MATRICES

A matrix is a rectangular array of mn quantities, arranged in m rows and n columns.

 a11  a1n 
a  a 2n 
A  (aij )   21
  
 
a m1  a mn 
where aij means the element in the ith row and jth column
i is called the row index
j is the column index

A matrix having only one row is called a row matrix while a matrix having only one
column is called a column matrix. If m = n, the matrix is said to be square and of order n. A
matrix, even if it is square, does not have a numerical value, as determinant does. However, if the
matrix A is square, a determinant can be formed which has the same elements as the matrix
A. This is called the determinant of the matrix and written as det A or |A |. Matrices are
often represented by single capital letters.
2 5  2 5 1 8
e.g., A  1 2 3 , B , C 
1 8   2 0 3 6
If A is square and det A ≠ 0, A is said to be non-singular, if det A = 0, A is said to be
singular.

Some Special Definitions and Operations Involving Matrices

1. Equality
Two matrices A = (aij) and B = (bij) are equal (=) if and only if they are identical; that is,
they have the same number of rows and the same number of columns and equal
corresponding elements (aij = bij for all i and j).

2. Addition and Subtraction

The operations of addition (+) and subtraction (-) of two or more matrices are possible if
and only if they have the same number of rows and columns. Thus,
A ± B = (aij ± bij); i.e., addition and subtraction are of corresponding elements.
 2 1 4  3  5 1
Examples: If A    , B    then
  3 0 2  2 1 3

 2  3 1  5 4  1  5  4 5
A  B      
  3  2 0  1 2  3    1 1 5 

 2  3 1  5 4  1   1 6 3 
A  B      
  3  2 0  1 2  3    5  1  1

Note: Commutative and associative laws for addition are satisfied by matrices,
i.e., for any matrices A, B, C of the same order
A + B = B + A, A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C

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3. Transpose of a matrix
The matrix obtained from A by interchanging the rows and columns of A is
called the transpose of A, written as A’ or AT.

4. Multiplication of a matrix by a number

If A = (aij) and c is any number, then cA = (caij)

1 4 2  3 12 6 
Example: 3  
3 0  1 9 0  3

5. Multiplication of matrices
Let A = (aij), i = 1, … , m1; j = 1, … , m2
B = (bij), i = 1, … , n1; j = 1, … , n2

The product AB is defined if and only if the number of columns of A (m2) is equal to the
number of rows of B (n1), i.e., n1 = m2. For two such matrices the product P = AB is defined
by summing the element by element products of a row of A by a column of B. This is the row
n1
by column rule. Thus pij =
 aik bkj . The resulting matrix has m1 rows and n2 columns.
k 1
3 2  4 3 17 24
1 1  0 1 5 6   2 1 6 9 
Example:
   2 0 1 3  
5 4     8 5 29 42
 
Note: AB ≠ BA

6. Inverse of a matrix
A square matrix A is said to have an inverse if there exists a matrix B such that AB = BA
= I, where I is the identity matrix of order n.

1 0  0 
0 1  
 
 1 0
 
0  0 1 
The inverse B is a square matrix of the order of A, designated by A-1.
Thus, AA-1 = A-1A = I.
Note: A square matrix A has an inverse if and only if A is non-singular.

Important relations:
(a) (AB)-1 = B-1A-1
(b) If AB is defined, (AB)T = BTAT
(c) (A-1)T = (AT)-1
(d) (ABC)-1 = C-1B-1A-1
(e) c(AB) = (cA)B = A(cB)
(f) A(B+C) = AB + AC
(g) A(BC) = (AB)C

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 (h) (AT)T = A
(i) (cAT) = c(A)T
(j) If A + B is defined, (A + B)T = AT + BT
(k) (A-1)-1 = A
7. Diagonal matrix
 a square matrix whose elements are zero everywhere except on the principal
diagonal (top-left to bottom-right)
1 0 0 1 2 4
   
A   0 2 0 is a diagonal matrix, whereas B   0 1 0  is not.
 0 0 3 3 0 1
   
8. Scalar matrix
 A diagonal matrix whose elements along the principal diagonal are all equal.
9. Identity or unit matrix
 A diagonal matrix which have only 1 s on the principal diagonal and is denoted
by the letter I. If A is a square matrix, then IA = AI = A.
10. Symmetric matrix
 If a square matrix A and its transpose AT are equal, then A is said to be a
symmetric matrix.
4 2 3 
 
A   2 5  2
3  2 2 
 
11. Skew symmetric matrix
 If a square matrix A is such that AT = -A, then A is said to be skew symmetric.
 0 8 6
 
A    8 0 3
  6  3 0
 
12. Triangular matrix
 A triangular matrix is any square matrix whose elements below (or above) the
principal diagonal are all 0.
 Upper triangular matrix
A matrix A is upper triangular if and only if it is square and aij = 0 if i > j. Every
entry below each diagonal element of an upper triangular matrix is zero.
1 8 6 
 
A   0 2  3
0 0 3 
 
 Lower triangular matrix
A matrix A is lower triangular if and only if it is square and aij = 0 if i < j. Every
entry above each diagonal element of a lower triangular matrix is zero.
1 0 0
 
A  9 2 0
 8  5 3
 
13. Zero or null matrix
 a matrix (whether square or not) whose elements are all equal to zero and is
denoted by O or 0

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 DETERMINANTS

A determinant is the value of the square array of n2 quantities aij, written in the form
a11 a12  a1n
a a 22  a 2 n
det A  A  21
   
a n1 a n 2  a nn

where aij = elements of the determinanant

i (1, …, n) = row index
j (1, …, n) = column index

A determinant of order 2 has the value

a11 a12
det A  A   a11a22  a21a22
a21 a22

A determinant of order 3 has the value

a11 a12 a13
det A  A  a 21 a 22 a 23  a11a 22 a33  a12 a 23 a31  a13 a 21a32  a31a 22 a13  a11a32 a 23  a 21a12 a33
a31 a32 a33

The value may also be obtained by rewriting the first two columns as shown below and
evaluating as indicated.
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12
det A  A  a 21 a 22 a 23 a 21 a 22  a11a 22 a33  a12 a 23 a31  a13 a 21a32  a31a 22 a13  a11a32 a 23  a 21a12 a33
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32
Note:
These methods of evaluating determinants are insufficient for higher order determinants, i.e., n ≥ 4.

Minors and cofactors

The minor Mij of the element aij in the ith row and jth column in any determinant of order n is that
new determinant of order (n – 1) formed from the elements remaining after deleting the ith row and
jth column.
Consider the determinant
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
| 21 𝑎22 𝑎23 |
𝑎
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
𝑎12 𝑎13
The minor of 𝑎21 = 𝑀21 = |𝑎 |
32 𝑎33

The cofactor Aij of the element aij in any determinant of order n is that signed minor determined by
𝐴𝑖𝑗 = (−1)𝑖+𝑗 𝑀𝑖𝑗
For the preceding determinant
𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝐴21 = (−1)2+1 𝑀21 = (−1)2+1 |𝑎 | = − |𝑎 |
32 𝑎33 32 𝑎33

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Theorems on determinants of any order
1. The number of terms in the expansion of a determinant of order n is n!.
e.g. order no. of terms
2 2! = 2 ∙ 1 = 2
3 3! = 3 ∙ 2 ∙ 1 = 6
4 4! = 4 ∙ 3 ∙ 2 ∙ 1 = 24
… …
n n!
2. The value of a determinant is not changed if the rows and columns are interchanged.

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 𝑎21 𝑎31

e.g. 𝑎
| 21 𝑎22 𝑎 23 | = | 12 𝑎22 𝑎32 |
𝑎
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎13 𝑎23 𝑎33

3. If the elements of one row (or column) of a determinant are all zero, the value of |A| is zero.

𝑎11 𝑎12 0
e.g. |𝐴| = |𝑎21 𝑎22 0| = 0
𝑎31 𝑎32 0

4. If one determinant is obtained from another by interchanging any two rows (or columns), the
value of either is the negative of the value of the other.

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎12 𝑎11 𝑎13

e.g. |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 | = − |𝑎22 𝑎21 𝑎23 |
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎32 𝑎31 𝑎33

5. If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant have their corresponding elements identical or
proportional, its value is zero.

3 1 2 1 2 2
e.g. |6 5 4| = 0 |−3 −6 3| = 0
3 1 2 2 4 2

6. If the elements of one row (or column) of a determinant are multiplied by the same constant
factor k, the value of the determinant is multiplied by this constant factor k.

𝑎11 𝑘𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13

e.g. |𝑎21 𝑘𝑎22 𝑎23 | = 𝑘 |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 |
𝑎31 𝑘𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33

7. The value of the determinant is not changed if to the elements of any row are added a constant
multiple of the corresponding elements of any other row (or column).

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 (𝑎12 + 𝑘𝑎11 ) 𝑎13

e.g. |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 | = |𝑎21 (𝑎22 + 𝑘𝑎21 ) 𝑎23 |
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎31 (𝑎32 + 𝑘𝑎31 ) 𝑎33

8. (a). The value of a determinant is the algebraic sum of the products obtained by multiplying each
element of a row (or column) by its cofactor or signed minor.

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 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
e.g. |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 | = 𝑎12 𝐴12 + 𝑎22 𝐴22 + 𝑎32 𝐴32
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33

The expansion is by using the elements in the 2nd column (or expansion along the 2nd column).

(b). If all the elements but one in a row (or column) are zero, the value of the determinant is the
product of that element and its cofactor.

𝑎11 0 𝑎13
e.g. |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 | = 𝑎22 𝐴22
𝑎31 0 𝑎33

Laplace’s Expansion
 by the ith row
n
det A   aik Aik
k 1

 by the jth column

n
det A   a kj Akj
k 1
Generalized Laplace’s Expansion
Let any m rows (columns) be selected from a determinant |A|. Then |A| is equal to the sum of
the products of all the mth order minors contained in the chosen rows (columns) each
multiplied by its algebraic complement.
 mth-order minor – the determinant |M| formed by the m2 elements common to any m
rows and any m columns of an nth-order determinant |A|.
 Algebraic complement of |𝑀| = (−1)𝑖1 +𝑖2 +⋯+𝑖𝑚+𝑗1 +𝑗2 +⋯+𝑗𝑚 x complementary
minor of |M|
 Complementary minor of |M| – the determinant of order (n – m) formed by the array
of elements which remains when the m rows and m columns containing an mth-order
minor |M| are deleted from |A|.
e.g. For the second order minor contained in the ith and jth rows and the kth
and lth columns of a determinant |A|
𝐴𝑖𝑗,𝑘𝑙 = (−1)𝑖+𝑗+𝑘+𝑙 𝑀𝑖𝑗,𝑘𝑙
where Mij,kl = complementary minor
Aij, kl = algebraic complement

System of linear algebraic equations (or a linear system)

𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1
𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2
………………………………….
𝑎𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑛
where b1, b2, …, bn = constants of the system

Homogeneous system:
 If b1, b2, …, bn are all zero
Nonhomogeneous system:
 If and only if, at least one of its equations has a nonhomogeneous term

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Solution by Cramer’s Rule
If m = n for the given linear system and if A  0, a system of n linear
equations in n unknowns has a unique solution whose jth component is given
by
Dj
xj  ; 1 j n
A
where the matrix Dj has B as its jth column and the corresponding columns of
A as its other columns.

Example: Use Cramer’s rule to solve the linear system

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 = 3
2𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 − 𝑥3 + 2𝑥4 = 0
3𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 + 2𝑥4 = 2
𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 2𝑥3 + 𝑥4 = 0

1 1 1 1
|𝐴| = |2 −2 −1 2
|=6
3 −1 2 2
1 −1 −2 1

Since the determinant of the coefficient matrix is nonzero, ∴ Cramer’s rule can be
applied.
3 1 1 1 1 3 1 1
0 −2 −1 2
|𝐷1 | = | |=3 |𝐷2 | = |2 0 −1 2| = 9
2 −1 2 2 3 2 2 2
0 −1 −2 1 1 0 −2 1

1 1 3 1 1 1 1 3
|𝐷3 | = |2 −2 0 2 |𝐷4 | = |2 −2 −1 0
|=0 |=
3 −1 2 2 3 −1 2 2
1 −1 0 1 1 −1 −2 0

Solution of the system

|𝐷1 | 3 1 |𝐷3 | 0
𝑥1 = |𝐴|
=6=2 𝑥3 = |𝐴|
=6=0

|𝐷2 | 9 3 |𝐷4 | 6
𝑥2 = |𝐴|
=6=2 𝑥4 = |𝐴|
=6=1

Check:
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 3
1 3 1 3
+ 2+0+1=3 ∴ 𝑥1 = 2 , 𝑥2 = 2 , 𝑥3 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥4 = 1
2

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Solution by using inverse matrices (matrix-inversion method)
The system shown on the previous page can be written in matrix form as
 a11 a12  a1n  x1   b1 
    
 a21 a22  a2n  x2   b2 
  
        
    
a     
 m1 a m2 a mn  xn   bn 
or more briefly AX = B where A = coefficient matrix
-1
X=A B X = column matrix of the unknowns
B = column matrix of the constants
A-1 = inverse of matrix A
Rules for finding the inverse:
1. Find |A|. If |A| = 0, there is no inverse. If |A| ≠ 0, continue to apply the
following steps.
2. Replace each element of A by its corresponding cofactor, say, C = [Aij].
3. Form the transposed matrix, CT = Adj A. The resulting matrix is called the adjoint
matrix.
4. Divide each element of the adjoint matrix, Adj A by |A| and the result is A-1.
A 1 
AdjA
i.e.,
A

Example: Solve the linear system using inverse method

3𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 4
Solve (2𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 = 10)
𝑥1 − 3𝑥2 − 4𝑥3 = 5
In matrix form,
3 2 −1 𝑥1 4
(2 −1 2 ) (𝑥2 ) = (10)
1 −3 −4 𝑥3 5
3 2 −1 𝑥1 4
If 𝑨 = (2 −1 2 ), then (𝑥2 ) = 𝑨−𝟏 (10)
1 −3 −4 𝑥3 5

where 𝑨−𝟏 is the inverse of 𝑨

−𝟏
To find 𝑨 :
(a) Form a determinant of 𝑨 and evaluate it.
3 2 −1
|𝑨| = |2 −1 2 | = 3(4 + 6) − 2(−8 − 2) − 1(−6 + 1) = 55
1 −3 4
(b) Form a new matrix 𝑪 consisting of the cofactors of the elements in 𝑨.

𝐴11 𝐴12 𝐴13

𝑪 = ( 21 𝐴22
𝐴 𝐴23 )
𝐴31 𝐴32 𝐴33
where 𝐴11 is the cofactor of 𝑎11 in 𝑨

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 −1 2 2 2 2 −1
| | −| | | |
−3 −4 1 −4 1 −3 10 10 −5
2 −1 3 −1 3 2
−| | | | −| | = (11 −11 11 )
−3 −4 1 −4 1 −3
2 −1 3 −1 3 2 3 −8 −7
( |−1 2
| −|
2 2
| |
2 −1
| )
10 11 3
𝑪𝑻 = 𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = ( 10 −11 −8)
−5 11 −7
10 11 3
10 11 3 55 55 55
𝟏 1 10 −11 −8
𝑨−𝟏 = |𝑨| × 𝑪𝑻 = 55 ( 10 −11 −8) = 55 55 55
−5 11 −7 −5 11 −7
( 55 55 55 )
𝑥1 4
(𝑥2 ) = 𝑨−𝟏 (10)
𝑥3 5
10 11 3
𝑥1 55 55 55
10 −11 −8 4
(𝑥2 ) = (10)
𝑥3 55 55 55 5
−5 11 −7
( 55 55 55 )
10 11 3
(4) + (10) + (5)
𝑥1 55 55 55
10 −11 −8 3
(𝑥2 ) = (4) + (10) + (5) = (−2)
𝑥3 55 55 55 1
−5 11 −7
(4) + (10) + (5) )
( 55 55 55
𝑥1 3
(𝑥2 ) = (−2)
𝑥3 1

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