CHAPTER 5.

LIGHT SOURCES AND DETECTORS

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Light source plays a significant part in an optical fibre communication
system. The basic optical fibre system consists of the transmitter, an optical
fibre and a receiver. The transmitter has a light source which is modulated
by a suitable drive circuit in accordance with the signal to be transmitted.
The choice of the light sources to be used with the optical fibre needs to emit
light of very high speed i.e. up to 40Gb/s. Optical sources are the active
components whose primary function is to convert the electrical energy into
the optical energy (light) in an effective manner. The optical signal is then
launched or coupled into the optical fibre. Optical fibre communication
requires the light source which must have high efficiency, low cost, longer
life, and sufficient power output. The most commonly sources of light are
LED (Light emitting diode) and LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation). In this chapter we will study about the different
types of the light sources and detectors used in optical fibre transmission
5.2 LED (LIGHT EMITTING DIODE) SOURCE
A basic LED is a light source with p-region and n- region. When the LED is
forward biased (a positive voltage is applied to the p-region and a negative
voltage to the n-region), current flows through the LED. As current flows
through the LED, the junction where the p-type and n-type regions meet
emits random photons (light). This process is referred to as spontaneous
emission. Figure 5.1 shows a forward-biased LED in a basic electric circuit.
It emits light, when it is forward biased.

Figure 5.1: P-N junction of the LED

Spontaneous Emission: Word spontaneous defines “happening or done in
a natural, often sudden way, without any planning”. Emission defines “the

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production and discharge of something like radiation.” Thus spontaneous
emission is the sudden discharge of photons from the material surface as
shown in figure 5.2.

Fig.5.2 Spontaneous emission of photon

More to know:
Coherent: The word coherent defines having in same phase or consistent.
Incoherent: The word in coherent means not in same phase or
inconsistent.
Concept of coherent and incoherent can be better illustrated in figure 5.3.

Fig.5.3 (a) Incoherent light beam (b) Coherent light beam

Photons emitted from the junction where the p-type and n-type regions meet
are not in phase nor launched in the same direction. These out-of-phase
photons which are coming out of the junction are called as incoherent light.
As all the photons are out of phase, it is difficult to focus all the photons in
the optical fibre cable. Because of this, only a small percentage of the

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photons emitted will be get into the optical fibre. Figure 5.4 shows the out-
of-phase photons being spontaneously emitted from the LED.

More to know:
Semiconductor
The conductivity of semiconductors materials lies between conductivity of
conductors and insulators. Electronics devices are made up of
semiconductor material. Silicon and germanium are the basic raw materials
used to manufacture the integrated circuits (IC) in semiconductor industry.
Semiconductors materials are of two types – intrinsic and extrinsic.
Intrinsic (pure) It is a pure form of a semiconductor. The pure word here
specifies that this semiconductor does not contain any other impurity atom.
For example, pure form of silicon contains only the atoms of silicon; no
other impurity atom is present in the silicon. The absence of impurity atom
results in less conductivity of semiconducting material. To improve the
conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor impurity atom has to be added
which is discussed in the extrinsic semiconductor.
Extrinsic (impure) when impurity atoms are added in the pure (intrinsic)
form of semiconductor, then that semiconductor is called as extrinsic
semiconductor. The extrinsic semiconductors are also known as impure
semiconductor. Extrinsic semiconductors are classified as:
a) N-type semiconductor
b) P-type semiconductor
For example, if Arsenic (As) is added to pure silicon, then it will form P type
of semiconductor, which is extrinsic in nature. Presence of impurity atoms
(e.g. Arsenic (As)) in the pure form of silicon. The process of adding of an
impurity atom in a semiconductor material is called as doping. Doping will
increases the conductivity of a semiconductor. Since, the atomic number of
silicon is 14; electronic configuration of silicon is 2, 8, and 4. Thus, silicon
has 4 electrons in the outer most shell. In order to increase the conductivity
more and more free carriers haves to be added. As silicon has 4 electrons in
its outermost shell, so it is better to add an impurity atom having valence
(number of atoms in outermost shell) either 5 (penta) or 3 (tri). The atoms
which have 5 electrons in its outermost shell are known as pentavalent. The
atoms which have 3 electrons in its outermost shell are known as trivalent.
When pentavalent impurity atom is added an extrinsic semiconductor is
formed which is known as P-type semiconductor.
When trivalent impurity atom is added an extrinsic semiconductor is formed
which is known as N-type semiconductor.

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Fig.5.4: Radiating the forward biased LED

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 Fig.5.5: Classification of semiconductor

Let us understand:
DIODE
When two semiconductors, i.e., P-type semiconductor and N-type
semiconductor are combined to form a new component which is known as
diode. “Di” defines two, thus diode has two terminals as shown in Figure 5.6,
Figure 5.7 and, Figure 5.8.

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 Fig.5.6: Diode symbol
Diode can be used in switching application. Diode passes current only in one
direction. The P-side is called anode and the N-side is called cathode.

When the anode and cathode of a PN-junction diode are connected to

external voltage sources such that the positive end of a battery is connected
to the anode and negative end of the battery is connected to the cathode,
diode is said to be forward biased or we can say that diode will acts as a
close switch (it will turned turn ‘ON’). In a forward-biased condition, the
diode will pass the current through it.

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 Fig.5.7: Diode
When the P-side of diode are connected to the negative terminal of the
battery and N-side of the diode is connected to positive terminal of the
battery, diode is said to be reverse biased or we can say that diode will acts
as an open switch (it will turned ‘OFF’). In reverse-biased condition, the
diode will not pass the current through it.

Fig.5.8: Terminals of diode

5.3 STRUCTURE OF LED
Structuring of electronic components is very precise. It plays a major role in
in the performance of the electronic components. Based on the amount of
light emitted by the LED the structure of the LED is classified as:
1. S-LED
2. E-LED

1. S-LED: S-LED is the surface emitter LED. As the name suggest, in this
type of LED, emission of photons is from the surface area. It is confined to
the small circular area of the LED. The diameter of the circular area is
around 20 to 50 micrometre (10-6 m).

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 Fig.5.9: Light emission from surface emitting LED
2. E-LED: E-LED is the edge emitter LED. As the name suggest, in this type
of LED, emission of photons is from the edge of the LED. In this type of LED
numbers of layers of semiconducting materials are used as shown in figure
5.10. The area through which light can be emitting out is 8 to 10 micrometre
(10-6 m) in thickness and up to 150 micrometre (10-6 m) in width.

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 Fig.5.10: Light emission from edge emitting LED
Advantages of LED
1. LEDs are preferred light sources for short distance.
2. LEDs are used in optical fibre network because of the following
reasons:
a) Inexpensive
b) Robust
c) Long life
d) LED can switched on and off at high speeds

Disadvantages of LEDs
LEDs have several disadvantages
1. The maximum light output of an LED is typically very low (about 100
microwatts).
2. LEDs produce photons of different wavelength which is undesired in
case of optical fibre communication.
3. The light produced is neither directional nor coherent. So, it is difficult
to couple the LEDs output to the single-mode fibre.
4. It is too hard to get the light into the narrow core.
Exercise: List out the places where the LED is used both at home and
while travelling. Also discuss the colours of light displayed by the LED.
5.4 LASER SOURCES

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The term laser is actually an acronym that stands for “Light Amplification by
Stimulated Emission of radiation”. Laser is a device that amplifies or
increases the intensity of light and produces highly directional light. Laser
not only amplifies or increases the intensity of light but also generates the
light. Laser emits light through a process called stimulated emission of
radiation which amplifies or increases the intensity of light. Some lasers
generate visible light but others generate ultraviolet or infrared rays which
are invisible as shown in figure 5.11.

Fig.5.11: Radiating LASER

Inventor’s dairy
Einstein gave the theoretical basis for the development
of laser in 1917, when he predicted the possibility of
stimulated emission. In 1954, C.H. Townes and his
co-workers put Einstein’s prediction for practical
realization.

Albert Einstein

More to know:
Stimulated emission: Stimulated means encourage development. So in this
type of emission electron are used to encourage or excite other electrons to
produce light energy as shown in figure 5.12.

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 Fig.5.12 Stimulated emission of photons
Laser light has the following characteristics
 Monochromatic light which means that single wavelength
 Coherence which means that phase alignment
 Good directivity which means that good light focusing or beam does
not expand
 High energy density (high brightness)
The conventional light sources such as electric bulb or tube light does not
emit highly directional and coherent light whereas lasers produce highly
directional, monochromatic, coherent light beam.
Lasers are classified into various types according to the medium used to
emit laser light.
1. Semiconductor laser
2. Solid-state laser
3. Gas laser
4. Liquid laser
As we are discussing optical fibre communication. For this reason we are
focusing on lasers which are used in optical fibre communication.
Semiconductor laser are widely used in optical fibre communication. These
are semiconductor laser is also known as laser diode. These laser diodes are
made up of semiconducting materials i.e. extrinsic and intrinsic
semiconductor (p type and n type semiconductor) as shown in figure5.13.
These semiconductor devices emit laser light when an electric current is
applied to the P-N junction of a compound semiconductor. Semiconductor
lasers are a type of diode that combines the electrical properties of a diode
with properties that produce laser light. Semiconductor lasers are smaller
and lighter in weight than gas and other lasers, and are known to be widely

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used for applications such as recording and playback of optical discs (Blue-
ray Disc, DVD, etc.) and light sources for optical fibre communications.

Fig.5.13: Basic structure of a laser diode

5.5 MECHANISM OF SEMICONDUCTOR LASER LIGHT EMISSION
In simple electric bulb, light produced by converting electricity into thermal
energy. But in semiconductor lasers generate light directly from electricity.

Light bulb→ Electrical energy → Thermal energy → Light

Semiconductor laser → Electrical energy → Light
As we know, that atom has different energy level. Each energy level has their
own energies, for example, in first orbit of an atom energy level is E1, second
orbit has an energy level E2 and so on as shown in figure 5.14. In general,
when electron jumps from a higher energy level to a lower energy level, it
emits light or photons. The energy of the emitted photon is equal to the
energy difference between the energy levels. This emitted energy from each
photon is get collected in a space called as cavity in the laser. Energy which
is collected in the form of photons is used to produce a high intensity,
directional, coherent, monochromatic beam of light.

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 Fig.5.14: Different energy level of an atom
The generated light is repeatedly reflected within the light-emitting layer by
the cleavage plane mirrors to produce further stimulated emission and
efficiently amplify the light.
Strong phase-aligned light (laser light) is emitted by repeating (amplifying)
stimulated emission in this manner.
The stimulated and emitted electrons are continuously replenished by the
current applied to the P-N junction, enabling continuous laser light
emission.

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 Fig.5.15: Mechanism of semiconductor laser light emission
Semiconductor lasers and wavelengths
The application fields for semiconductor lasers are determined by the laser
light wavelength and output characteristics.
The colour of light beam can be changed by the changing laser active layer
material (energy gap). Table for the different colour output are as follows:

Laser Colour Wavelength Application

material
GaInN 400 - 530nm Blue-violet to Blu-Ray Disc/Projector
Green
AlGaInP 635 - 680nm Red DVD/Projector
AlGaAs 780 - 850nm Infrared CD/Printer/Optical
communications/3D sensor
InGaAs 900 - 980nm Infrared 3D sensor
InGaAsP 1300/1550nm Infrared Optical communications
Light and wavelength
Light is a wave, so it has a wavelength, frequency and wave height.
Descending order of wavelength starting from right hand side as shown in
figure 5.16, electromagnetic radiation includes:
Radio waves → microwaves → infrared rays → visible light (red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, violet) → ultraviolet rays → X-rays

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 Fig.5.16: Illustration of Light and wavelength

For optical fibre communication, long-wavelength lasers with a wavelength

of 1300 to 1600 nm have low transmission loss inside optical fibres, so they
are used as light sources for optical fibre communications.
5.6 COUPLING OF LIGHT SOURCE TO THE FIBRE
Coupling is the act of joining two things together. In this case two things are
light source and optical fibre. The coupling efficiency is primarily dependent
on the core diameter and the numerical aperture (NA) of the connected fibre.
Secondly, coupling depends upon the output of light source which we are
using i.e. light emitting diode and laser diode.
In this section will compare the performance characteristics of the LED and
laser light sources. The performance of a light source can be judged in
several areas: output pattern, wavelength, spectral width, output power, etc.
These performance areas determine the type of optical fibre that the source
can be coupled to, transmission distance, and data rate. But when it comes
to ultra-high-speed long-distance data transmission the LASERS are
suitable.
LED Output Pattern: LED used in fibre optic light sources are couple as
much light as possible into the core of the optical fibre. The LED has a wide
output pattern. LED does not couple all its light energy into the core of a
multimode optical fibre. LED as a source of light is best suited for single
mode optical fibre. LED fibre coupling is shown in the figure 5.17.

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 Fig.5.17: Coupling of light in single mode fibre using LED source

Laser Output Pattern: Unlike the LED, the laser light source has a narrow
output pattern. Laser light sources couple light as much as possible into the
core of optical fibre cable. Laser light sources are designed for either
multimode or single-mode applications. LASER output pattern is shown in
figure 5.18.

Fig5.18: Coupling of light in fibre by LASERS

More to know:

To show difference between LASER diode light and white light components

Light Sources
Light can be understood as consisting of waves traveling through space.
Light occurs in different wavelengths, just as waves on the ocean vary in
length. Wavelength is the distance between peaks on a light wave, as
represented in Figure5.19.

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 Fig5.19: Light Waves

The colour of light depends on its wavelength. Violet light has the shortest
wavelength of all visible colours, and red light has the longest, as shown in
Figure 5.20. White light is a combination of all visible colours or
wavelengths.

Fig 5.20: White light through the prism having different wavelength

Laser light, unlike ordinary light, is unique in that it usually consists of only
a single colour of light. The wavelengths of this single colour, while not
perfectly uniform in length, occur within a very narrow range. Mono-
chromaticity is the laser light’s property of containing only one colour.

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 Fig.5.21: LASER Beam

The light from an ordinary source like a light bulb radiates away from the
source in all directions, as shown in Figure 5.22. This spreading or
divergence of ordinary light is what makes it so useful for lighting homes
and workplaces.

Fig.5.22: Incandescent Bulb

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Practical Activity:

Laser light is very directional. By comparison, the light emitted by a laser

diverges very little, as shown in Figure 5.23.

Fig.5.23: Highly directional beam of LASER

Non-coherent light waves produced by ordinary sources don’t form an

orderly pattern. They combine in a random fashion like Incandescent
sources, Light-emitting diodes (LED)

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The following demonstration will provide laser beam absorption as a function
of filter colour and its coherent nature:

Things required: A room or laboratory with reduced ambient light (light

already in room), laser diode, red and blue plastic or glass filters, and a piece
of white cardboard or paper.

Fig.5.24 Demonstration of laser beam absorption

1. Attach a laser pointer to an ordinary test-tube holder and lab stand similar
to those found in most general science laboratories.

2. Point the laser beam at a piece of white paper or cardboard taped to a wall
or a textbook to be used as a stand.

3. Turn on the laser pointer and visually notice the intensity of light on the
white paper. Starting with the red filters, hold one thickness in front of the
beam exit.

4. Observe whether any decrease in intensity occurs.

5. Repeat with two, three, and up to six equal thicknesses of red filter material
and observe light intensity on the white paper as filter thickness increases.

6. What do you notice?

7. Substitute blue filters in this section of the demonstration for the red filters
used in step 3. Start with one blue thickness and increase to two and three
equal thicknesses.

8. If you find complete extinction after three blue filters, what can you
conclude about the role filter colour plays in beam absorption?

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Result: You will discover that absorption of a laser beam takes place. These
are especially important in the design of laser safety goggles for safety
purpose.

Difference Between LED and LASERS:

Comparison of LEDs and LASERs on different parameters is shown below:
Specifications: LEDs LASERs
Output Power Linearly proportional to Proportional to current above
drive current threshold
Drive Current Drive Current: 50 to 100 'Threshold Current: 5 to 40
mA mA
Coupled Power Moderate High
Speed Slower than laser 0.5 Faster than average LED
micro seconds
Output Wide Narrower
Pattern
Bandwidth Moderate High
Wavelengths 0.66 µm to 1.65 µm 0.78 µm to 1.65 µm
Available
Fibre Type Multimode Only Single mode, Multimode
Ease of use Easier Harder
Lifetime Longer Long
Cost Less costly Costlier
Applications Moderate distance, low Long Distance, High Data
data rates rates
5.7 PHOTODETECTOR
 Photodetector or optical detectors are used to convert variation in
optical power into corresponding variation in the electric current.
 Photodetector is essential component in the fibre optic
communication.
 For fibre optic communication purpose most suited photodetector are
PIN diode (p-type-Intrinsic-n-type).
More to know:
PIN diode is three-layer diode i.e. p-type layer, Intrinsic layer, n-type layer
as shown in figure 5.25. Intrinsic layer is sandwich between p-type and n-
type layer. As compare to normal p-n junction diode this PIN diode has
large surface area. When light fall on this area it will generate new charge
carriers. This will result in the generation of photocurrent as shown in
figure 5.26. The PIN diode is used in a variety of different applications from
low frequencies up to high radio frequencies. The properties introduced by
the intrinsic layer make it suitable for a number of applications where
ordinary P-N junction diodes are less suitable.

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 Fig.5.25: PIN diode

Fig.5.26: Working of PIN photodiode

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Multiple choice questions
1. LEDs emit photons that are out of phase; this is referred to as light.
A. Coherent
B. Incoherent
C. Stimulated
D. Spontaneous
2. LEDs emit random photos through a process called emission.
A. Coherent

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B. Incoherent
C. Stimulated
D. Spontaneous
3. Lasers emit photons that are in phase through a process called
emission.
A. Coherent
B. Incoherent
C. Stimulated
D. Spontaneous
4. The photons emitted from a laser have the same wavelength and are in
phase; this is referred to as light.
A. Coherent
B. Incoherent
C. Stimulated
D. Spontaneous
5. LEDs have an output pattern when compared to the output pattern of a
laser.
A. Narrow
B .Wide
C. Coherent
D. Stimulated
6. LEDs with visible wavelengths are typically used for _____data rate
________distance fibre optic communication systems.
A. High, long
B. Low, long
C. High, short
D. Low, short
7. Long wavelength 1300 nm LEDs offer ________ bandwidth over
_______transmission distance, than short wavelength 850 nm LEDs.
A. Higher, longer
B. Lower, longer
C. Higher, shorter

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D. Lower, shorter
9. The spectral width of a laser is __________ than the spectral width of an
LED.
A. Wider
B. Narrower
C. Shorter
D. Longer
10. The optical output power of a laser ____________ than the optical output
power of an LED is
A. Wider
B. Greater
C. Narrower
D. Less
Fill in the Blanks:
1. The amount of light energy coupled into the core of an optical fibre
depends on the _______ and ___ of the optical fibre.
2. LED radiation should not degrade more than __________over its lifetime.
3. Laser light sources have a modulation speed __________than LEDs.
4. LED transmitters are designed to support only ____________modulation.
7. Bandwidth of LED is____________ and bandwidth of LAERS is____________.
8. LEDs are suitable for use with _______________ mode fibre.
9. LASER s is suitable for use with _______________ mode fibre.
10. Edge-emitting LEDs have ______ heterojunction structure.

Answers in brief:
1. Make comparison between LED and LASER diodes?
2. Explain the working of the LASER diodes?
3. Discuss the principle of LASER diode?
4 What is diode?
5. What are advantages and disadvantages of LED and LASER diodes?
6. What is p-n junction?

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