Types of Clauses

Like a phrase, a clause is a group of related words, but unlike a phrase, a clause has a

subject and predicate. An independent clause, along with having a subject and

predicate, expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. On the

contrary, a subordinate or dependent clause does not express a complete thought and

therefore is not a sentence. A subordinate clause standing alone is the most common

type of sentence fragment.

Independent clauses
He saw her. The Washingtons hurried home. Free speech has a price. Grammatically complete statements
like these are sentences and can stand alone. When they are part of longer sentences, they are referred to
as independent (or main) clauses.
Two or more independent clauses can be joined by using coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, nor, or,
so, and yet) or by using semicolons. The most important thing to remember is that an independent clause
can stand alone as a complete sentence.
In the following example the independent clause is a simple sentence.
 Erica brushed her long, raven hair.
Here, the coordinating conjunction and joins two independent clauses:
 Fernando left, and Erica brushed her long, raven hair.
Here, a semicolon joins two independent clauses:
 Fernando left; Erica brushed her long, raven hair.
All sentences must include at least one independent clause.
 After she told Fernando to leave, Erica brushed her long, raven hair.
The independent clause is preceded by a clause that can't stand alone.
 Erica brushed her long, raven hair while she waited for Fernando to leave.
The independent clause is followed by a clause that can't stand alone.
Beginning sentences with coordinating conjunctions
Any of the coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet) can be used to join an independent
clause to another independent clause. But can you begin a sentence with one of these conjunctions?
 No one knew what to do. But everyone agreed that something should be done.
An old rule says that you shouldn't. But beginning a sentence with a coordinating conjunction is widely
accepted today. (Notice the preceding sentence, for example.) Sometimes beginning a sentence this way
creates exactly the effect you want; it separates the clause and yet draws attention to its relationship with
the previous clause. Use this technique when it works for you. If you're confronted with an advocate of the
old rule, you'll have no trouble finding support for your position from the best writers and usage experts.

Identifying Independent and Dependent Clauses

Summary: This handout defines dependent and independent clauses and explores how they are
treated in standard usage.
Contributors:Chris Berry, Allen Brizee
Last Edited: 2010-04-17 06:01:23

When you want to use commas and semicolons in sentences and when
you are concerned about whether a sentence is or is not a fragment, a
good way to start is to be able to recognize dependent and
independent clauses. The definitions offered here will help you with
this.
Independent Clause
An independent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and
verb and expresses a complete thought. An independent clause is a
sentence.
Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz.

Dependent Clause
A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and
verb but does not express a complete thought. A dependent clause
cannot be a sentence. Often a dependent clause is marked by a
dependent marker word.
When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz . . . (What happened

when he studied? The thought is incomplete.)

Dependent Marker Word

A dependent marker word is a word added to the beginning of an
independent clause that makes it into a dependent clause.
When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, it was very noisy.

Some common dependent markers are: after, although, as, as if,

because, before, even if, even though, if, in order to, since,
though, unless, until, whatever, when, whenever, whether, and
while.
Connecting dependent and independent clauses
There are two types of words that can be used as connectors at the
beginning of an independent clause: coordinating conjunctions and
independent marker words.
1. Coordinating Conjunction
The seven coordinating conjunctions used as connecting words at the
beginning of an independent clause are and, but, for, or, nor, so,
and yet. When the second independent clause in a sentence begins
with a coordinating conjunction, a comma is needed before the
coordinating conjunction:
Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, but it was hard to

concentrate because of the noise.

2. Independent Marker Word

An independent marker word is a connecting word used at the
beginning of an independent clause. These words can always begin a
sentence that can stand alone. When the second independent clause in
a sentence has an independent marker word, a semicolon is needed
before the independent marker word.
Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz; however, it was hard to

concentrate because of the noise.

Some common independent markers are: also, consequently,

furthermore, however, moreover, nevertheless, and therefore.
Some Common Errors to Avoid
Comma Splices
A comma splice is the use of a comma between two independent
clauses. You can usually fix the error by changing the comma to a
period and therefore making the two clauses into two separate
sentences, by changing the comma to a semicolon, or by making one
clause dependent by inserting a dependent marker word in front of it.
Incorrect: I like this class, it is very interesting.

 Correct: I like this class. It is very interesting.

 (or) I like this class; it is very interesting.
 (or) I like this class, and it is very interesting.
 (or) I like this class because it is very interesting.
 (or) Because it is very interesting, I like this class.

Fused Sentences
Fused sentences happen when there are two independent clauses not
separated by any form of punctuation. This error is also known as a
run-on sentence. The error can sometimes be corrected by adding a
period, semicolon, or colon to separate the two sentences.
Incorrect: My professor is intelligent I've learned a lot from her.

 Correct: My professor is intelligent. I've learned a lot from her.

 (or) My professor is intelligent; I've learned a lot from her.
 (or) My professor is intelligent, and I've learned a lot from her.
 (or) My professor is intelligent; moreover, I've learned a lot from her.
Sentence Fragments
Sentence fragments happen by treating a dependent clause or other
incomplete thought as a complete sentence. You can usually fix this
error by combining it with another sentence to make a complete
thought or by removing the dependent marker.
Incorrect: Because I forgot the exam was today.

 Correct: Because I forgot the exam was today, I didn't study.

 (or) I forgot the exam was today.

Subordinate clauses
A subordinate clause has a subject and predicate but, unlike an independent clause, cannot stand by itself.
It depends on something else to express a complete thought, which is why it is also called a dependent
clause. Some subordinate clauses are introduced by relative pronouns (who, whom, that, which, what,
whose) and some by subordinating conjunctions (although, because, if, unless, when, etc.). Subordinate
clauses function in sentences as adjectives, nouns, and adverbs.
Relative clauses
A relative clause begins with a relative pronoun and functions as an adjective.
In the following sentence, the relative pronoun that is the subject of its clause and won is the predicate. This
clause couldn't stand by itself. Its role in the complete sentence is to modify novel, the subject of the
independent clause.
 The novel that won the Pulitzer Prize didn't sell well when it was first published.
In the next example , which is the relative pronoun that begins the subordinate clause. Celebrities is the
subject of the clause and attended is the predicate. In the complete sentence, this clause functions as an
adjective describing ceremony.
 The ceremony, which several celebrities attended, received intense coverage.
Note that in a relative clause the relative pronoun is sometimes the subject of the clause, as in the following
sentence, and sometimes the object, as in the next sentence.
 Arthur, who comes to the games every week, offered to be scorekeeper.
Who is the subject of the clause and comes is the predicate. The clause modifies Arthur.
In the following sentence , mother is the subject of the clause, adored is the predicate, and whom is the
direct object of adored. Again, the clause modifies Arthur.
 Arthur, whom the team mother adored, was asked to be scorekeeper.
Noun clauses
A noun clause serves as a noun in a sentence.
 What I want for dinner is a hamburger. (subject of the predicate is)

 The host told us how he escaped. (object of the predicate told)

 The vacation is what I need most. (complement of the linking verb is)

 Give it to whoever arrives first. (object of the preposition to)

Pronoun case in subordinate clause

Who, whom, whoever, whomever. In deciding which case of who you should use in a clause, remember this
important rule: The case of the pronoun is governed by the role it plays in its own clause, not by its relation
to the rest of the sentence. Choosing the right case of pronoun can be especially confusing because the
pronoun may appear to have more than one function. Look at the following sentence.
 They gave the money to whoever presented the winning ticket.
At first, you may be tempted to think whomever rather than whoever should be the pronoun here, on the
assumption that it is the object of the preposition to. But in fact the entire clause, not whoever, is the object
of the preposition. Refer to the basic rule: The case should be based on the pronoun's role within its own
clause. In this clause, whoever is the subject of the verb presented. (A good way to determine the right
pronoun case is to forget everything but the clause itself: whoever presented the winning ticket, yes;
whomever presented the winning ticket, no.)
The following two sentences show more dramatically how you must focus on the clause rather than the
complete sentence in choosing the right pronoun case.
 We asked whomever we saw for a reaction to the play.

 We asked whoever called us to call back later.

In each sentence the clause is the direct object of asked. But in the first sentence, whomever is correct
because within its clause it is the object of saw, while in the second sentence, whoever is correct because it
is the subject of called.

Adverbial clauses
Many subordinate clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions called adverbial clauses. Examples of
these conjunctions are because, unless, if, when, and although. What these conjunctions have in common is
that they make the clauses that follow them unable to stand alone. The clauses act as adverbs, answering
questions like how, when, where, why, to what extent, and under what conditions.
 While Mauna Loa was erupting and spewing fountains of lava into the air, we drove away as
quickly as we could.
In the preceding sentence , while is a subordinating conjunction introducing the adverbial clause; the subject
of the clause is Mauna Loa and the predicate is was erupting and [was] spewing. This clause is dependent
because it is an incomplete thought. What happened while the volcano was erupting? The independent
clause we drove away as quickly as we could completes the thought. The adverbial clause answers the
question “When did we drive?”
In the following sentence, because introduces the adverbial clause in which van is the subject and needed
the predicate. This clause is an incomplete thought. What happened because the van needed repairs? The
independent clause The group of tourists decided to have lunch in the village is necessary to complete the
thought. Again, the subordinate clause as a whole acts as an adverb, telling why the tourists decided to
have lunch in the village.
 The group of tourists decided to have lunch in the village because the van needed repairs.

1. Adjective Clauses

Adjective clauses are also called relative clauses. They come after nouns and modify
them. In other words, they tell the listener or reader more about the person or thing that
the noun refer to. The pronouns that often begin adjective clauses are called relative
pronouns ( that, which, who, whom, whose, where) For example:
A person who sweeps the floor on buildings is known as janitor.
A person who sails is a sailor.
The man who sold the red house is a friend of mine.

2. Reducing Adjective Clauses to Adjective Phrases

If the subject relative pronoun is followed by the verb be in any tense, both the relative
pronoun and the verb be can be omitted. For example:
The realtor who is selling the house is Ann.--> The realtor who is selling the house is
Ann.
The garment that is worn by priests is usually white.-> The garment that is worn by
priests is usually white.

3. Relative pronouns as objects

The object relative pronouns for people are who, whom, that. Whom is more formal than
who. The object relative pronouns for things are which, that. For example:
The candidate who more votes gets become the president.
The first time that I voted was in 1982.
You may omit the relative pronoun in restricted adjective clauses. For example:
The first time I voted was in 1982.

4. Restricted/Nonrestricted Relative Clauses

The two main types of adjective clauses--restrictive and nonrestrictive-- have distinct
meanings and uses.
A restrictive adjective clause gives information that helps to uniquely identify the noun
that it describes. For example:
My sister who attends KU is very shy. (I have two sisters. one attends KU , the other
doesn't)

A Nonrestrictive adjective clause, on the other hand, adds extra information about the
noun it modifies. This information is not necessary to identify the noun. For example:
Mary, who attends KU, is very shy.

Summary

Noun in main
Relative Clause Rest of main Clause
Clause
The man who called is an old friend of mine.
The woman whom I met lives near my house
The letter that Mary received was very important.
The book which we discussed was a best-seller.
whose book we will visit with us next
The writer
discussed week.

Inversion:

Inversion involves putting an auxiliary verb before the subject of a clause. We do this in a number
of different situations:

Questions

The most common use of inversion is in the forming of questions. We use the auxiliary verbs be
(for progressive and passive forms), have (for perfect forms) and do (for most other forms). Modal
verbs can also be inverted to form questions:

Were they ready when you arrived?

Where was it made?
Have you ever visited France?
Where do you live?
What should we do now?

Negative and restrictive adverbs

In formal English, it is quite common to use inversion after negative adverbial expressions and
restrictive words such as only, never, hardly and little.

At no time did he get permission for what he was doing.

Not until the next morning did she realise how serious it was.
Only later did they learn his terrible secret.
Never before have I seen such awful behaviour.
Hardly had we walked in the door when the phone started ringing.
Little do you know how much trouble you are in.

http://www3.telus.net/linguisticsissues/Inversion.htm

http://www.edufind.com/english/grammar/ADVERBS7.cfm

So, nor and neither

Inversion is common when using these words to expression agreement or disagreement.

 I'm from Turkey. So am I.
I don't like monsters! Nor/Neither do I.

Conditional clauses

In formal English, the if clause in conditional sentences can be rephrased through inversion:

Were you to win the election, what's the first thing you'd do? = If you won the election …
Had we known what the weather would be like, we wouldn't have come = If we had known
what …

May

When we are making wishes, we can use inversion:

May you both live happily ever after!

Exclamations

We can use inversion to make exclamations:

Aren't you a silly girl!

Isn't it a lovely day!