Deep Replcement

Deep Replacement
Dr. Rakesh J. Pillai
Ground Improvement Techniques

Outline
Introduction
Suitability
Principles
Design Considerations
Design Parameters and Procedure
Dr. Rakesh J. Pillai · Deep Replacement · Ground Improvement Techniques 2 / 63

Introduction
Section 1
Introduction

Introduction
Introduction
Deep replacement method improve the ground by partially excavating or
displacing problematic geomaterials and replacing with better-quality,
densified fill or concrete in a column form.

Introduction
Introduction
The columns and surrounding soil form a composite ground or

foundation to carry vertical loads and shear forces.
Excavation of soil from the ground is performed in two ways:
By injecting water into the ground and flushing out the soil slurry
from the hole
By drilling hole in the ground
Displacement of soils in the ground is achieved in four ways:
By injecting air into the ground
By driving a steel casing into the ground
By driving a reverse flight displacement auger into the ground
By dropping a tamper to penetrate into the ground

Introduction
Introduction
For cohesionless and unsaturated soils displacement process may

densify the surrounding soil
For saturated cohesive soils, the displacement may cause disturbance
to surrounding soils (heaving, lateral movement)
The displacement method is not suitable for sensitive soils.
The main difference between vibro-compaction and deep replacement
vibro-compaction relies on the densified in-situ soils, while deep
replacement relies on using columns together with the surrounding
soil to form a composite foundation.

Introduction
Introduction
Technologies Involving Excavation
Columns installed by vibro-replacement (wet method) are commonly

referred to as stone columns or granular piles
Rammed aggregate columns are installed by removing soil with an
auger and then backfilling aggregate with tamping
As in these technologies the granular fill is backfilled from top of the

holes, the installation procedure is often referred to as top feeding and the
columns are called top-fed columns

Introduction
Introduction
Technologies Involving Displacement
Vibro-casing method
Commonly known as sand compaction column or pile method and it
involves driving of a steel casing into the ground with a vibrator to
displace the soil, backfills granular fill (mainly sand, but sometimes
aggregate) and then densifies the fill by a repeated extraction and
penetration process
Vibro-probe method
Also called dry method, uses pressurized air to displace the soil and
introduce granular fill through a central tube or side tube and then
densify the fill by vibration of the probe
Sometimes a mixture of cement, fly ash and gravel (CFG columns) or

low-strength concrete is used instead of granular fill.
Introduction
Introduction
Technologies Involving Displacement
In vibro-casing or vibro-probe method fill is introduced from bottom
of the holes; hence this procedure is referred to as bottom feeding
Reverse flight displacement method

In this method the soil is displaced by a specially made auger and
grouting is done to replace the displaced soil. The grout can be designed
and prepared at different strength and modulus; hence these columns are
also known as controlled modulus columns or auger displacement columns
Dynamic replacement method

Granular fill is pushed into the ground by repeated dropping of a tamper
to displace the soft soil and granular fill is backfilled into a crater
generated.

Introduction
Introduction
Columns installed by deep replacement methods are either granular
columns or concrete columns.
Granular column is a general term, which includes stone columns,
rammed aggregate columns and sand compaction columns.
Columns have higher strength, stiffness and permeability than the
surrounding soils.
Thus the columns increase bearing capacity, reduce settlement,
increase stability and accelerate consolidation of soft soils.
In soft soil, granular columns may not have sufficient capacities to
support loads; instead concrete, columns or CFG columns may be
used.
Recently, granular columns with geosynthetic encasement is used to
provide lateral confinement and increase the capacity.

Introduction
Introduction
Based on the stiffness, columns can be classified in to three types:

Flexible columns (eg. stone columns, sand compaction columns)
Rigid columns (eg. Vibro-concrete columns)
Semi-rigid columns (eg. controlled modulus columns,
geosynthetic-encased granular columns)

Suitability
Section 2
Suitability

Suitability
Suitability
Deep replacement includes a variety of installation techniques and
column types, hence can be used to improve almost all types of
geomaterials.
Vibro-replacement is mostly used for cohesive soils with undrained
shear strength > 15 kPa.

Suitability
Suitability
Vibro-displacement technology is suitable for insensitive cohesive

soils with undrained shear strength ranging from 15 to 60 kPa, when
used for stone columns.
Vibro-concrete columns (with typical depth of 10 - 15 m) are most
suitable for very soft clays and organic soils in which case suitable
confinement cannot be provided for stone columns.
Controlled modulus column technology (typical depth of 10 - 20 m)
is suitable for a variety of geomaterials like loose sands, uncontrolled
fills, soft clays and silts, organic soils.

Suitability
Suitability
Sand compaction columns which are installed in cohesionless soils

have the same function as vibro-compaction; but in cohesive soils
they function as deep replacement. This technology has been used
upto a depth of 70 m.
Encase granular columns (typical depth of 5 - 10 m) are used for very
soft clays and organic soils with undrained shear strength as low as 5
kPa.
Rammed aggregate column (mostly depth of 10 m) is suitable for soft
(undrained strength > 15 kPa) to stiff clays, loose silt and sand and
uncontrolled fill. Soft clays and loose sands may require casing for
hole stability.

Principles
Section 3
Principles

Principles
Functions of Columns
Densification: Increase of soil density

Load bearing: Increase of bearing capacity
Reinforcement: Increase of soil shear strength as columns act as
reinforcement
Stress distribution: Stress concentration of columns and stress
reduction on soil
Drainage: Reduction of excess pore pressure by drainage through
columns

Principles
Load Transfer Mechanisms
Equivalent stress vs equivalent strain

These are two ideal loading and displacement conditions
Equal strain condition exists under rigid loading (eg. rigid footing)
while equal stress exists under flexible loading (eg. tire pressure)
In a column-reinforced soft foundation, columns carry higher stress
than soil under equal strain condition due to their modulus difference
The ratio of the stress on the column (∆σc ) to that of soil (∆σs ) is
defined as the stress concentration ratio (n) which is often used to
describe the load transfer between columns and soft soils.
Under an equal stress condition, the columns and soil carry the same
stress (ie. n = 1) but have different settlements (Ssl > Scl )

Principles

Equivalent stress vs equivalent strain
Column supported embankment not only has a stress concentration

ratio greater than 1.0 but also exhibit differential settlement.
A column-supported embankment has a condition between equal
strain and equal stress.

Principles
Unit Cells and Stress Concentration Ratio

A unit cell consisting of one column and its surrounding soil is used
to analyse column-reinforced soft foundation.

Principles

When a 1D unit cell is under an equal vertical strain condition, the
following relations hold;
∆σc ∆σs
ϵz = =
Dc Ds
ϵz = vertical strain at a depth of z
∆σc = vertical stress on the column
∆σs = vertical stress on the soil
Dc = constrained modulus of the column
Ds = constrained modulus of the soil
Stress concentration ratio under 1D condition;

∆σc Dc
n1D = =
∆σs Ds

Principles

When lateral deformation of columns is allowed (3D case), the stress
concentration ratio is not equal to the elastic modulus ratio.
Since the column deforms laterally toward surrounding soil, column
with lateral deformation carries less vertical stress and surrounding
soil carries more vertical stress than that in 1D case (ie. n3D < n1D ).
Since columns and soil have different stress-strain relations, the stress
concentration ratio is not constant, but depends on the properties of
columns and soils and the stress or strain level.

Principles

The increase of stress concentration ratio indicates the stress transfer

from the soil to the column, while its decrease indicates the stress
transfer from column to soil.
Granular columns typically have stress concentration ratios from 1.0
to 5.0 while concrete columns have ratios more than 10.0.
Geosynthetic-encased granular columns exhibit stress concentration
ratios up to 8.5.
Principles

Composite Foundation
Columns and soils form a composite foundation which share the
loads and deform together.
Most theories developed for composite foundations are for rigid
loading and equal strain conditions.
Based on force equilibrium
∆σz A = ∆σs (Ae − Ac ) + ∆σc Ac

∆σz = average vertical stress applied on
the composite foundation
Ae = influence area (effective area) of
one column
∆σs = vertical stress on the soil
∆σc = vertical stress on the column
Ac = c/s area of the column

Principles

Dividing both sides of above equation by Ae ;
∆σz = ∆σs (1 − as ) + ∆σc as
where as is the area replacement ratio defined as the ratio of column c/s
area to the influence area.
Above equation can be rewritten, considering the stress concentration
ratio as;
∆σz = [(1 − as ) + nas ]∆σs = [1 + (n − 1)as ]∆σs
Stress on the soil is
∆σs = µ∆σz
1
where µ = is the stress reduction factor.
1 + (n − 1)as
Principles
Assuming the deformation on column and soil and one dimensional and
equal;
ϵc = ϵs = ϵz
Dividing the strain with stress components yields,
Eeq = [1 + (n − 1)as ]Es
where Eeq is equivalent modulus of the composite foundation and Es is

the soil modulus

Principles

Stress Transfer
Stress transfer between columns and soils depends on the rigidity of
loading, rigidity of columns relative to soil and the end-bearing
condition.
Stress transfer in column supported embankment (modified from Simon and

Schlosser, 2006)

Principles

Stress Transfer
Above figure shows the load transfer mechanism for intermediate
condition between flexible and rigid loading, where column is
relatively rigid but deformable and bearing layer is not firm.
There exist two equal settlement planes; one in the embankment fill
and one in the soft soil.
Based on field measurements Chen et al. (2010) reported critical
heights in the embankments ranges from 1.0 - 1.5 times the clear
spacing of the columns.
Due to the relative movement between the soil and the column,
negative skin friction develops along the column height between the
upper and lower equal settlement planes.
The negative shear stress increases the average vertical stress in the
column and reduces the stress in soft soil.

Principles
Stress Transfer
The highest stress concentration on the column exists at the lower
equal settlement plane.
If bearing layer is firm, the lower equal settlement plane will be at
the top of the bearing layer and all shear stresses will be negative.
If the column is flexible, low stress concentration occurs, the column
may bulge and only less shear stress develops between column and
soil.
Under rigid loading, the column and the soil deform equally in the
vertical direction on the top and there will not be shear stress
between column and soil.

Principles
Stress Transfer
If bearing layer is firm, the differential settlement between column
and soil will be minimal and the vertical stress in column and soil
remain constant with depth.
If bearing layer is soft, rigid column may penetrate into soft bearing
layer and positive shear stress will develop between column and soil.
If the column is flexible, the stress transfer is dominated by lateral
confinement.
Near the ground surface the flexible column will bulge upto a certain
depth because of the low overburden stress and the confining stresses.

Principles

Failure Modes
(modified from Barksdale and Bachus, 1983; Han and ye, 1991)
(a) Crushing failure

(b) Shear failure
(c) Punching failure
(d) Bulging failure

Principles

Failure Modes
Crushing: Columns may crush when applied load is higher than column
strength. This failure is more likely in relatively brittle concrete columns
with end-bearing condition.
Shear: Shear failure may happen to granular columns.
Punching: Punching failure may happen to short granular or concrete

columns without end bearing layer.
Bulging: Bulging failure happens to granular columns in soft soils within

top portion (2 to 3 times diameter of column)

Section 4

General rules (such as backfill material, area of improvement, pattern,

area replacement ratio, depth of improvement, diameter of column)
Bearing capacity
Settlement
Consolidation
Stability
Liquefaction

General Rules
Backfill
A rating system has been developed by Brown (1977) to judge the
suitability of backfill material for vibro-replacement.
Suitability number is calculated as:
√
3 1 1
SN = 1.7 + +
(D50 )2 (D20 )2 (D10 )2
where D50 , D20 and D10 are particle sizes of 50%, 20% and 10% finer
respectively, in unit of mm.

General Rules
Patterns
Rectangular or triangular patterns are commonly used for most

foundations while the radial pattern is suitable for circular or ring
foundations.

General Rules
Diameter of Columns
Diameter of columns depends on the equipment used to install the

columns.

General Rules
Area Replacement Ratio
Area replacement ratio is defined as the ratio of c/s area of a column to
the tributary area of the column
( )2
Ac dc
as = =C
Ae s
Ac = c/s area of the column
Ae = tributary area of the column
dc = diameter of the column
s = center to center spacing between columns in a square
√ or equilateral triangular pattern
C = constant (π/4 or 0.785 for a square pattern or π/(2 3) or 0.907 for an equilateral
triangular pattern)
as typically ranges from 0.1 to 0.4 for granular columns; 0.1 to 0.2 for
geosynthetic encased granular columns and for concrete columns 0.05 to
0.15

General Rules
Depth of Improvement
Rules to determine depth of improvement
When a firm stratum exists at relatively shallow depth, depth of

improvement should reach this stratum.
When depth of improvement is at relatively deep, depth of
improvement should be determined based on performance
requirements such as bearing capacity, settlement, slope stability and
liquefaction.
Typical depth of improvement ranges from 5 to 15 m.

General Rules
Area of Improvement
Area of improvement is determined based on site conditions and

importance of superstructures.
Area of improvement should be larger than footprints of footings.
Under general conditions, one or two rows of columns should be
installed outside the footing.
On liquefiable site, two or four rows of columns may be installed
outside of the footing.

Densification Effect
modified from Kensetsu Kikai Chosa Co.
N1 is SPT N value midway between sand compaction columns and

N2 is the value at the center of sand compaction columns.

Densification Effect
SPT N valued depends on the initial values (N0 ), the area

replacement ratio (as ) and the location.
Increase of the initial SPT N value or the area replacement ratio (as )
increases the SPT N values after installation.
SPT N value in the center of the columns (N2 ) is higher than that
midway between the columns (N1 ).
Average weighted (equivalent) SPT N value including the sand
compaction column and the surrounding soil can be obtained as;
Neq = as N2 + (1 − as )N1

Bearing Capacity
As granular columns and the surrounding soil mobilize their

strengths at a similar strain level, the ultimate bearing capacity of
composite foundation is given as
qult = qult,c as + qult,s (1 − as )
qult,s = ultimate bearing capacity of surrounding soil (approx. = 5cu as
suggested by Barksdale, 1987)
qult,c = ultimate bearing capacity of individual stone column (approx.
Bearing Capacity
Bearing capacity of individual stone column can be expressed as:
qult,c = (σr0 + Kl cu )Kp = K′ Kp cu
σr0 = lateral soil stress induced by the overburden stress
cu = undrained shear strength of the soil
Kl = constant obtained by different researchers
Kp = the passive earth pressure coefficient (tan2 ψp )
ψp = passive failure plane angle within the column (= 45 + ϕc /2)
K′ = a constant considering the effect of σr0 , which is not significant at shallow depth

Bearing Capacity-Example
A site consists of 20 m thick soft clay with an undrained shear strength of

20 kPa. The GWT is at a depth of 1.0 m. The unit weights of soil above
and below the ground water table are 18 and 19 kN/m3 . A square footing
with a width of 2.0 m will be constructed on this site with an embedment
depth of 1.0 m. The applied load of this footing (including self weight) is
400 kN. The required FoS against bearing failure is 2.5. Granular columns
of 10 m long are designed in an equilateral triangular pattern with
column spacing of 1.5m and column diameter of 0.8 m. Evaluate whether
this design meets the bearing capacity requirements.

Settlement
Stress Reduction Method
The settlement of a foundation under a large loading area (when width of

the loading area is atleast three times the thickness of soft soil) is given
by;
S = mv,s ∆σz h
mv,s = coefficient of volume compressibility of natural soil
∆σz = additional vertical stress
h = thickness of soil layer

Settlement
The settlement of composite foundation based on the compression of the

soil is
S′ = m′v,s ∆σs h = m′v,s µ∆σz h
m′v,s = coefficient of volume compressibility of soil after column installation
µ = stress reduction factor
∆σz = additional vertical stress
h = thickness of soil layer
The settlement ratio of the composite foundation to the natural

foundation is
S′ m′v,s
= µ
S mv,s

Settlement
For soft soils, the coefficient of volume compressibility before and after
column installation will be almost same;
1
∴ S′ = µS = S
1 + as (n − 1)
Barksdale and Bachus (1983) developed an empirical design chart to
determine the stress concentration ratio, which can be approximated as
follows for average ratio (Han, 2010)
( )
Ec
n = 1 + 0.217 −1
Es
Ec = elastic modulus of the column
Es = elastic modulus of the soil

Settlement
Stress concentration ratio versus modulus ratio (modified from Barksdale and Bachus (1983))

Settlement
Improvement Factor Method
Priebe (1995) proposed a basic improvement factor method to calculate

the settlement of stone column-reinforced soft foundations by a
vibro-replacement method considering rigid and incompressible columns
with a bulging over the column length as
1
S′ = S
If
[ ]
5 − as
If = 1 + as − 1
4(1 − as )tan2 (450 − ϕc /2)
If = improvement factor
ϕc = friction angle of the column material

Settlement
Improvement Factor Method
Improvement factor versus area replacement ratio (from Priebe, 1995)

Consolidation
( )
1 ∂u ∂ 2 u ∂2u ∂u
crm + 2 + cvm 2 =
r ∂r
( ∂r ) ∂z ∂t
as
crm = cr 1 + n
( 1 − as )
as
cvm = cv 1 + n
1 − as
cr = coefficient of consolidation of soft soil in

radial direction (= kr /(γw mv,s ))
crm = modified coefficient of consolidation of
soft soil in the radial direction
cv = coefficient of consolidation of soft soil in
u = excess pore water pressure at a distance r
vertical direction (= kv /(γw mv,s ))
n = stress concentration ratio
as = area replacement ratio

Consolidation
Terzaghi (1943) suggested approximate solution for degree of

consolidation under 1D vertical
√ consolidation
4Tv
For Uv = 0 to 52.6%, Uv =
π
For Uv > 52.6%, Uv = 1 − 0.81 × 10−1.07Tv
Uv is the average degree of consolidation due to vertical flow
Tv is the time factor due to vertical flow (Tv = cv t/h2dr )
t is the time
hdr is longest drainage distance due to vertical flow

Consolidation
Barron (1948) proposed the solution for degree of consolidation due to

radial flow
8
− Tr
U =1−e F(N D)
r
N2D 3N2D − 1
F(ND ) = ln(ND ) −
N2D−1 4N2D
Ur = average degree of consolidation due to radial flow
ND = diameter ratio (de /dc )
de = equivalent diameter of a unit cell
dc = diameter of a sand drain
Tr = time factor due to radial flow (Tr = cr t/d2e )

Consolidation
The overall degree of consolidation of soil due to vertical and radial flows
can be calculated as:
Uvr = 1 − (1 − Uv )(1 − Ur )
where Uv is degree of consolidation in vertical direction and Ur degree of
consolidation in radial direction.
For granular column reinforced foundations, the time factor for Terzaghi’s
solution of vertical consolidation can be calculated as:
Tvm = cvm t/h2dr
and time factor for Barron’s solution for degree of radial consolidation as:
Trm = crm t/d2e

Example
Consolidation Settlement of Granular Columns
A 40 m wide (on the crest) and 1.8 m high embankment with the fill unit
weight of 18kN/m3 is constructed over a 5 m thick soft clay underlain by stiff
clay layer. Above the soft soil, there is a 0.3 m thick fill, which is provided as a
construction platform and drainage layer. The groundwater table is 1 m below
the ground surface. The soft clay has the following properties: γ = 15kN/m3 ,
Es = 1.1MPa, kr = 3.47 × 10−9 m/s and kv = 1.16 × 10−9 m/s. The stone
columns installed in this project have a diameter of 0.8 m and a length of 6 m
with a square pattern at spacing of 2.4 m. The dry unit weight, specific gravity,
elastic modulus, Poisson’s ratio and permeability of the columns are
15.7kN/m3 , 2.7, 30 MPa, 0.3 and 3.67 × 10−7 m/s respectively. Calculate the
consolidation settlements with and without stone columns and the settlement of
the stone-column reinforced foundation at one month after the construction of
the embankment (assuming instantaneous placement of embankment).

Stability
The most likely failure mode of granular columns under
embankments is shear failure.
It is common to use equivalent parameters (cohesion, ceq and friction
angle, ϕeq ) for stability analysis.
The equivalent parameters for the composite foundation are
determined based on area average of the parameters from granular
columns and the soft soil;
ceq = cs (1 − as )
ϕeq = arctan[as tanϕc + (1 − as )tanϕs ]

cs = soil cohesion; ϕs = soil friction angle
as = area replacement ratio
ϕc = column friction angle

Section 5

Design Parameters
Soil type Required allowable bearing capacity
Thickness and depth of problematic soil Tolerable settlement
Depth of ground water table Gradation of backfill for columns
Initial void ratio (or relative density) of Friction angle of backfill for columns
cohesionless soil
Pattern and spacing of columns
Undrained shear strength for short-term
design and effective friction angle for Diameter of columns
long-term design for cohesive soil Area of improvement
Consolidation coefficient of cohesive soil Type of installation method (replacement
Coefficient of volume compressibility of or displacement)
soil Frequency of penetration, compaction
Coefficient of volume compressibility of and extraction (in case of sand
column compaction column)
Magnitude and area of load Duration of compaction for cohesionless
soil
Target void ratio (or relative density) of
cohesionless soil Ground subsidence for cohesionless soil

Design Procedure for Cohesionless Soil
Based on geotechnical profile and potential problem, determine

whether densification is possible (fine content and clay content).
If the soil is found suitable, determine initial void ratio or relative
density.
Assume the diameter of columns based on installation equipment.
Based on performance requirement (eg. bearing capacity, settlement,
liquefaction, global slope stability), select target void ratio, relative
density or SPT N value.
Based on the required relative density or SPT N value, estimate the
required spacing of columns (same as vibro-compaction method) or
area replacement ratio for sand compaction columns.

Design Procedure for Cohesionless Soil
Considering the strengthening or stiffness effect of the columns,

calculate the reduced shear stress inducing liquefaction
The procedures for the increased allowable bearing capacity, reduced
settlement, increased factor of safety of slope stability are similar to
those for granular columns in cohesive soils.

Design Procedure for Cohesive Soil
Based on undrained shear strength of cohesive soil, calculate the

ultimate bearing capacity of natural soil as 5cu .
Based on undrained shear strength of cohesive soil, calculate the
ultimate bearing capacity of individual columns.
Calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of the composite foundation
using the area replacement ratio.
Based on the coefficient of volumetric compression, calculate the
settlement of natural soil.
Based on the column-soil modulus ratio or column friction angle,
calculate the stress reduction factor or improvement factor and
calculate the settlement of the composite foundation.
Estimate the degree of consolidation of the composite foundation.

Design Procedure for Cohesive Soil
The factor of safety against global slope failure can be calculated

using the individual column method or equivalent area method.

Deep Replcement

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Deep Replcement

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Deep Replcement

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Deep Replacement

Dr. Rakesh J. Pillai

Ground Improvement Techniques

Design Parameters and Procedure

Dr. Rakesh J. Pillai · Deep Replacement · Ground Improvement Techniques 2 / 63

Dr. Rakesh J. Pillai · Deep Replacement · Ground Improvement Techniques 3 / 63

Dr. Rakesh J. Pillai · Deep Replacement · Ground Improvement Techniques 4 / 63

The columns and surrounding soil form a composite ground or

Dr. Rakesh J. Pillai · Deep Replacement · Ground Improvement Techniques 5 / 63

For cohesionless and unsaturated soils displacement process may

Dr. Rakesh J. Pillai · Deep Replacement · Ground Improvement Techniques 6 / 63

Columns installed by vibro-replacement (wet method) are commonly

As in these technologies the granular fill is backfilled from top of the

Dr. Rakesh J. Pillai · Deep Replacement · Ground Improvement Techniques 7 / 63

Sometimes a mixture of cement, fly ash and gravel (CFG columns) or

Reverse flight displacement method

Dynamic replacement method

Dr. Rakesh J. Pillai · Deep Replacement · Ground Improvement Techniques 9 / 63

Dr. Rakesh J. Pillai · Deep Replacement · Ground Improvement Techniques 10 / 63

Based on the stiffness, columns can be classified in to three types:

Dr. Rakesh J. Pillai · Deep Replacement · Ground Improvement Techniques 11 / 63

Dr. Rakesh J. Pillai · Deep Replacement · Ground Improvement Techniques 12 / 63

Dr. Rakesh J. Pillai · Deep Replacement · Ground Improvement Techniques 13 / 63

Vibro-displacement technology is suitable for insensitive cohesive

Dr. Rakesh J. Pillai · Deep Replacement · Ground Improvement Techniques 14 / 63

Sand compaction columns which are installed in cohesionless soils

Dr. Rakesh J. Pillai · Deep Replacement · Ground Improvement Techniques 15 / 63

Dr. Rakesh J. Pillai · Deep Replacement · Ground Improvement Techniques 16 / 63

Densification: Increase of soil density

Dr. Rakesh J. Pillai · Deep Replacement · Ground Improvement Techniques 17 / 63

Load Transfer Mechanisms

Equivalent stress vs equivalent strain

Dr. Rakesh J. Pillai · Deep Replacement · Ground Improvement Techniques 18 / 63

Load Transfer Mechanisms

Column supported embankment not only has a stress concentration

Dr. Rakesh J. Pillai · Deep Replacement · Ground Improvement Techniques 19 / 63

Load Transfer Mechanisms

Unit Cells and Stress Concentration Ratio

Dr. Rakesh J. Pillai · Deep Replacement · Ground Improvement Techniques 20 / 63

Load Transfer Mechanisms

Stress concentration ratio under 1D condition;

Dr. Rakesh J. Pillai · Deep Replacement · Ground Improvement Techniques 21 / 63

Load Transfer Mechanisms

Unit Cells and Stress Concentration Ratio

Dr. Rakesh J. Pillai · Deep Replacement · Ground Improvement Techniques 22 / 63

Load Transfer Mechanisms

The increase of stress concentration ratio indicates the stress transfer

Load Transfer Mechanisms

Based on force equilibrium

∆σz A = ∆σs (Ae − Ac ) + ∆σc Ac

Dr. Rakesh J. Pillai · Deep Replacement · Ground Improvement Techniques 24 / 63

Load Transfer Mechanisms

Dividing both sides of above equation by Ae ;

∆σz = ∆σs (1 − as ) + ∆σc as

Load Transfer Mechanisms

Eeq = [1 + (n − 1)as ]Es

where Eeq is equivalent modulus of the composite foundation and Es is

Dr. Rakesh J. Pillai · Deep Replacement · Ground Improvement Techniques 26 / 63