre is supported by two bearings
housed in a body. It is also called the
revolving dead centre.
7 Insert-type Economical.
centre Only the small high-speed steel
insert is replaced.
Usually mounted on the head-stock

spindle. Used while machining the
entire length of the job in one setting.
8 Self-driving Grooves cut around the circumference
live centre of the centre point provide for good
gripping of the job and for getting
the drive. This centre can be used
for only soft jobs and not for
hardened jobs.
ed
This centre is used to support the end
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9 Female centre pu M of the job where no countersink hole
ish
is permitted.
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This centre is used to support a

job in the `V' portion and to
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10 Swivel 'V' drill holes across the round job

centre by using a drill bit in the head-
t t rig
stock spindle.
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A micro-set adjustable centre fitted into the tailstock

spindle provides a fast and accurate method of aligning
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lathe centres.(Fig 3)
Some of these centres contain an eccentric, others contain

a dovetail slide which permits slight adjustment of the
centre itself to correct alignment.
Transfer Caliper
• Identify the parts of an transfer caliper
• State the function of the transfer caliper
• Read transfer caliper mesurment.
Transfer Caliper In this type the primary legs are made to touch the surface
This type of caliper (outside or inside ) used where caliper to be measured and then the secondary leg brought to
cannot be access directly due steps, projections, grooves position till the pin in primary leg coincides through the slot.
etc. New the position of secondary leg unchanged and primary
leg with stopper pin in relieved of from measured surface.
The construction is similar to ordinary (Pivoted or with
Thumb nut) firm joint caliper with additional secondary leg Once caliper taken out, the primary leg which was relieved
at the top of one of the primary legs with or without lock met in to the position to secondary leg position. Then the
facility. dimension measure with the help of measuring instrument.
ed
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pu M
ish
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Turner - Turning
Adjustment of tool posts

• identify and name the different types of tool posts
• state the constructional features of each types of tool post
• indicate the application of each type or tool post.
Tool post can be brought to the operating position and the square
head is clamped with the help of the locking lever. By
The tool post holds the tool or tools meant for the operation loosening the locking lever the next tool can be indexed and
to be performed on the work. brought to the operating position. The indexing may be
manual or automatic.
The tool post is assembled to the top slide.
The three types of tool posts most commonly found lathes

are listed here.
American type tool post or single way tool post
Indexing type of tool post or square tool post.
ed
Quick change tool post.
bl I
pu M
ish
Single way tool post (Fig 1)
Re NI
It consists of a circular tool post body with a slot, for
accommodating the tool or tool-holder. A ring base, a
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rocker arm, and a tool clamping screw complete the

assembly of this type of tool post. The tool is positioned
o ht
on the rocker arm and clamped. The centre height of the

tool tip can be adjusted with the help of the rocker arm and
t t rig
the ring base. Only one tool can be fixed in this type of tool The advantages are
post. The rigidity of the tool is less as it is clamped with
No py
only one bolt. each tool is secured in the tool post by more than one bolt
and so rigidity is more.
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frequent changing of the tool for different operations need

not be done as four tools can be clamped simultaneously.
The disadvantage is that skill is required to set the tools and

it takes more time to set to the centre height.
Quick change tool post/universal tool post (Fig 3)
Modern lathes are provided with this type of tool posts.

Instead of changing the tools, the tool holder is changed in
which the tool is fixed. This is expensive and requires a
number of tool holders. But it has the advantage of ease
with which it can be set to the centre height and has the
best rigidity for the tool.
British type tool post (Fig 4)
Indexing type tool post (Fig 2) This type of tool post is found mostly on British lathes. This
also has provision for only one tool to be clamped for
It is also called a square tool post or a four-way tool post. performing the operation. This is more rigid when compared
Four tools can be fixed in this type of tool posts and any one to the pillar-type tool post, as the tool is held in position by
191
the flat clamp. This requires greater skill in clamping as the
adjustment of the heel pin is needed to give a grip on the
full width of the tool.
Packing strips may be needed to be placed for adjusting

the tool centre height.
Tool setting
Objective : This shall help you to
• set the tool in the tool post for performing the operation.
ed
bl I
For optimum cutting, the effective rake angle and clearance
pu M
ish
angle of the clamped tool must be equal to the ground
Re NI
angles of the tool. This requires clamping of the tool to
have its axis perpendicular to the lathe axis, with the tool
tip at the workpiece centre. (Fig 1)
be @
o ht
t t rig
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The procedure to follow is given below.

Clean the tool post seating face, and place the shims on
the seating face.
It is difficult to determine the effective angles of the tool
when it is not set to the centre height. Use a minimum number of shims for height
adjustment.
The tool nose can be set to the work centre by means of
a tool-holder with adjustable height. (Fig 1) Shims must be flushed with the edge of the seating face.
Place the tool in the tool post on the shims, with the rear
The tool nose can be set to the exact centre height by butting against the wall of the seating face. (Fig 3)
placing the tool in the tool post on the shims or packing
strips. These packing strips should be preferably a little The unsupported length of the overhanging
less in width than the width of the tool but should never end of the turning tool should be kept to a
be more. The length of these strips should be according minimum. As a rule, the overhanging length
to the shank length and the tool seating face of the tool of tool is equal to the tool shank width x 1.5.
post. (Fig 2)
Tighten the tool with the centre screw of the tool post.
When both the screws have a full gripping pressure, tighten
the centre screw fully.
Check the centre height with a height setting gauge.
Check once again with a tool height setting gauge.
(Fig 4)
The gauge should be made according to the
Remove or add shims and check the height when the tool
size of the machine. If a gauge is not available,
is tightened by the centre screw.
use a surface gauge and set the pointer tip to
the dead centre height fixed in the tailstock.
Tighten the other two tool-holding screws alternately
Use this as the height to which the tool is to be
applying the same amount of pressure.
set.
ed
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ish
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Turner - Turning
Dial test indicator

• state the working principle of a dial test indicator
• identify the parts of a dial test indicator
• state the important features of a dial test indicator
• state the functions of a dial test indicator
• identify different types of stands.
What are dial test indicators
Dial test indicators are fine precision type of instruments

used for comparing and determining the variation in the
sizes of components. (Fig 1)
ed
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pu M
ish
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These instruments cannot give the direct reading of the

sizes like micrometers and vernier calipers. A dial test
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indicator magnifies small variations in sizes by means of

a pointer on a graduated dial. This direct reading of the
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deviations gives an accurate picture of the conditions of

the parts being tested.
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Principle of working
The principle of a dial test indicator is the magnification

of a small movement of the plunger by converting it
into rotary motion of a pointer on a circular scale. (Fig 2)
For converting linear motion of the plunger into rotary motion

of the pointer, a rack and pinion mechanism is used.
Types
Two types of dial test indicators are in use according
to the method of magnification.
- Plunger type (Fig 3)

- Lever type (Fig 4)
Important features of a dial test indicator
An important feature of the dial test indicator is that the

scale can be rotated by a ring bezel, enabling it to be
readily set to zero.
194
Many dial test indicators read plus in a clockwise
direction from zero and minus in a counter clockwise
direction to give plus and minus indications.
The lever type dial test indicator
In the case of this type of dial test indicators the

magnification of the movement is obtained by a
mechanism of lever and scroll. (Fig 5)
It has a stylus with a ball type contact operating in

the horizontal plane.
This can be conveniently mounted on a surface
ed
gauge stand and can be used in places where the plunger
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pu M
type dial test indicator application is difficult. (Fig 6)
ish
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Uses (Figs 7 to 11)
- To compare the dimensions of a workpiece against

a known standard.
- To check plane surfaces for parallelism and flatness.
- To check parallelism of shafts and bars.
- To check concentricity of holes and shafts.
Stands
Dial test indicators are used in conjunction with stands

for holding them so that the stand itself may be placed
on the datum surface or machine tools.
The following are the three types of stands available.
Magnetic stand with flexible post. (Fig 13)
ed
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ish
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General purpose holder with cast iron base

Magnetic stand with universal clamp. (Fig 12) (Fig 14)
Care for dial Indicator
ed
bl I
1 Make sure clean greases and oils on the dial face
pu M
ish
2 Use soft and clean cloth to clean the dial face to prevent
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from scratching.
3 Use thin film of oil to prevent rust
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4 Be sure to store dial indicator properly to protect from

dirt, moisture and damage.
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TURNER

SECTOR: Production & Manufacturing

DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRAINING

Copyright 2018 National Instructional Media Institute, Chennai

All rights reserved.

Vocational training in the country.

for their contribution in bringing out this publication.

New Delhi - 110 001

MEDIA DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS

Shri. Natarajan _ Training officer

Shri. Dayala moorthy _ Assistant Training officer

Shri. G. Mani _ Junior Works Manager (Retd)

Shri. M. Sampath _ Training officer (Retd)

Shri. V. Gopalakrishnan _ Assitant Manager,

Co-ordinator, NIMI, Chennai - 32

Module 1 Occupational safety 25 Hrs

Module 3 Turning 375 Hrs

Total 550 Hrs

Lesson No. Title of the Lesson Page No.

Module 1: Occupational Safety

1.1.01 Guidance to new corners about ITI and system 1

Job area after complition of soft skill 2

1.1.02 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) 3

1.1.03 Basic first-aid 7

1.1.04 Importance of house keeping introduction to ‘5s’ 16

Disposal of waste material 17

Occupational safety and health 18

1.1.05 Occupational safety hazards and avoidance 20

Types of fire extinguishers 35

1.1.09 Precaution to follow while working fitting job 37

1.1.10 Precautions to follow while working fitting job 38

Module 2: Basic Fitting

1.2.11 Identification of tools and equipments 40

1.2.12 Selection of metals 43

1.2.13 Length measurement 45

1.2.15 Elements of a file 53

Flat file & hand file 53

1.2.16 Basic fitting 58

1.2.17 ‘V’ - Blocks 60

Surface gauges (or) scribing block 64

1.2.18 Drilling machines - Different parts 66

1.2.19 Nomenclature of drill 69

1.2.21 Tap extractor 75

Methods of removing broken studs 76

1.3.22 Centre lathe and its parts 78

1.3.23 Machine and machine tool 81

1.3.24 Classification of lathe 83

1.3.25 Lathe parts - tail stock 86

1.3.26 Lathe bed 89

1.3.27 Lathe drive - cone pulley and all gear type 91

1.3.28 Back gear 95

1.3.29 Properties of good cutting tool materials 96

1.3.30 Specification of lathe - tools 98

1.3.31 Lathe cutting tools - Different types 101

Kinds of lathe cutting tools 104

1.3.32 Combination drill 105

1.3.33 Drill chuck 108

1.3.34 Lathe accessories 110