Anthropology of Conversion PDF

The Anthropology of
Religious Conversion
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
The Anthropology of
Religious Conversion
Edited by Andrew Buckser and Stephen D. Glazier
R O W M A N & L I T T L E F I E L D P U B L I S H E R S , INC.
Lanham Boulder New York Toronto Oxford
ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD PUBLISHERS, INC.
Published in the United States of America

by Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc.
4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706
www.rowmanlittlefie1d.com
PO Box 317, Oxford, OX2 9RU, UK
Copyright 0 2003 by Andrew Buckser and Stephen D. Glazier
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-PublicationData

The anthropology of religious conversion I edited by Andrew Buckser and
Stephen D. Glazier.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-7425-1777-2 (cloth : alk. paper) - ISBN 0-7425-1778-0 (pbk. :
alk. paper)
1. Conversion. I. Buckser, Andrew, 1964- 11. Glazier, Stephen D.
BL639.A58 2003
306.6'91 -dc21
2003007435
Printed in the United States of America
The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American
National Standard for Information Sciences-Permanence of Paper for Printed Library
Materials, ANSI/NISO 239.48-1992.
In Memoriam: Morton Klass
I n November 2000, Professor Morton Klass organized a symposium on the

anthropology of conversion at the American Anthropological Association
annual meeting in San Francisco, California. Mort had recently retired from
a distinguished teaching and research career at Barnard College, during
which he had become one of the leading figures in the anthropological
study of religion. He had conducted extensive fieldwork in South Asia and
Trinidad, leading to such books as East Indians in Trinidad, From Field to
Factory, and Singing with Sai Baba. In books like Ordered Universes and
Across the Boundaries of Belief, he had also contributed greatly to devel-
oping a theoretical understanding of the meaning of religion across cultures.
Mort had served as the first president of the Society for the Anthropology
of Religion, and he continued to be active in the field after his retirement.
The conversion symposium represented a new field of endeavor for Mort,
one that he felt could contribute greatly to our understanding of religious
experience. After it received an enthusiastic response from the assembled
scholars, he began considering publishing a volume on the subject in col-
laboration with the undersigned.
Mort’s sudden death on April 28,200 1, came as a shock to those of us who
had known him. He was an extraordinarily vital man, a witty raconteur who
could hold a lecture hall or a dinner table spellbound with equal ease. He was
also a man of uncommon warmth, extended as much to students and young
scholars as to his many longtime friends. Perhaps most of all, he was a man
of energetic ideas, whose passion for anthropology was unmistakable and in-
fectious. This passion never diminished; he continued debating, researching,
and writing about anthropology through his very last day. Several projects
vi In Memoriam: Morton Klass
remained unfinished at his death, including the collection on conversion,

then in its preliminary stages.
Mort’s theoretical vision and editorial grace are irreplaceable, and this vol-
ume would surely have been much richer had Mort been able to edit it, as he
had planned. We hope, however, that we have preserved some of his vision
for the collection, especially his interest in opening new directions for ethno-
graphic and theoretical work on conversion. If the essays here prompt read-
ers to think anew about the meaning of religious experience, if they spur any
of us to wonder again about the connections between the cultures we live in
and the heavens we live under, they will constitute the best memorial we
could raise to Mort’s memory.
It is in this spirit that we dedicate this book to the late and much missed
Professor Morton Klass, our dear friend and teacher.
Andrew Buckser
Stephen D. Glazier
September 2002
Contents
Preface xi
Acknowledgments xix
1 The Anthropology of Conversion: An Introduction 1

Diane Austin-Broos
Part One: Conversion and Social Processes
2 Continuous Conversion? The Rhetoric, Practice, and Rhetorical

Practice of Charismatic Protestant Conversion 15
Simon Coleman
3 Agency, Bureaucracy, and Religious Conversion:

Ethiopian “Felashmura” Immigrants to Israel 29
Don Seeman
4 Converted Innocents and Their Trickster Heroes: The Politics

of Proselytizing in India 43
Kalyani Devaki Menon
5 Comparing Conversions among the Dani of Irian Jaya 55

Charles E. Farhadian
6 Social Conversion and Group Definition in Jewish Copenhagen 69

Andrew Buckser
vii
...
Vlll Contents
7 Conversion and Marginality in Southern Italy 85

Maria Pia Di Bella
Part Two: Conceptualizing Conversion: Alternative Perspectives
8 “I Discovered My Sin!”: Aguaruna Evangelical

Conversion Narratives 95
Robert J. Priest
9 Turning the Belly: Insights on Religious Conversion from

New Guinea Gut Feelings 109
Roger Ivar Lohmann
10 Constraint and Freedom in Icelandic Conversions 123

Robert T. Anderson
11 Mystical Experiences, American Culture, and Conversion

to Christian Spiritualism 133
Thomas Kingsley Brown
Part Three: Conversion and Individual Experience
12 “Limin’ wid Jah”: Spiritual Baptists Who Become Rastafarians

and Then Become Spiritual Baptists Again 149
Stephen D. Glazier
13 Converting to What? Embodied Culture and the Adoption of

New Beliefs 171
Rebecca Sachs Norris
14 From Jehovah’s Witness to Benedictine Nun: The Roles of

Experience and Context in a Double Conversion 183
Mary Ann Reidhead and Van A. Reidhead
15 Converted Christians, Shamans, and the House of God:

The Reasons for Conversion Given by the Western Toba
of the Argentine Chaco 199
Marcela Mendoza
Contents ix
Afterword
16 Anthropology and the Study of Conversion 211

Lewis R. Rambo
Index 223
About the Contributors 233
Preface
Religious conversion poses a powerful challenge to anthropological theories

concerning the connection between culture and the self. Anthropologists have
long argued that religion involves more than just ideas about the supernatu-
ral; it constitutes a theory of the world, a way of constructing reality that
seems uniquely real to those who experience it. If this is true, how can it be
that individuals suddenly choose new religions? To change one’s religion is
to change one’s world, to voluntarily shift the basic presuppositions upon
which both self and others are understood. The fact that this is possible-that
it is, indeed, almost routine in certain religious traditions-raises difficult
questions about the relationship of individuals to their cultural surroundings.
What can prompt such an abrupt and total transformation? How is it achieved,
and what are its effects? What does conversion mean for anthropological the-
ories of agency and the cultural construction of reality?
Conversion also raises important questions about the social processes
within which religion is embedded. Conversion is usually an individual
process, involving a change of worldview and affiliation by a single person,
but it occurs within a context of institutional procedures and social relation-
ships. Religious groups structure the ways in which adherents may move in
and out, and in many cases they place converts in a unique social position.
These processes articulate with other dynamics within groups -their internal
divisions, their authority structures, their political rivalries, and more. In
many cases, religious groups are also held accountable to the restrictions and
requirements of state authorities. How do these social structures incorporate
the intense and often unpredictable experience of the individual convert?
How does temporal power constrain the sense of divine power so integral to
xi
xii Preface
many conversions? What effects does conversion produce in the group that
gains a convert, and what does it do to the group that loses one? Conversion
highlights the interaction, and in many cases the tension, between individual
consciousness and the structural requirements of community life.
In this book, we approach these questions through ethnography. The first
step in understanding what conversion is and how it works is to explore the
different ways that other cultures have understood it. To that end, this volume
brings together fourteen case studies of conversion, written by anthropolo-
gists working in a variety of settings and religious traditions. Each case study
presents a different set of theoretical questions addressed in different ways by
each contributor. The goal of the book is not to integrate these case studies
into a single theoretical statement. To the contrary, authors have been en-
couraged to pursue the questions raised by their particular subjects of study.
Our aim is not to advance a single analytical approach, nor to resolve any spe-
cific theoretical question. It is, rather, to suggest the variety of avenues for in-
vestigation that an anthropology of religious conversion can offer. We hope
to open a conversation about conversion in which anthropology has in many
ways yet to engage.
This is not a conversation limited to anthropology. If conversion has seri-
ous implications for anthropologists, it has profound ones for theologians and
religious believers. In many religious traditions, conversion marks the time
when the hand of the divine is most plainly visible; conversion narratives
overflow with expressions of supernatural agency, in which the individual
feels guided, or coerced, or enraptured by a divine presence. For many, con-
version marks a moment of epiphany, when a traumatic or seemingly chaotic
past is revealed as the subtle handiwork of a benevolent God. To suggest-
as anthropologists do-that even this moment owes something of its shape to
cultural systems is to intrude culture into the very core of the religious expe-
rience. Doing so poses a challenge for the many believers, lay and academic,
who have looked to anthropology for a perspective on their faith in recent
decades. If believers really wish to engage with anthropological insights, to
fully face the cultural dimensions of the religious experience, they must be
critically interested in what anthropology has to say about this, the time in
which the cultural dimension seems most irrelevant, when the hand of God
seems most palpable.
Religious conversion has interested social scientists for over a century.
Early research was dominated by psychologists who-like G. Stanley Hall
and his students at Clark University -focused on sudden, emotional conver-
sion occurring during adolescence (see Hall 1902). Sociologists and social
psychologists came to dominate the field in the middle of the twentieth cen-
tury, particularly after 1960, as interest in new religious movements became a
...
Preface Xlll
central focus of sociology. Sociological studies examined processes of indi-

vidual conversion from a “gradualist”perspective, based mainly on participant
observation and on interviews with believers. These studies also examined is-
sues of apostasy and deconversion, which, as Hall might have predicted, were
found to be linked to problems of late adolescence and early adulthood. In
general, social scientists have moved from a tight focus on evangelical Protes-
tantism to a growing interest in non-Western religions, and they have increas-
ingly emphasized gradual rather than sudden conversion (Hood et al. 1996).
Early anthropology seldom directly addressed the topic of religious con-
version, although individual anthropologists-like Franz Boas -were present
at the inception of conversion studies in the United States. (It was Hall’s two-
volume study Adolescence that Boas sought to debunk when he sent Margaret
Mead into the field to find a society without adolescent stress.) Serious an-
thropological attention to the subject has developed only over the past few
decades. This attention has included a few extended case studies, such as Har-
riet Whitehead’s analysis of conversion to Scientology (1987), as well as sev-
eral more general analyses of international trends in conversion. Most of the
latter work has dealt with issues of modernity and colonialism. Hefner
(1993), Van der Veer (1996), and Viswanathan (1998), for example, all ex-
plore conversion’s role in advancing (and at times contesting) the expansion
of Western colonial power. Although such studies have brought conversion
into anthropological discourse, they have done so in the context of strong the-
oretical statements; they have often lacked the ethnographic detail that allows
an exploration of the differences, as well as the common features, of conver-
sion in different cultures.
This volume seeks to provide that detail, the attention to the intimate,
small-scale dynamics of conversion for which the ethnographic perspective is
uniquely suited. This approach allows the book to take a broad approach to
religious conversion, exploring a wide variety of ethnographic and theoreti-
cal questions. Its essays span a range of geographical areas, from Melanesia
to South America to the Middle East, as well as Western Europe, the
Caribbean, and the United States. Contributors discuss not only conversion to
mainstream Christianity-the subject of most conversion research-but also
conversion to Judaism, Hinduism, Rastafarianism, Spiritualism, and a variety
of alternative Christian movements. Its theoretical orientation is equally di-
verse. Authors discuss the definition of conversion, the politics of conversion,
the place of conversion in bodily experience, the social implications of con-
version, and much more. Two essays by distinguished scholars of conversion
bracket the case studies. The first discusses the place of conversion studies in
anthropology, and the second relates the anthropology of conversion to the
larger field of religious studies.
xiv Preface
BOOK STRUCTURE
The volume begins with a general introduction to the anthropological study

of conversion by Diane Austin-Broos. Austin-Broos argues that conversion
research raises issues of central importance to contemporary anthropological
theory, especially its interaction with nationalism, state formation, and the
construction of authority. Her discussion deftly positions the chapters in this
volume and the field of conversion studies as a whole within a larger disci-
plinary context. The book then turns to fourteen detailed case studies, each of
which considers conversion in a distinct ethnographic setting. These studies
have been divided into three sections according to their primary ethnographic
emphases. These sections represent a rather artificial division, however, since
common questions run through them all, and readers will find elements in
many chapters that bridge all three sections.
The first section considers conversion and its relationship to social
processes. Much of the literature on conversion has focused on its psycho-
logical dimensions, the transformation in individual consciousness that a re-
ligious change implies. That transformation takes place, however, within a
social matrix, as converts detach themselves from one group of believers and
affiliate with another. In many cases, that matrix has considerably more im-
pact in motivating the conversion than any individual religious experience. In
all cases, the social group structures the intellectual and experiential process
through which conversion occurs. The papers in this section explore some of
the questions that this social dimension of conversion implies. In what ways,
for example, does conversion influence group identity and solidarity? How
do the social and political divisions within groups affect the ways that partic-
ular individuals convert? How does the individual agency so central to most
conversions articulate with the authority of religious leaders and bureaucra-
cies? And how do relationships of power more generally influence the under-
standing and practice of conversion?
The papers in this section approach these issues from several different di-
rections. Simon Coleman begins with a penetrating analysis of a charismatic
Protestant church in Uppsala, Sweden. Known as the Word of Life, this con-
gregation builds much of its rhetoric and outreach activity around the activ-
ity of conversion, despite the fact that its efforts generate relatively few ac-
tual converts. Coleman suggests that the significance of conversion for the
group lays largely in its metaphorical qualities, in the paradigm it offers its
members for understanding personal identities and social experience. Such
continuous aspects of conversion, he argues, may mean as much as the radi-
cal disjunctures upon which conversion studies have usually focused. Don
Seeman’s paper also explores the ongoing effects of conversion, this time
Preface xv
among people for whom it has become enmeshed with bureaucracy and po-
litical oppositions. The subjects of the study, known as Felashmura, have
sought Israeli citizenship on the basis of their descent from Ethiopian Jews;
since their ancestors converted to Christianity, however, the Felashmura must
convert “back” to Judaism in order to qualify for admittance. As he follows
converts through the disheartening and often humiliating bureaucratic maze
involved, Seeman points out the multiple and often changing meanings of
conversion for individual Felashmura. He urges anthropologists not to try to
rationalize away such indeterminacy in their analyses of conversion, but
rather to embrace it as a central feature of the phenomenon.
Seeman’s case study underscores the political implications of conversion,
a theme that also animates the chapters by Kalyani Menon and Charles Farha-
dian. Menon analyzes understandings of conversion among Hindu national-
ists in contemporary India. Hindutva activists have accused Christian mis-
sionaries of using deception and bribery to attract converts, charges that have
led to incendiary rhetoric and anti-Christian violence. As Menon demon-
strates, however, Hindus employ nearly identical tactics when converting
Christians “back” to Hinduism. She argues that the different valuations on
these practices derive from Hindutva understandings of the relationship be-
tween religious affiliation and individual nature; the actions of Christian mis-
sionaries are threatening not because they involve any trickery, but because
they contradict the assumptions about Hinduism and Indian identity central to
the Hindutva movement. Farhadian examines two waves of conversion
among the Dani of Irian Jaya. In the first, widespread conversion to Method-
ism creates a new sense of intertribal identity among previously separated
groups in Irian Jaya. This sense of identity then makes possible a second con-
version, decades later, when new Christian movements became the basis of
Papuan opposition to Indonesia’s New Order government. Farhadian’s case
illustrates the potential volatility of conversion as a political force; although
the initial conversions in many ways served colonial purposes, they generated
social solidarities and symbolic resources that made new forms of indigenous
resistance possible.
The final two papers in this section explore the role of conversion in defin-
ing boundaries, both within and among religious groups. For the Copenhagen
Jews of Andrew Buckser’s study, group boundaries are the subject of ongo-
ing dispute among community factions. On a daily basis, the proprieties of
community life paper over such differences; the process of conversion, how-
ever, brings them vividly to the surface. Buckser discusses two typical cases
of conversion to Judaism and the debates over the nature of Jewishness and
rabbinical authority that accompany them. Although these debates can and do
produce hard feelings -at times even schism -they also create opportunities
xvi Preface
for expressing family solidarity and consolidating political power. Marie Pia
Di Bella’s study focuses on the marginality involved in the boundary-
crossing of conversion, suggesting that the marginal position of the convert
can be crucial to understanding the linguistic and symbolic patterns associ-
ated with the process. In one of her two case studies, marginality is essential
to the conversion-the converts are convicts, living in jail cells for the short
interval between their condemnations and their executions. In the other, mar-
ginality derives from the requirements of group membership, as Pentecostal
converts who have not experienced glossolalia find themselves excluded
from the center of their new group. Di Bella explores the ritual and symbol-
ism of conversion in both settings, highlighting the ways that marginality
both informs and reflects the social experience of the converts.
Cross-cultural analyses of conversion inevitably encounter difficulties
when they try to define their subject. Academic models of conversion tend to
draw heavily on Christian imagery, particularly on such dramatic scenes as
Paul’s vision on the road to Damascus. These images construct conversion as
a radical, sudden change of belief, one in which old ways and associations are
left behind as a result of a new theological outlook. How can such models en-
compass non-Christian religions, which often regard belief as less important
than religious practice? How can they accommodate the slow and partial
stages through which conversion often takes place? Even more difficult, how
can they accurately describe cultures for which belief, practice, and member-
ship have profoundly different meanings than they do in Western society?
The papers in the second section explore this question directly, using four dif-
ferent case studies. For each, they suggest an alternative way of conceptual-
izing conversion, one based on the indigenous conceptions of religious trans-
formation among the people under study.
Robert Priest, for example, looks at the transformation of the notion of sin
among Aguaruna converts to Christianity in Brazil. Scholarly analysis has of-
ten seen sin as a fundamentally Western concept that non-Westerners assimi-
late and accept as part of the conversion process. The Aguaruna, however,
have a complex traditional vocabulary for sin and wrongdoing, one that they
retain even when they have “discovered their sin” as part of Christian conver-
sion. What changes upon becoming Christian is not the notion of sin, but the
direction of blame: converts see themselves as culpable for actions they would
previously have attributed to witchcraft or spirits. This change produces per-
sonal transformations of a rather different sort than those of Augustine and
Paul. Roger Lohmann offers yet another variant in his analysis of the Asabano
of Papua New Guinea. The Asabano conceive volition very differently than
does the Western tradition: thoughts and desires come not from the head,
but from the belly, and they are generated by two types of resident spirits.
Preface xvii
Conversion, therefore, is not a matter of rethinking the nature of reality, but of

“turning the belly,” changing the individual’s relationship with the spiritual
beings who direct his or her volition. Lohmann presents a model of conver-
sion based on relationships with spiritual beings, one that he finds truer not
only to Asabano experience but to many facets of Western experience as well.
Robert Anderson and Thomas Brown focus on contexts much more famil-
iar to American readers; Anderson discusses the history of Christian conver-
sion in Iceland, and Brown explores Spiritualist congregations in California.
Even here, however, local understandings of conversion suggest a rethinking
of academic models. Anderson challenges the notion that conversion must in-
volve a total movement from one pattern of religious practice to another. Such
movements occur, he argues, only where church and state authorities have the
power to demand exclusive religious affiliations. Where authorities lack such
power-as in Iceland at the turn of the first millennium, and again at the turn
of the second-conversion has involved the selective adoption of particular
practices, rather than complete religious transformation. Anderson calls on
anthropologists to recognize the structures of constraint that underlie their
definitions of conversion. Brown, in his study, questions the notion of con-
version as a discrete and clearly identifiable event. The Spiritualists he stud-
ies do think of it that way, and many of them describe specific paranormal ex-
periences as the occasions of their conversions. His interviews suggest,
however, that for many the process actually takes much longer and, indeed,
that transitions to Spiritualism are often conditional and incomplete. He con-
cludes that the essence of conversion lies less in particular changes of belief
than in more general changes in individual understandings of group member-
ship and personal identity.
The third section of the book addresses the subject that has dominated most
of the academic research on conversion: the place of conversion in personal
experience. How does conversion make sense and feel to those who go
through it? What motivates them to convert, and what sorts of emotional and
cognitive changes does conversion involve? The chapters here take an an-
thropological approach to these questions, asking how different cultural and
historical settings shape the conversion experience. The answers are seldom
simple. Steven Glazier, for example, finds conversion taking a variety of
forms for Rastafarians and Spiritual Baptists on the island of Trinidad. These
two movements share a number of features, including extensive African im-
agery and an individualist orientation; their philosophies and ritual practice
differ considerably, though, as do their norms of bodily comportment. Glazier
follows a number of individuals who move back and forth between the groups,
exploring both the motivations for their conversions and the social concomi-
tants of their memberships. Rebecca Noms looks at converts to a variety of
xviii Preface
faiths in New England, focusing on the continuities between their old faiths
and their new ones. She argues that conversion must always involve such con-
tinuities. Not only must a new faith make sense in terms defined by a lifetime
in the old one, but it must also work with the bodily attitudes and accustomed
gestures with which the convert has grown up. Her case studies depict con-
version as a gradual process for individuals, a matter not of sudden insight but
of extended and often unconscious learning.
Mary Ann and Van Reidhead illustrate this process with an extended case
study from the American Midwest. They follow a woman from her initial con-
version to Catholicism to her subsequent decision to join a Benedictine
monastic order. In both cases, her conversions (the first from Jehovah’s Wit-
ness to Roman Catholicism, and the second to Benedictine monasticism) in-
volve the kinds of overpowering religious experiences that conversion studies
have generally explored and that might seem to suggest a total transformation
of worldview before and after. Yet even as a Benedictine postulant, the sub-
ject of the study acknowledges the profound ongoing impact of her Jehovah’s
Witness upbringing on her understanding of religion. Despite changes in af-
filiation and practice, her activist approach to religion and her personal rela-
tionship with the Holy Spirit- the cornerstones of her childhood religion-
have remained central to her experience. Marcela Mendoza describes a
similar pattern on a broader scale in the final case study of the volume. Among
the Western Toba of Argentina, converts to Christianity draw similarities be-
tween the Christian conception of Heaven and the indigenous image of the
House of God in the sky. These similarities produce an interesting effect. On
the one hand, they make conversion easier by making Christian imagery more
plausible to potential converts. On the other, they seem to confirm the image
of the spiritual world advanced by traditional shamans. As a result, conversion
can produce a kind of validation of the very religious tradition it rejects.
The book ends with an afterword by the eminent psychologist of religion
Lewis Rambo, the only one of our contributors from outside anthropology.
Rambo puts conversion studies in a broader context, suggesting ways in
which anthropology can inform and learn from the other disciplines that have
analyzed the subject. He calls strongly for more interdisciplinary work on
conversion; the virtual blindness of academics to developments outside their
fields, he suggests, has deprived anthropologists, sociologists, historians, and
others of excellent methodological and theoretical resources. A concerted ef-
fort to build bridges among these isolated disciplines could produce major ad-
vances in conversion studies and a corresponding enrichment of each.
Acknowledgments
This volume originated in two symposia on the anthropology of religious

conversion at the 2000 American Anthropological Association annual meet-
ing. We would like to thank the Society for the Anthropology of Religion and
the Society for the Anthropology of Consciousness for their joint sponsorship
of those sessions. We would also like to express our appreciation to some of
the people who helped bring this volume to fruition. Our editor, Dean
Birkenkamp, has been an expert and uncommonly patient guide throughout
the development of the text. We are also grateful to Manfred Kremser, Barry
Chevannes, Mort Klass, and Janet Jacobs, who commented on earlier drafts
of some of these papers. The staff of the Purdue Department of Sociology and
Anthropology offered a great deal of help with the production of the volume;
special thanks are due to Marcy Jasmund, Evelyn Douthit, Dianne Liv-
ingston, and Dawn Stahura. Finally, many thanks are due to our families, es-
pecially Susan Buckser and Rosemary C. Glazier, for their patience and sup-
port through the twists and turns of the project. To these people, and to the
contributors, goes much of the credit for what is of value in this collection.
As editors, we jealously guard our credit for the mistakes.
xix
I
The Anthropology of Conversion: An Introduction
Diane Austin- Broos
Recent years have seen a resurgence in the study of conversion as anthro-

pologists have focused increasingly on the interplay between religion and
identity.’ This topic commands particular attention now, when the very idea
of the secular state is being contested in many parts of the world. Conversion
has implications for many of the dynamics involved in this struggle-the
shifting relations between nation-states and a global economy, the new forms
of identity politics within and between nations, and the increasing importance
of religion in the lives of individuals. In a world of instant information and
seeming heterogeneity, moreover, controversies over conversion also reflect
a new variability in the status of authoritative texts, both scientific and reli-
gious. Testing authorities and turning to others are integral parts of religious
practice in many localities. Conversion thereby shapes aspirations and reori-
ents social life. In the case of whole communities, it can involve a “paradigm
shift” compelled by circumstance and sometimes by conquest? Most of all,
renewed interest in conversion reflects the revision of a century of verities
concerning secularism and modernity. The view that the rise of the modem
state with its bureaucratic modes would supersede religion has proven mis-
taken. New departures and confrontations involving the world’s religions
mean that the dynamics that draw people to one religion or away from an-
other intrigue us as never before.
CONVERSION AS PASSAGE
Conversion is a form of passage, a “turning from and to” that is neither syn-
cretism nor absolute b r e a ~ h Previous
.~ attempts to grasp conversion have
1
2 Diane Austin-Broos
often relied on one of these ideas. Some have seen conversion as diffuse, yet
others have sought to contain it in a particular event. With its roots in trait
analysis, syncretism fits well with ideas of cultural flow, with the cosmo-
politan and the hybrid. These are notions that evoke the image of bricoleurs,
experimenters and iconoclasts involved in cultural pastiche. Conversion is
a cultural passage more robust than this. Possibly experimental at first, it
becomes a deliberate change with definite direction and shape. It shows it-
self responsive to particular knowledge and practices. To be converted is to
reidentify, to learn, reorder, and reorient. It involves interrelated modes of
transformation that generally continue over time and define a consistent
course. Not mere syncretism, neither can conversion involve a simple and
absolute break with a previous social life. Learning anew proceeds over
time and requires a process of integrating knowledge and experience. Even
in the context of conquest, the aspiration of another power to “know,” “do-
mesticate,” “name,” and “claim” is difficult to accomplish (see Dirks 1996).
Comprehensive reform of another is in fact an elusive goal, because a cul-
tural being can never entirely even know herself. In the shadowy terrain be-
tween explicit and implicit culture, the person hides from herself and among
her practiced dispositions. She therefore can only cooperate somewhat in
any project to negate the past. Thinking about conversion as passage, and
about passage as more than syncretism or breach, suggests a further dimen-
sion to conversion, a quest for human belonging.
Rather than simple cultural breach, the voiding of a past social self, the lan-
guage of converts expresses new forms of relatedness. The public aspect of
this belonging is perhaps a new identity, a newly inscribed communal self de-
fined through the gaze of others. But for the person who has converted or al-
lowed herself to be converted, the issue is a larger one and also more intimate.
Conversion is a type of passage that negotiates a place in the world. Conver-
sion as passage is also quest, a quest to be at home in a world experienced as
turbulent or constraining or, in some particular way, as wanting in value! The
passage of conversion is a passage to some place rather than no place. It is not
a quest for utopia but rather for habitus? It involves a process of continual
embedding in forms of social practice and belief, in ritual dispositions and so-
matic experience. Cultural passage generally, and the passage of conversion
in particular, are then more than “travel” in the sense that Clifford proposed,
and they are more than migration? Conversion involves an encultured being
arriving at a particular place.
The passages in conversion can be remarkably diverse. Some involve im-
mediate and intense somatic experience. Others are more akin to the “long
conversation” that the Comaroffs described for Africa, the development of
new hegemonies partly apprehended and partly not (Comaroff and Comaroff
The Anthropology of Conversion 3
1991: 198-25 1). Some conversions interweave these phenomena; still others
involve more immediate reorientations of practice within the same religion
or national culture. The forms of passage are numerous, and most are ex-
tended through time. As this collection shows, they can at times seem to have
little in common. Yet all these passages from and to are directed to a home in
the world, structured through particular knowledge and modes of ritual prac-
tice. Heterogeneous they certainly are, and yet they comprise a discernible
phenomenon-for all their increasing engagement with the political, conver-
sions are religious practice in the world rather than politics.
If conversion simply involved individuals and their passages, this hetero-
geneity might be noted but merely attributed to culture’s creativity. The
widespread prevalence of conversion events that prompts a collection such
as this, however, speaks to something more, some broader historical dynam-
ics spanning a number of cultures and times. The chapters in this collection
cover a range of geographical settings: Europe (Buckser, Coleman, Di Bella,
and Anderson), Papua New Guinea (Lohmann and Priest), Irian Jaya (Farha-
dian), the United States (Norris, Brown, and Reidhead and Reidhead),
Trinidad (Glazier), Peru (Priest), Argentina (Mendoza), India (Menon), and
Israel (Seeman). The chapters provide accounts of passages between various
modes of Christian practice and between statuses within Christianity; pas-
sages between different world religions (Christianity and Judaism, Hinduism
and Christianity, and Christianity and Sufi Islam); various Christian engage-
ments with Spiritualism; and passages from one regional religion to another.
What are the historical dynamics involved in these various movements, and
are there connections between them that prompt such a plethora of passages
in the world today?
CONVERSION AND HISTORICAL DYNAMICS
Some of the conversions discussed in this collection involve the familiar tran-
sition between local and indigenous religions and Christianity. Reflecting on
Weber, Hefner has argued that world religions, and especially Christianity,
should not be seen simply as the artifact of one or another colonizing process?
World religions have been able to create some of the largest transnational mi-
lieus in the world today by virtue of their highly systematized forms of tran-
scendentalism, their organized ritual forms, and their effective socialization of
converts. Sahlins has remarked that the dominant metaphors of modem soci-
ety come from the market, as it elaborates its links around the world (1976:
166-67). Geertz’s way of underlining the power of Islam in 1950s Java was
to connect religion and the market. Marveling at Islam’s dynamic progress in
4 Diane Austin-Bmos
the region, he termed it “as simple and easily marketable a religious package
as has ever been prepared for export” (1960: 123). Not mere shadows of the
market, however, these world religions have their own dynamics that engage
with other ontologies and cosmologies in quite particular ways.
In this collection, Priest’s account of Aguaruna conversions in villages of
northern Peru offers an especially interesting example of this form of passage.
He describes narratives concerning “sin,” noting that the Aguaruna have had
their own extensive vocabulary of badness and wrongdoing, with a variety of
moral categories including turpitude, damage, maliciousness, and malevolent
deception. Contrary to the view of some anthropologists that “sin” is perhaps
an exclusively Indo-European concept, Priest proposes that Aguaruna use
these indigenous categories to elaborate reflections on sin. Transgressive
wrongdoing, in other words, is not strange to Aguaruna. What was strange
and has changed among them is the attribution of sin to the self rather than to
others. The latter, once usual practice was often embedded in witchcraft be-
liefs and tied to social dramas of revenge. From Priest’s account, one might
surmise that the “guilty self’ could only emerge with a degree of individua-
tion that supersedes the “dividual” actors of immediate, local, and intensely
transactional cultures. The link in this transition is between forms of individ-
ualism of a type that absorbed Dumont, and the engagement with a specific
Christian rendering of sin:
Mendoza offers an equally interesting perspective on world religion and
changing local cosmology. The Western Toba of Argentine Chaco have re-
ordered their world to engage Christianity, but only by inserting its transcen-
dentalism into their previous cosmology as elaborated by shamans. Chris-
tianity’s heaven is the house in the sky that their shamans knew of, but could
not enter; the Toba can enter now because they are Christians. Curiously, in
this passage, Christianity’s transcendentalism, although more rigorous, has
nonetheless been subsumed within Toba ideas of the world. A complex inter-
action between the universal and the particular also characterizes Lohmann’s
account of the Asabano in Papua New Guinea. The conversion process there
presents features that both Weber and Horton would readily recognize (see
Weber 1991 [1948] and Horton 1975).And yet it is particular-Asabano con-
version involves new relations with a new spirit, a spirit able to engage with
any and all human beings. For them, cognition takes place “in the belly,” and
the conversion process involves “turning the belly” to house and be animated
by a universal Holy Spirit.
Weber’s view of modernity had definite direction, and his world religions
were a part of it. They were systems that subsumed others and, with their sys-
tematicity, acted relentlessly to homogenize the world. The passage involved
in much conversion has often followed this historical direction. Yet these ex-
amples, along with others provided by Norris, Farhadian, Menon, and See-
man, show that the world religions also open up new possibilities that cannot
always be contained within a greatly extended system. The world religions do
assimilate, but they also create a new diversity, in which numerous passages
are possible.
The dynamic of world religions also intersects with that of nation-states.
This is a second historical process that complicates Weber’s vision in a way
that he half saw but never integrated with his writing on religion. Nation-states
are another form of modem imagined community, one in which the struggle
to establish shared symbols and institutions can become intense and threaten
to split the state apart. As Tambiah has argued, the progress of nationalism and
nation-states in the twentieth century is multistranded. It involves the spread
of the Western European form of secular nation, a system that fostered priva-
tization of religion during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. At the same
time, though, it also involves other “ethnonationalisms,” European and non-
European, often mainly based on language, public religion, or both. These dif-
ferent nationalisms may also appeal to “mytho-historicalcharters” and claims
of common “blood descent or race” in order to build solidarity (Tambiah
1996)? When these two forms of nationalism meet, the demands of the ho-
mogenizing nation-state either for secularism or for religious conformity can
precipitate conflict. Farhadian’s account of Dani Christianity in Irian Jaya is
such a case. Christianity there has moved from the status of private religion to
a Melanesian rallying call against Indonesia with its Muslim face and assimi-
lating thrust. Hindu nationalism presents the other, majority side of this con-
frontation between national projects. Contesting a secular politics, Hindus
struggle aggressively to make their mark on the nation-state. Menon describes
the ways in which nationalists identify and castigate the tricks involved in
Christian conversion. Nationalist efforts to draw minorities into Hinduism, on
the other hand, are not identified as conversion but rather as a returning of cit-
izens to their essential Hindu being. Menon’s account reveals the manner in
which religion intertwines with primordialism in Indian nationalism.
There are also other ways in which the circumstance of nation-states me-
diates conversion. Conversion can become the medium of passage between
nation-states. In the case of the Ethiopian “Felashmura” or Beta Israel Chris-
tians, their passage to Judaism as immigrants to Israel was encouraged be-
cause they were thought to be the descendants of Jews who in Ethiopia had
been involved in an “ethnic defection” to Christianity. Like the Hindu na-
tionalists, Seeman suggests, the Jewish state did not regard this passage as
conversion, but more as a return precipitated by turmoil in Ethiopia. Just as
interesting are Spiritual Baptists in Trinidad who experiment with Rastafari-
anism. This Caribbean black nationalism, beginning in Jamaica, proposed the
Ethiopian Haile Selassie as the returned Christian savior. A variety of New

World Ethiopianism, Rastafarianism seeks to provide through religion a sense
of nation in island societies that struggle to articulate autonomous cultures in
the shadow of the United States. That some early Jamaican Rastafarians “re-
turned” to Ethiopia and still reside there shows how the passages involved in
conversion can make new links between worlds.
In a fascinating discussion of very different kinds of conversion in Italy, Di
Bella shows that religious passage can be between nations and also between
states of being. Contemporary returned emigrants to the United States use
their newly acquired Pentecostalism to mark off themselves and their rela-
tives from their Italian neighbors. The Bianchi of the sixteenth and seven-
teenth century, by contrast, converted the bodies of the condemned. By pro-
posing that ritual submission on the gallows would return them to the
Kingdom of God, this Sicilian company kept the convicted quiet and possi-
bly provided comfort. They also offered to the watching crowd a mystifica-
tion that masked the cruelty involved and made an uncanny reference to
Christ’s own crucifixion.
Although the nation may inform and sometimes encourage conversion, its
power to do so is never unlimited. Anderson presents an account of Icelandic
engagements with Christianity in which the religion on more than one occa-
sion has singularly failed to socialize believers into its view of the world. He
describes the situation of Icelanders around the year 1000 C.E. when, although
people took up a public Christian commitment, there was no way that “pa-
gan” practice could possibly be expunged from remote and scattered farms.
Similarly, the spiritism that pervaded Iceland in the early twentieth century
has been excluded again from Christian orthodoxy, but not from the orienta-
tions and everyday interests of many Icelanders. These brakes on the assimi-
lating power of Christianity show other forms of rite and belief as “idioms of
intimacy,” regional identifications that resist Christianity.’O Herzfeld’s felici-
tous phrase can describe not simply the spoken word but also the practice of
rite and song, not to mention humor, that pervade both private and public life.
Buckser’s account of Copenhagen Jews also points to major blocks in reli-
gious passage. Judaism as a national religion has not been inclined to prose-
lytize. Aspiring converts who are not believed to have appropriate Jewish de-
scent may not be rejected but often are not encouraged either. And Islam,
although it has spread around the world, has failed to engage a Christendom
that identifies itself with European descent. Similarly, for many in the Middle
East today, the nationalization of religion makes passage between Judaism
and Islam almost unimaginable as would be passage between Hinduism and
Islam for many in the Indian subcontinent. Again, even prior to the rise of
modem nationalisms, Christianity had only modest impact in much of Asia.
The study of conversion must address these ideas about race, religion, and
politics that preclude or discourage religious passage. They suggest that con-
version on a large and patterned scale is not common between literate and sta-
ble civilizations. Though not simply a colonization, conversion does require
significant flux and also, perhaps, a real perception of unequal degrees of
power attached to different forms of knowledge.
CONVERSION, MEANING, AND PRACTICE
In addition to world religions and the rise of modem nationalisms, a third his-
torical trend bears on conversion: changes in the rendering of knowledge
about the world, especially in the secular West. As Klass has observed, the rel-
evant issues were prefigured in the emergence of the tension between religion
on the one hand and humanism and science on the other. These have been pit-
ted against each other in the course of the rise of the secular state, so much so
that de Certeau described a repositioned Christianity as the mere “sacred the-
ater” of the system that would take its place. Like Klass, de Certeau envisioned
a complementary relationship between science and religion, the former de-
scribing the natural world and the latter providing a social-moral orientation.”
Nonetheless, the unresolved tensions between Christianity and science have
retained an ability to relativize both. This circumstance was intensified by the
rise of nation-states. The cultural identities of these states have presented their
members, especially in the West, with a plethora of cultures and ideological al-
ternatives. In the course of the twentieth century, the impetus to relativism and
a questioning of once authoritative texts has therefore intensified.
Klass notes two current alternatives to science. One is fundamentalism,
which proposes an omnipotent deity able to intervene in the world as a real
causal force. This is an alternative view, but one that, like science, calls on an
established “source of dependable, accurate information about the nature of
. . . the universe” (Klass 1995: 156). For this reason, Klass observes, funda-
mentalists need not be opposed to science but rather can welcome it, if not as
authority then at least as tool. Either way, fundamentalism involves a quest
for authoritative truth often embodied in a text and in a somatic experience
pursued and validated through repeated social practice. Moreover, many con-
servative Christianities, if not strictly fundamentalist, now sustain this quest
for a preestablished and recorded truth with scientistic attributes.
Coleman, Norris, Brown, and Reidhead and Reidhead all describe interest-
ing versions of the quest for authoritative truth. Norris recounts the way in
which different types of somatic experience ground different quests for au-
thority. These include full prostration in Sufism, sitting meditation in Zen
8 Diane Austin-Bmos
Buddhism, and the charismatic Christian swoon, often rendered as “dancing

in the Spirit” by Pentecostalists. Her emphasis, however, like Coleman’s, is
on the social practice that makes this embodied experience real and therefore
supports the text. In his account of Swedish charismatics, Coleman underlines
the central place that converting others has among the converted. Through a
focus on missionizing others, Word of Life believers rely not on a singular so-
matic experience but rather on the constant telling and retelling of “exem-
plary narratives” of conversion. They use these to recreate the experience of
their own conversion and also to attest to the powers it has brought. Interest-
ingly, in my own work with Jamaican Pentecostalists, I found that saints con-
sistently used such conversion narratives to reinforce their own “in-filling”
experience (see Austin-Broos 1997).
Reidhead and Reidhead recount the story of a woman’s passage into
Catholicism, and ultimately Catholic monasticism, from life as a pastor
among Jehovah’s Witnesses. This particular case is interesting because their
subject describes her Catholic conversion in enthusiastic terms more typical
of Pentecostalism. Her body, a “cold, steel milkshake container,” was sud-
denly filled with “fuzzy hot chocolate.” Reidhead and Reidhead show how
this description of conversion progressively was routinized within Catholi-
cism and then within a monastic setting. Their account is highly evocative of
Turner’s discussion of existential and routinized communitus and the rela-
tively frequent passage in religious life from one to the other (Turner 1969).
Brown’s very interesting discussion of American Spiritualists portrays a quest
for truth grounded more in experience than in text. Yet the vacillation that oc-
curs in the practice of the Spiritualists has its roots in scientistic aspirations.
They wish to know whether or not there is life after death, but they often
change their conclusions due to the variable experience involved in practices
that lack codification. These essays all describe quests for authority mostly
embodied in texts and validated by physical experience. Not one but both of
these are crucial to the fundamentalist and show how this form of religion can
engage with some of the aspirations of science.
Klass points to a second alternative to Western science: the variety of New
Age and Neo-Pagan forms he terms “postrationalist.” Postrationalists, in
Klass’s view, reject both fundamentalism and the science that undermined the
one God of Judeo-Christian religion. Aware of a larger world and its vast re-
ligious possibilities, these practitioners look beyond the West for systems
they can engage with. Klass identifies Spiritualism as a forerunner to these
developments. Rather than postrationalist, I would describe these quests as
essentially romantic. Like the earlier Romantics who first opposed the En-
lightenment, these romantics tend to emphasize “the primacy of imagination
and the decisive importance . . . of feeling and emotion.” Romantics are in-
clined to see truth not as something preordained but rather as a variable ex-
perience “created by the inquirer.” Rather than being “a passive recipient of
a God-given world,” romantics seek to constitute worlds “dynamic, variable
and particular.”12My suggestion is that many peoples involved in conversion,
and especially in milieus infused with the West’s modernity, vacillate be-
tween a quest for scientistic authority and the creativity of a modem roman-
tic. This is reflected in the milieus described by Brown, Norris, and Glazier,
but I suspect that it also touches numerous other passages, from those in-
volving Danish Jews and Dani Christians to those of Icelandic spiritists.
Rather than mere bricoleurs, these various converts quest for a habitus that
embraces texts but also accommodates their own capacity for agency. This
perhaps is the mark of a transcultural modernity that now informs most of the
passages involved in conversion.
CONCLUSION
A major theme in this collection is that conversion is continuing and prac-

ticed. The emphasis in the various chapters is not on singular experience,
paranormal or otherwise, or on absolute breach with a former life, but rather
on the way in which conversion is a passage: constituted and reconstituted
through social practice and the articulation of new forms of relatedness. An
anthropology of conversion must focus on representation and phenomenol-
ogy but invariably will return to the practice of social life in which the vari-
ous embodiments of meaning are sustained in relational ways. This links this
collection with broader methodological themes in anthropology concerning
social practice and agency. The chapters also reference a turbulent historical
setting in which the gamut of nation-states and other nationalisms struggle for
salience and stability as cultural milieus. In this context, conversion as reli-
gious passage is now a prevalent response to dilemmas intellectual and prac-
tical. World religions are being called upon as global economics and secular
nationalism offer only uncertain futures to most of their participants. And
some of these participants are actively engaged in reinterpreting religion.
Possibly this explains why the contributors to this book see conversion as on-
going and partial. Modern developments, both intellectual and political, have
freed religion from the corral to which it was assigned by Western Europe.
Religion now resides in the world with all its previous entanglements both
personal and political, both local and transnational. Studies of conversion,
therefore, go to the heart of cultural passage in the world today.
This collection grew out of an invited session at the 2000 meeting of
the American Anthropological Association. The panel, “Anthropology of
Conversion,” was sponsored by the Society for the Anthropology of Con-

sciousness. I was delighted to participate as one discussant in the panel. The
other discussant was the late Morton Klass, who died before this collection
of papers could be published. Nonetheless, the collection stands as a tribute
to his scholarship and insight within the anthropological study of religion.
It also stands as a memorial to his enthusiasm and warmth appreciated by
students and colleagues alike.
NOTES
1 . My reference here is to Weber’s “world religions,’’ including Judaism, Islam,

Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism (Weber 1991 [ 19481). Just as
Turner suggests that pilgrimage is a phenomenon of the “historical” or world religions,
so it seems that conversion is mainly associated with them. See Turner (1974a, 1978).
2. “Paradigm shift” was the term used by Thomas Kuhn to describe scientific rev-
olution. R. I. Lohmann uses it in this book to describe the changes that occur when
autochthonous people are encompassed in a world religion-a revolution for them of
equal magnitude.
3. Regarding the term “passage,” my debt to Victor Turner is clear (see Turner
1974b). “Turning from and to” is Lewis Rambo’s phrase, although I render it in a
rather different way (see Rambo 1993).
4. Michael Jackson evokes this notion in his account of Central Australia. See
Jackson (1995).
5. “No place” or “nowhere” is the literal translation of the Latin “utopia,” which
is originally derived from the Greek. “Habitus” is a term used by Marcel Mauss (1979
[ 19501: 114) and popularized by Pierre Bourdieu (1967).
6. I intend a deliberate contrast here between religious passage and Clifford’s no-
tion of “travel” that possibly addresses too little of the shaping constraints that inform
creativity in a modem world. See Clifford (1997).
7. This is simply a brief reference to Hefner’s excellent discussion of Max Weber
and Christianity as a world religion (see Hefner 1993).
8. Marriptt (1976), in describing the Hindu self, first used the term “dividual.”
His discussion is usefully juxtaposed with Dumont’s accounts of European individu-
alism (1986).
9. In a discussion of religious passage, it is always important to note that render-
ings of self and other in terms of moral surfeit and deficit can be as invidious as
“race,” especially in sectarianism.
10. Herzfeld links idioms of intimacy to the issue of nationalism (1997).
1 1 . See Klass (1995: 149-62) and de Certeau (1988: 157). The destiny for religion
as a social-moral orientation was also canvassed by the evolutionist Tylor (1913
[187 13).
12. See Darcy’s excellent short account of Romanticism and its relevance to mod-
ern Boasian anthropology (1987).
REFERENCES
Austin-Broos, Diane J. 1997. Jamaica Genesis: Religion and the Politics of Moral
Ordel: Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Bourdieu, Pierre. 1967. Outline of a Theory of Practice. Translated by Richard Nice.
London: University of Cambridge Press.
Clifford, James. 1997. Routes: Travels and Translations in the Late Twentieth Cen-
tury. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Comaroff, Jean, and John Comaroff. 1991. From Revelation to Revolution. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Darcy, Anthony. 1987. “Franz Boas and the Concept of Culture: A Genealogy.” In
Creating Culture: Projles in the Study of Culture, edited by Diane J. Austin-Broos,
pp. 3-17. Sydney: Allen and Unwin.
De Certeau, Michel. 1987. “The Formality of Practices.” In The Writing of History,
translated by Tom Conley, pp. 147-205. New York: Columbia University Press.
Dirks, Nicholas B. 1996. “The Conversion of Caste: Location, Translation, and Ap-
propriation.” In Conversion to Modernities: The Globalisation of Christianity, ed-
ited by Peter van der Veer, pp. 115-36. New York: Routledge.
Dumont, Louis. 1986. Essays on Individualism: Modern Ideology in Anthropological
Perspective. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Geertz, Clifford. 1960. The Religion of Java. New York: The Free Press.
Hefner, Robert W., ed. 1991. Conversion to Christianity: Historical and Anthropo-
logical Perspectives on a Great Transformation. Berkeley: University of California
Press.
Herzfeld, Michael. 1996. Cultural Intimacy: Social Poetics in the Nation-State. New
York: Routledge.
Horton, Robin. 1975. “On the Rationality of Conversion.” Africa 45, nos. 3 4 : 219-35,
372-99.
Jackson, Michael. 1995. At Home in the World. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.
Klass, Morton. 1995. Ordered Universes: Approaches to the Anthropology of Reli-
gion. Boulder: Westview Press.
Marriott, McKim. 1976. “Hindu Transactions: Diversity without Dualism.” In Trans-
action and Meaning: Directions in the Anthropology of Exchange and Symbolic Be-
haviour, edited by Bruce Kapferer, pp. 10942. Philadelphia: Institute for the Study
of Human Issues.
Mauss, Marcel. 1979 [ 19501. “Body Techniques.” In Sociology and Psychology,
translated by Ben Brewster, pp. 95-119. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Rambo, Lewis R. 1991. Understanding Religious Conversion. New Haven, Conn.:
Yale University Press.
Sahlins, Marshall. 1976. Culture and Practical Reason. Chicago: Chicago University
Press.
Tambiah, Stanley. 1995. “The Nation-State in Crisis and the Rise of Ethnonational-
ism.” In The Politics of DifSerence, edited by Edwin Wimsen and Patrick McAllis-
ter, pp. 12443. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Turner, Victor. 1967. “Communitas: Model and Process.” In The Ritual Process:
Structure and Anti-Structure, edited by Victor Turner, pp. 13 1-65. Chicago: Aldine.
-. 1974a. “Pilgrimages and Social Process.” In Dramas, Fields and Metaphors:
Symbolic Action in Human Society, edited by Victor Turner, pp. 166-230. Ithaca,
N.Y.: Cornell University Press.
-. 1974b. “Passages, Margins and Poverty.” In Dramas, Fields and Metaphors,
edited by Victor Turner, pp. 231-71. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.
Turner, Victor, and Edith Turner. 1976. Image and Pilgrimage in Christian Culture:
Anthropological Perspectives. New York: Columbia University Press.
Weber, Max. 1991 [ 19481. “The Social Psychology of the World Religions.” In From
Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, edited by H . H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills,
pp. 267-301. London: Routledge.
CONVERSION AND SOCIAL PROCESSES
3
Continuous Conversion?
The Rhetoric, Practice, and Rhetorical Practice
of Charismatic Protestant Conversion
Simon Coleman
I n the English town where I live and work, there is an old bridge that spans
the river and leads up to the market square. Over the past few years, a middle-
aged man has occasionally appeared on the bridge, standing with his back to
one of its stone walls. I’ve always known in advance when he’s been there. His
voice booms out at passersby, who politely but firmly nudge each other to the
other side of the footpath, forming a subtle arc of separation between them-
selves and the man. Apparently oblivious, he continues to deliver his urgent
message: that the world will end soon, that we need to be saved immediately-
preferably before we get to the end of the bridge-and that Jesus is our only
route to salvation.
I invoke this image partly because it corresponds to common conceptions
of conservative Protestantism in much of Northern Europe.’ To skeptical out-
siders, these Christians are associated with unwanted intrusion into neutral,
public space. In certain respects, of course, such assumptions are correct.
Missionizing is a highly valued activity (cf. Ammerman 1987), and the scorn
or indifference of outsiders is often rationalized away by believers as merely
indicating the need to increase their proselytizing efforts. When I set out some
sixteen years ago to carry out my first stint of research among Pentecostalist
and other charismatic groups in Uppsala, Sweden, I remember dreading the
thought of explaining to my informants that I hadn’t been converted. And in-
deed, toward the end of the very first Pentecostalist service I attended, an eld-
erly woman spotted me standing next to a senior member of the church. In a
voice clearly audible to the rest of the congregation, she hailed me with the
words: “Are you saved?”2
Much of my fieldwork in Uppsala has in fact been carried out in the main
local rival to the Pentecostalist church, a charismatic “Faith” ministry called
15
16 Simon Coleman
the Word of Life (Livets Ord) that was formed in 1983, three years before my
arrival in the town (Coleman 2000a)? The new and rapidly growing group
has frequently been described by local theologians, other Christians, journal-
ists, and members of the public in terms that invoke classic tropes of brain-
washing (Coleman 1989; cf. Barker 1984): Its members, many of whom are
in their twenties and early thirties, are alleged to have been converted against
their will and made subject to the irresistible charismatic authority of Ulf Ek-
man, the ministry’s founder and leader. Participation is said to involve a
highly suspicious surrendering not only of one’s personal will but also of
one’s material resources, alongside a capitulation to brash, overaggressive
styles of worship and mission that are assumed to be derived from the min-
istry’s extensive connections with American Faith ministries.
Ironically, Word of Life rhetoric has some affinities with such discourse.
Believers generally agree that conversion involves a total surrendering of the
self to a higher force, followed by behavioral signs-particularly glossolalia-
that indicate a state of ecstasy. Ideally, also, a Christian should be a bold giver
of money or other resources to others, on the Faith theory that gifts will return
tenfold or hundredfold to the giver. Testimonies from revival meetings and re-
ports from missionaries talk of how thousands of people are being saved in
Sweden and abroad. Although, admittedly, brains are not perceived as being
“washed,” these believers do talk of minds, souls, and spirits being “renewed”
by the acceptance of Jesus as Lord? As one preacher I heard at a street meet-
ing put it to passing pedestrians: “You’re thinking, ‘Oh, it’s the Word of Life
again, they’re mad.’ We’re not mad; we’re saved!”6
Conversion as an event and as a practice is regularly articulated by Word
of Lifers: through the prayer formulae suggested to nonbelievers that can be
deployed as easy-to-use recipes for self-con~ersion;~ through altar calls at the
ends of services; through radio and television programs, audiocassettes,
videos, and websites that apparently reach out to the unsaved; and through nu-
merous accounts of conversions located in personal testimonies, missionary
reports, and so on. However, one of my arguments is that there is a disjunc-
tion’between the frequent charismatic depiction of instant, radical, and total
conversion and an ethnographic perspective that indicates a much more grad-
ual and ambiguous socialization into shared linguistic and ritual practices?
Secondly, I want to shift attention away from the most obvious object of
conversion discourse, the “unbeliever.” A relatively neglected feature of the
conversion process concerns the effects it has on the person ostensibly doing
the converting? Peter Stromberg (1993: 3; cf. Harding 1987), writing of
American evangelicals, has recently argued that the transformational efficacy
of the conversion experience is not confined to the original event. For him,
telling and retelling conversion stories is a central ritual of faith, framing per-
Continuous Conversion? 17
sonal experience in canonical language and recreating that experience in the

telling. I want to look at similar narratives of personal conversion but also at
other proselytizing activities, verbal and nonverbal, that reignite the symbolic
and experiential power of conversionary processes. I argue that reaching out
into the world in order to convert others is a self-constitutive act for the
charismatics I have studied. Missionization is not merely a matter of attempt-
ing to transform the potential convert, but also-perhaps even primarily-
a means of recreating or reconverting the charismatic self.
The third part of my argument relates to the kind of people who participate
in Word of Life activities. Many have previously belonged to other churches,
and some still retain formal membership in churches of a rather different the-
ological hue. Relatively little research has been done on intrareligious shifts
in allegiance or identity-a phenomenon Donald Taylor ( 1999) recently de-
scribed as “awkward conversion”-and I focus on how shifting de facto alle-
giance from one church to another is conceptualized by believers.I0
All of these points contribute to a total picture of what I call continuous
conversion, in which “continuity” can be understood in a number of related
ways. It can imply that movement of the self toward charismatic conviction
is an ongoing process, albeit one described by a rhetoric of spontaneous
transformation; it indicates a blurring of the boundaries of identity between
religious affiliations; and it suggests that analysis of conversion practices
should focus not only on the potential neophyte, but also on broader sets of
social relations and ideological representations that include and influence
the evangelizing believer.
CONCEPTUALIZING CONVERSION
“Conversion” is a fuzzy term. At times, it is tempting to follow the Co-

maroffs’s metaphorical throwing up of hands and their claim (1991: 249-50;
cf. Asad 1996: 264) that the word has no meaning as an analytical category
because it cannot grasp the highly variable, syncretistic manner in which so-
cial identities and cultural styles are transformed in contexts of mission. For
them, conversion- if defined as a “transfer of primary religious affiliation”
(Peel 1977: 108)-reflects how a Pauline model of conversion, itself resonat-
ing with bourgeois ideals of spiritual individualism, has become enshrined in
Western thought.
The Comaroffs’s unease contributes to broader intellectual chasms that
have been evident for the past century.The focus on radical psychological and
spiritual transformation on the level of the individual, inherited from William
James (1902; cf. Nock 1933),” can be contrasted with more sociological and
18 Simon Coleman
anthropological emphases on economic, cultural, and political contexts that

correlate with collective trends in conversion. Stress on the importance of in-
ner transformation is thus challenged by Durkheimian concerns relating to
identity and cosmology.’*Even Horton’s (1971, 1975) famous depiction of
African conversion to Christianity and Islam, which is frequently accused of
intellectualism and lack of connection with political and economic forces
(e.g., Fernandez 1978; Hefner 1993: 21-23), is nonetheless an attempt to link
macrocosmic, universalist horizons of perception to changing forms of com-
munity and new social worlds (Fernandez 1978: 220; Gallaher 1990: 102-3;
Meyer 1996).
It is difficult to ignore Hefner’s (1993: 23) call for striking a balance be-
tween the extremes of intellectualist voluntarism and structural determinism,
or Rita Kipp’s (1995: 878) proposal of the need for “practice theory” linking
microprocesses of consciousness with macropatterns of society and culture.
Yet such approaches do not necessarily take us very far toward an under-
standing of conversion per se because ultimately they apply to any aspect of
culture, while also perhaps begging comparative questions as to the specific
meanings of consciousness, voluntarism, and so on. I prefer to start with the
inductive observation that conversion is an ideological category and a set of
ritualized practices that are key to Swedish charismatic identity on personal
and collective levels. I do not assume that a simple story can be told about the
motivations or causes for conversion. My argument is that conversion as a
multivalent idea and as a quality of action permeates the charismatic life, and
under the right conditions it can help to sustain that life, whether outsiders are
persuaded to enter the body of Christ or not.
CONVERSION AS A QUALITY OF ACTION
Let me start my description of Word of Life practices with an ethnographic

puzzle. Virtually every service I have attended at the ministry has ended in
the classic altar call, the appeal to all who are unsaved in the congregation to
come up and choose this moment to dedicate their lives to Jesus. Yet at no
point have I ever seen anybody actually take up this call during a normal
weekday or Sunday meeting.I3 Usually, it is followed by an offer of healing
to those who are already saved but who have health or other problems, or by
an offer of spiritual reinforcement for those who feel that they have discov-
ered their special calling from God. This latter offer is always taken up by
some members of the congregation, often in large numbers. Although the
conversionist and the healing rituals broadly parallel each other in ritual
habitus-with both involving the laying on of hands and the uttering of
tongues by the preacher- it is clearly the internally orientated ritual that

attracts a greater number of takers.
If Word of Life rhetoric-and that of its critics-is valid and hundreds or
thousands are being converted by the group, such transformations are not
happening during services in Uppsala. Nor do they seem to be translated into
membership of the group. Reliable figures are difficult to obtain, but those
that exist (cf. Coleman 2000a: 104) suggest that most Word of Life congre-
gation members-now around 2,500 in number- were already active Chris-
tians before they joined, with crossovers from Pentecostalism particularly
~omrnon.’~ Furthermore, the Word of Life encourages split loyalties by offer-
ing spiritual products that do not entail formal membership, including work-
shops, an extensive Bible School for English-language as well as Swedish-
language speakers, national and international media outlets, and even a
university affiliated with that of Oral Roberts. In other words, many of the
people who engage with the ministry are not members of its congregation, but
more temporary consumers of its charismatic resources.I5
My simultaneous fieldwork within the Word of Life and Uppsala Pente-
costalist churches indicates that the “client-like” relationships cultivated by
the charismatic ministry help create a distinctive division of spiritual labor
in the lives of believers (cf. Flinn 1999: 69). Pentecostalists who are attracted
to the Word of Life regard the older congregation as important to them in a
social sense, but argue that the newer group has taken over the mantle of pro-
moting revival in Uppsala and indeed Sweden. Pentecostalism represents
faithfulness to an almost century-old tradition of noncomformity and is often
associated with longstanding kinship or friendship ties; the Word of Life is
about dipping into a spirit of revival that is flowing-to use a favorite Pente-
costal phrase-“just now.” And if the Pentecostal movement has now become
respectable in Sweden, the Word of Life retains a notoriety linked to its al-
leged Americanness and its proselytizing fervor. Thus for Pentecostals, and I
suspect for many other samplers of the ministry’s wares, the Word of Life
provides a liminoid revivalist space within which an identity of deviance-
going against the spiritual grain-can ambivalently be embraced by members
of established denominations.
It might be argued that what I’m describing here is not “true” conversion,
not a “real” turning away from an old life toward a new, but rather a revital-
ized form of a Christianity gone stale. Certainly, the narratives of “crossover”
Christians differ from those belonging to people who have just recently been
saved. Among new Christians, the previous life that has been left behind is
characterized as one of depression, alcoholism, darkness, lack of direction,
and so on. For those who have previously been members of other, very dif-
ferent churches-or indeed still are-contact with the group is translated into
20 Simon Coleman
self-descriptions that talk more of a “deepening” of faith (cf. Stai 1993),

a “closer” relationship with Jesus, or a “revived” understanding of the Bible.
Yet, intriguingly, in both cases personal testimonies invoke a charismatic
rhetoric that draws on common themes of self-revitalization or even rebirth.
Even those previously saved can, in effect, be born “yet again” (cf. Austin-
Broos 1981). As with the juxtapositions of ritual conversion and ritual heal-
ing at the end of services, identity transformation and identity reinforcement
draw on very similar symbolic language.I6
Thus, although I’m referring to a radically different ethnographic situation,
I agree with the Comaroffs (1991: 249) that the moral economy of Protestant
conversion, apparently requiring the individual to arrive at a rational choice
among religious options, is not always straightforwardly realized in people’s
lives. However, rather than abandoning the concept of conversion, I prefer to
explore its multivalence, even within a single religious organization, by sug-
gesting that it is a quality of action as much as it is a mechanism for bringing
outsiders into the group. By this I mean that for all believers, mature or newly
saved, participation in the group is likely to involve a huge number of activi-
ties that are characterized by a conversionist orientation. In certain cases such
action is highly focused and systematic, involving perhaps the training of
Bible School students through lectures or knocking on doors around town.
Missionary trips abroad are also regularly organized. Exemplary narratives of
personal conversion frequently conclude with the convert describing how
their newfound charismatic power and evangelical competence has been man-
ifested in a first attempt to convert o t h e r ~ .Services
’~ contain the altar call, but
in addition they may require the congregation to pray for those beyond the
church hall who are in need of salvation, and this sense that even local wor-
ship is also a form of outreach is reinforced by the fact that services are pack-
aged into videos, audiocassettes, and sometimes radio programs that reach an
imagined audience beyond the immediate time and space of the original
event. Indeed, the use of media is crucial to the construction of a conversion-
ist quality of action that attaches to so many areas of life: apart from render-
ing worship available for potentially unlimited consumption, it also indicates
the iconic character of all action at the group, the sense that all who are
there -particularly preachers but even ordinary members of the audience-
may become exemplars for unseen viewers and listeners.I8
Yet, as with images of the Word of Life that depict it as brainwashing
hordes of young, spiritually naYve innocents, all is not as it first appears. Any
given Bible School student may only be required to evangelize in Uppsala
around once a month. Furthermore, all believers are instructed to avoid argu-
ment or self-justification on such occasions. Missionary trips abroad are reg-
ularly arranged but may cultivate the experience of having traveled far to
spread the Gospel rather than prompting a great deal of direct face-to-face
interaction with the unsaved. The program of one such trip given to me by a
participant details a five-day journey to Finland, during which time the only
prescribed involvement with direct evangelizing occurred on the boat away
from and back to Sweden. The use of media technology to spread the Word
further divorces the missionary from the missionized, allowing intragroup
worship to be regarded as a powerful means of reaching the anonymous
Other. Even preaching in the market square attracts an audience that is made
up predominantly of Word of Life members themselves, some of whom might
attempt to talk to apparently interested strangers but most of whom are likely
to contribute to the event by their presence alone. Instructions as to how to
convert also imply that a conversionary orientation need not always be ex-
pressed in direct confrontation with the unsaved Other. In a newsletter article
Ulf Ekman cautions his reader: “If you witness at work remember you are
there to work, not witness. ‘Let your life be your witness.’ Joy, honesty and
willingness to work in your life will testify for YOU."'^
Thus charismatic convictions about how salvation is actually achieved re-
inforce the sense that direct and extended social contact is not absolutely key
to conversion. It is admitted that some people are “seekers” before they sub-
mit themselves to God, and it is certainly emphasized that once somebody has
announced their conversion they should be followed up and ushered into
church fellowship as quickly as However, the first moment of sub-
mission is indeed seen as a moment, an instant, and it can apparently be
achieved through the medium of the disembodied Word divorced from human
sociality. In Faith rhetoric, reaching out via the electronic media is an effec-
tive missionary tool and has the advantage of speaking to potentially unlim-
ited numbers of people at the same time. A confident conversionist orienta-
tion and habitus can be cultivated through imagining the unconverted Other
as much as meeting him or her face-to-face. Only the rhetorical presence of
the unsaved person is actually necessary to the system. And although instant
results of evangelization are welcomed, these are not always necessary. As
one man put it in his testimony, neatly encompassing talk about converting
others within a description of his own story: “Even if [nonbelievers] don’t re-
ceive Jesus immediately, what they hear sticks on to their inside.”*’
These assumptions about conversion should also be viewed in the context
of wider Faith ideas about the importance of extending the individual or col-
lective self into a putative “world” (Coleman 2000a, 2000b). Similar notions
are evident in many missionizing congregations but are given a particular fla-
vor in Faith discourse. Satirized by outsiders as “Name it and Claim it” the-
ology (cf. Barron 1987), the Faith perspective emphasizes the ability of
anointed words-spoken by a believer-not just to describe but actually to
22 Simon Coleman
become reality. Similarly, material goods or money that are given to others or
contributed to an ambitious enterprise are viewed as investments of the self
in a bountiful God, with the assumption that a good rate of return will re-
dound to the person. conversion practices share with other discursive or
physical acts the quality of providing a kind of spiritual accounting of the self
through reaching out, articulating powers that must constantly be invoked and
reinvoked throughout the whole of life. The personal revitalization that is a
feature of Word of Life participation is intimately linked to practices that ap-
pear to orient the self beyond parochial and physical limits.22
Such action takes on many different referents of meaning. On a personal
level, it can imply the adoption of a bold and entrepreneurial character that is
not regarded as conventionally Swedish and that is sometimes criticized by
outsiders as being typically American. It also implies a criticism of other,
older denominations that have let the revivalist spirit die down and become
not just institutionalized but also too introverted. More broadly, the Faith
rhetoric of outreach can be read as denying the possibility of limiting ambi-
tion in cultural, economic, or even political terms, or of submitting to
Swedish state bureaucracy. More broadly still, it implies the possibility of
feeling part of a global Christian movement whose scope and significance are
not confined to one country alone, let alone one that is renowned for its sec-
ularity. Indeed, the ministry in Uppsala is only the headquarters of an opera-
tion that maintains other offices in Europe, Asia, and the United States and
that is in constant and close touch with Faith adherents around the world.
Conversion as I have described it is, therefore, “continuous” in yet another
sense: it cannot be isolated as an autonomous mode of action but condenses
meanings that are evident in myriad ways of reaching beyond the individual
or collective self. Praying for the conversion of unknown others, contributing
money to send Bibles to Russia, visiting fellow believers at a conference in
Finland, plucking up the courage to witness to a friend, and so on are actions
that constitute charismatic identity in the very act of extending it out into the
To give an example of how these meanings can be realized and interpreted

by the individual believer, let me briefly mention the case of Pamela, a
woman in her early twenties who, when I interviewed her in 1987, had been
a Word of Life student and an active member in the organization as a whole.
Although previously a Christian, Pamela had felt her faith and Christian iden-
tity to have been revived after her response to an altar call at a Word of Life
service that had resulted in her publicly falling to the ground under the power
of the Holy Spirit. Her sense of personal spiritual rebirth was augmented by
others’ assessments of the degree to which she corresponded to Faith models
of behavior. Charismatic friends defined her as markedly outgoing, a “fighter”
for the faith; a Swedish pastor informed her that she was destined to save
many people through her personal calling; a number of people had actually
compared her personality with a well-known American preacher. These la-
bels, combined with her powerful ritual experience and some participation in
missionary activities, reinforced in Pamela a conviction of the outgoing self.
I found Pamela’s description of herself in the interview to be echoed in the
notes she took during attendance at the Word of Life Bible School. She tells
herself, “Faith is to connect up to God. He has no limitations,” and that “I am
growing, faith is in my heart.” A further note asserts: “I believe in Jesus and
prove it by witnessing about him.” In such statements, which are both her re-
sponses to lectures and anointed words that will help to create the “reality”
they describe, Pamela links some key Faith themes: unlimited growth is con-
nected both to personal faith and to witnessing, the externalized demonstra-
tion of faith. Pamela also found a job that resonated perfectly with her new-
found identity, involving telephone sales for a firm that was run by a fellow
congregation member. Notably absent from her conception of herself was any
sense of engagement with political issues, indicating that the repertoire of
symbolic resonances offered by participation in the Word of Life allows for
considerable variations in personal focus.
CONCLUSION
I am not claiming that Word of Lifers never convert people through knocking
on doors or encountering them in the street. I have simply chosen to point
out that conversion is an activity whose significance extends far beyond the
question of whether an unbeliever becomes a believer. Most attempts at
conversion-in the Word of Life or probably in any other religious group-
end in what from the outside looks like a kind of failure since the object of
conversion discourse remains unconvinced; but in making such an observa-
tion we have hardly said all there is to say about conversion as a practice or
a quality of acti0n.2~
Word of Life claims to be reaching out to the unsaved cannot be dismissed
as “mere” rhetoric that is not borne out “in practice.” They should be seen,
rather, as forms of rhetorical practice that articulate a central and yet multiva-
lent sense of extending the self into the world-they are rituals of identity-
marking and formation that can potentially be carried out at any time, at any
place. They are also rituals that require an object toward which to reach, even
if such an object is imagined. It might, therefore, seem that I am agreeing with
Horton that conversion can involve-indeed, can depend upon-a widening of
social and intellectual horizons. As I have argued elsewhere (2000a), Word of
24 Simon Coleman
Life strategies do provide conservative Protestant appropriations of increas-

ingly global imagery. However, my key point is that Word of Lifers are reach-
ing out into a world that they construct as far as possible, imaginatively and
ritualistically, to conform with already established charismatic expectations.
Let me, therefore, finish by returning to my image of the man standing on
the bridge in Durham, shouting out a message to passersby who do not appear
to be listening to his message. I have not approached the man, and do not
know which church, if any, he belongs to. However, if he has anything in
common with his Swedish Faith counterparts, his words will not be spoken
entirely in vain. They have an audience of at least one, given that the evan-
gelical speaker is also perforce a listener, attending to a message that achieves
an important part of its purpose merely by being powerfully and passionately
projected out into the world.
NOTES
1. According to van der Veer (1996: 7), the conversion of others has gradually
been marginalized in modem Europe and transported to the (often non-Christian),
colonized world.
2. Luckily, she hadn’t noticed that the service was still going on, so I didn’t have
time to give a stumbling reply. In this chapter, I have not discussed Pentecostalist at-
titudes to conversion in any detail.
3. Faith ministries are known for preaching a theology that is oriented toward the
gaining of health and material prosperity. The roots of such emphases can be traced
to New Thought Metaphysics and postwar healing revivalism. Faith theologies have
proved attractive to both working- and middle-class conservative Protestants in many
parts of the world, particularly over the past thirty years. The notional head of the
movement is Kenneth Hagin, at whose bible school Ulf Ekman (the leader of the
Word of Life) studied in the early 1980s.
4. There may be parallels here with Don Seeman’s point (made at the workshop
from which this book is derived) that processes of conversion raise issues of both au-
thenticity and agency.
5. As is common in Pentecostalist and charismatic groups, the renewed body is
seen as a vessel for the Holy Spirit about to conjoin with the broader body of Christ
(cf. Austin-Broos 1996: 121).
6 . Heard in Uppsala, 1994.
7 . A typical prayer might ask Jesus to help the self be “born again” while also con-
fessing that He is Lord.
8 . Flinn (1999: 58) criticizes the view that charismatic conversion essentially in-
volves an instantaneous event, and he mentions in evidence the period of “suspen-
sion’’ or indecision that may precede the event itself. Such periods are also common
among new converts to the Word of Life.
9. There are parallels here with analyses of overseas missions that emphasize the
need to focus on missionaries as well as the missionized (Comaroff 1985).
10. There may be parallels here with the chapter in this book by Glazier (chapter
12) looking at conversion as a syncretist, ambiguous process.
11. See discussions of James (1902) in for example Gallaher (1990: 5), Kipp
(1995: 870), and van der Veer (1996: 15).
12. With the two approaches likely to imply rather different understandings of hu-
man agency (Kipp 1995: 872) as well as criteria for identifying “authentic” conver-
sion (cf. Keane 1996).
13. It is interesting to compare my experience with that of Austin-Broos, who dis-
cusses Jamaican Pentecostal churches (1981: 240). She reports that she never wit-
nessed a service at which two or three persons did not respond to the altar call. If it
appeared that no unsaved person would come forward, saints themselves would re-
spond, on the grounds that they might be seeking spiritual gifts such as prophecy or
the power to heal.
14. In the Norwegian Faith congregation he examined, Stai (1993: 4748) noted
that over half of the members learned about the new congregation through contact
with Pentecostalists. Ulf Ekman’s background is a former priest in the Swedish
Church, but the second pastor of the group, Robert Ekh, is a former Pentecostalist.
15. The provision of such services to “outsiders” is hardly unique. In the UK, the
currently popular Alpha Course is aimed both at new Christians and at more experi-
enced believers who desire a spiritual “top-up.’’
16. Forstorp (1992: 162), describing another Swedish Faith congregation, argues
that public healing is a symbolic repetition of salvation, with both manifesting a total
giving over of the self to God.
17. Compare with Hawley’s point (1998: 4) that the impulse to display sincerity by
becoming an enthusiastic apostle of one’s new faith typifies the Christian conversion
experience. More broadly, he notes (6) that the question of alterity implicit in con-
version poses a question about borders: Where is the rupture between self and other
to be situated?
18. This sense of potential surveillance, of making the ideal Self available for the
Other, is also evident in the way that believers sometimes describe shared biblical lan-
guage as occupying their bodies.
19. Word of Life Newsletter, November 1985,5.
20. Small cell groups as well as a “Discipleship School” socialize new members
into appropriate linguistic, ritual, and ideological norms.
21. Congregation Newsletter 2, no. 3 (May 7, 1986).
22. Compare with Austin-Broos’s discussion (1996: 159) of Csordas (1987) and
the notion that connected genres of ritual (in Csordas’s case, language, involving shar-
ing, teaching, prayer, and prophecy) create an experience of self-affirmation that sup-
ports the metaphors and dispositions of a charismatic religion. Compare also with
Berger and Luckmann’s (1966) emphasis on plausibility structures rather than on con-
version events.
23. Ekman notes, in the Word of Life Newsletter, “You shouldn’t be afraid to wit-
ness. God gives you fantastic openings. You shouldn’t be known for being nice, but
26 Simon Coleman
for being saved!” (1994 1:lO).The same issue carries a pertinent interview with two
young Bible School students (Maria and Per-Anders) who have come from an older
noncomformist denomination (Orebro Missionsforbundet) and who describe the ex-
perience of taking a course at the ministry. The quotation starts with Maria speak-
ing: “‘Along with learning to take time with God in prayer, my prayer life has been
transformed. Before I was completely absorbed in my own needs, while now I have
begun to stretch out to pray for others.”’ This sense of reaching out to reinforce a
sense of the spiritually empowered self is also articulated through Internet sites (not
discussed here).
24. Media evangelism is generally an ineffective means of conversion (cf. Am-
merman 1987: 149) if assessed as a method of bringing new people into the church.
My experience is that “new” converts to the Word of Life (not examined in any great
detail here) come to the group through various, often circuitous routes, most of which
involve some kind of previously established social bond to a Faith supporter.
REFERENCES
Ammerman, N. Bible Believers: Fundamentalists in the Modern World. New

Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1987.
Asad, T. “Comments on Conversion.” In Conversion to Modernities: The Globaliza-
tion of Christianity, edited by P. van der Veer, pp. 263-73. London: Routledge, 1996.
Austin-Broos, D. “Born Again . . . And Again and Again: Communitas and Social
Change among Jamaican Pentecostalists .” Journal of Anthropological Research 37
(1981): 22646.
Austin-Broos, D. J’A’maica Genesis: Religion and the Politics of Moral Orders.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997.
Barker, E. The Making of a Moonie: Choice or Brainwashing? Oxford: Blackwell,
1984.
Barron, B. The Health and Wealth Gospel. Downers Grove, 111.: Intervarsity Press,
1987.
Berger, P., and T. Luckmann. The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the
Sociology of Knowledge. Harmondsworth, U K : Penguin, 1966.
Coleman, S. Controversy and the Social Order: Responses to a Religious Group in
Sweden. Ph.D. diss., University of Cambridge, 1989.
Coleman, S. The Globalisation of Charismatic Christianity: Spreading the Gospel of
Prosperity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000a.
-. “Moving Towards the Millennium? Ritualized Mobility and the Cultivation of
Agency among Charismatic Protestants.” Journal of Ritual Studies 14, no. 2
(2000b): 16-27.
Comaroff, J. Body of Power, Spirit of Resistance: The Culture and History of a South
African People. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985.
Comaroff, J., and Comaroff, J . OfRevelation and Revolution: Christianity, Colonial-
ism, and Consciousness in South Africa. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1991.
Csordas, T. Language, Charisma, and Creativity: The Ritual Life of a Religious Move-
ment. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.
Fernandez, J. “African Religious Movements.” Annual Review of Anthropology 7
(1978): 195-234.
Flinn, F. “Conversion: Up from Evangelicalism or the Pentecostal and Charismatic
Experience.” In Religious Conversion: Contemporary Practices and Controversies,
edited by C. Lamb and M. Bryant, pp. 51-72. London: Cassell, 1999.
Forstorp, P-A. Att Leva och Liisa Bibeln: Textpraktiker i Tvd Kristna Forsamlingal:
Linkoping, Sweden: Linkoping University Press, 1992.
Gallagher, E. Expectation and Experience: Explaining Religious Conversion. Atlanta,
Ga.: Scholars Press, 1990.
Harding, S . “Convicted by the Holy Spirit: The Rhetoric of Fundamental Baptist Con-
version.’’ American Ethnologist 14 (1987): 167-81.
Hawley, J., ed. Historicizing Christian Encounters with the Othel: London: Macmil-
lan, 1998.
Hefner, R. “Introduction: World Building and the Rationality of Conversion.’’In Con-
version to Christianity: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives on a Great
Transformation, edited by R. Hefner, pp. 3 4 4 . Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1993.
Horton, R. “African Conversion.” Africa 41, no. 2 (1971): 85-108.
-. “On the Rationality of Conversion.” Africa 45, no. 4 (1975): 219-35,372-99.
James, W. The Varieties of Religious Experience. London: Longman, Green & Co,
1902.
Keane, W. “Materialism, Missionaries, and Modem Subjects in Colonial Indonesia.”
In Conversion to Modernities: The Globalization of Christianity, edited by P. van
der Veer, pp. 137-70. London: Routledge, 1996.
Kipp, R. “Conversion by Affiliation: The History of the Karo Batak Protestant
Church.” American Ethnologist 22, no. 4 (1995): 868-82.
Meyer, B. “Modernity and Enchantment: The Image of the Devil in Popular African
Christianity.” In Conversion to Modernities, edited by P. van der Veer, pp. 199-230.
London: Routledge, 1996.
Nock, A. Conversion. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1933.
Peel, J. “Conversion and Tradition in Two African Societies-Ijebu and Buganda.”
Past and Present 76 (1977): 10841.
Stai, S . “‘Omvendelse og Nettverk’: Et sosiologisk perspektiv p i den virkningen
omvendelsen har p i nettverstilknytningen for medlemmene i ‘Trondheim Kristne
Senter.”’ Master’s thesis, Religionsvitenskapelig Institutt (Trondheim, Sweden),
1993.
Stromberg,P. Language and Self-transformation: A Study of the Christian Conversion
Narrative. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
Taylor, D. “Conversion: Inward, Outward and Awkward.” In Religious Conversion:
Contemporary Practices and Controversies, edited by C. Lamb and M. Bryant,
pp. 35-50. London: Cassell, 1999.
Van der Veer, P. “Introduction.” In Conversion to Modernities, edited by P. van der
Veer, pp. 1-21. London: Routledge, 1996.
3
Agency, Bureaucracy, and Religious Conversion:
Ethiopian “Felashmura” I mmigrants in Israel
Don Seeman
Purity of heart is to will one thing.

-Soren Kierkegaard
There is a moral and epistemological dilemma at the intersection of conver-

sion, state bureaucracy, and social experience in Israel today. Namely, how
can divergent claims about agency in religious conversion (on which access
to certain state benefits depend) be adjudicated? The focus of this dilemma is
a community of migrants who can best be described as twice-converted, be-
cause they are members of a Beta Israel (Falasha) community whose ances-
tors converted to Christianity in Ethiopia but who are today clamoring for the
right to “return to Judaism” in the context of mass migration to the State of
Israel. The dilemma posed by these “Felashmura,” as they have been called
(it is a term that they themselves reject), points to a common and probably in-
soluble conundrum faced by conversionary religions, modern state bureau-
cracies, and ethnographers alike. To put it simply, all of us are engaged in the
ancient but problematic quest for purity of heart.
This is clear enough with respect to the gatekeepers of religious identity and
state citizenship (in this case, rabbis and immigration officials).As institutional
gatekeepers, they are empowered both to monitor and to manage processes of
social transformation that include immigration and conversion, and to do so by
employing often nebulous criteria that include estimations of human agency
like “purity of heart.” Does a potential convert have ulterior motives for join-
ing the faith? Should a potential asylum seeker be designated as a political or
as an economic refugee, and how is his or her legally determinant motivation
29
30 Don Seeman
to be ascertained in a world where many migrants can be plausibly said to be

both scared and hungry? These are weighty questions, on which life and death
can sometimes hang. Like religious gatekeepers (but perhaps less explicitly),
the agents of the state construct plausible narratives of human motivation and
circumstance in order to determine who benefits, and how, from the protective
network of state and international law that governs movements of people
across borders. Necessarily, these gatekeepers prefer simplistic narratives in
which subjects can be said to “will one thing” and can be classified with ease.
Their dilemma is that this is rarely if ever the case.
Like bureaucrats, ethnographers and historians also work to construct plau-
sible narratives of human agency in settings of social change, and it should be
noted that these narratives too can have profound or even catastrophic conse-
quences in the lives of the people they depict. Scholars eager to demonstrate
the “relevance” of their findings to social policy may for instance borrow un-
reflectively from the same narrow cultural taxonomies that underlie bureau-
cratic exclusion, with its endless myopic quest for monocausal explanations
of human behavior. The case of the Felashmura is arresting in this regard pre-
cisely because of the synergy between bureaucratic, religious, ethnographic,
and historical accounts of agency that have contributed over time to this
community’s burden. Conversion of the Felashmura in Israel is bound up
with a larger set of bureaucratic practices and ideologies that are directed to-
ward the alchemy-like transformation of migrants into citizens for which the
modem nation-state is renowned (cf. Herzfeld 1992). In the Israeli case, this
dynamic is compounded by the close relationship between religious and bu-
reaucratic adjudication of personal status issues and by the state’s willingness
to solicit input by scholars. The result is a complicated set of sometimes-con-
flicting criteria by which potential Ethiopian immigrants must be judged, in-
cluding genealogy and membership in a distinctive confessional community.
For Felashmura, the dilemma is to demonstrate a sincere “return” to the reli-
gion of their ancestors (i.e., Judaism), which is not somehow predicated on
their desire to leave Ethiopia, which would disqualify that return in the eyes
of immigration authorities. Understanding the experience of religious con-
version requires an appreciation for these kinds of social and political con-
straints. It also requires attention to the cultural idiom (in this case, “return”)
in which religious transformation is framed.
THE POETICS AND PRACTICE OF “RETURN TO JUDAISM”
A converted Jew named Henry Aaron Stem became the first agent of the Lon-
don Society for the Promotion of Christianity amongst the Jews (popularly
Agency, Bureaucracy, and Religious Conversion 31
known as the LJS or London Jewish Society) to reach the highlands of Ethiopia
in 1860.Although Stem acted on the basis of his presumed ethnic affinity with
the Beta Israel in order to persuade them to become “Christian Israelites,” his
efforts also ironically brought Beta Israel for the first time to the sustained at-
tention of Jews in Western Europe. Some of these European Jews took an in-
terest in “rescuing” Beta Israel from missionary inroads and ultimately from
Ethiopia itself, and to this end they begin to send emissaries and “counter-
missionaries” to Ethiopia in order to assess the situation there. These Westem-
ers took differing views as to the Jewishness of the Beta Israel, and they set in
motion a series of contests over cultural and religious authenticity that contin-
ues unabated to this day (Kaplan 1987; Seeman 1999; Seeman 2000).
Although missionary inroads among the Beta Israel were initially quite lim-
ited in number, their social influence was significant.They accelerated the de-
cline in traditional authority among Beta Israel religious leaders, and con-
tributed to a growing sentiment among Beta Israel that they should begin for
the first time to view themselves as members of an international Jewish dias-
pora. Most of those Beta Israel who resisted conversion to Christianity even-
tually came within the orbit of Western Jewish emissaries like Jacques Fait-
lovitch, who attempted to reform Beta Israel religious practice so that they
could be more effectively “reunited” with distant brethren. Faitlovitch’s rela-
tive success may be due to the fact that whereas Christian missionaries de-
ployed a trope of radical rebirth and transformation in Christ, he spoke of a
return to common origins obscured by persecution and exile, which resonated
with many Beta Israel. Faitlovitch worked to develop a cadre of young Beta
Israel “culture brokers” (Messing 1982) who would work with him to promote
social change in their own communities, and it can be argued that these “cul-
ture brokers” were the first “Ethiopian Jews” in the modem sense of the term.
A good example is the story of Tamrat Emmanuel, a Beta Israel boy of 16
who had been studying at a Swedish missionary school when Faitlovitch per-
suaded him to accept Jewish sponsorship instead. Faitlovitch sent Tamrat
abroad to study in the hopes that he would later return to become a teacher of
Beta Israel in Ethiopia. When Tamrat indeed returned and became the princi-
pal of the first Beta Israel school under Jewish auspices, he insisted that it be
opened near Addis Ababa so that he could reach out to long-assimilated Beta
Israel Christians living in that region and influence their “return” (Tamrat
1984). This interest was not shared by most of the foreign Jews who would
come to be involved in Ethiopia and who largely ignored the question of Beta
Israel Christians until it became clear after 1991 that significant numbers of
the descendants of converts would continue seeking to join their relatives
who had by now emigrated to Israel. Although Beta Israel Christians had
played an important role in the whole history of contact between Ethiopian
32 Don Seeman
and non-Ethiopian Jews, this seemed to come as a surprise to the Israeli and
American Jewish publics. In the closing hours of the Ethiopian Dergue
regime’s hold on power in 1991, over 14,000 Ethiopian Jews were airlifted to
Israel, but several thousand more were left behind at an Addis Ababa transit
camp because they had been designated Felashmura, or descendants of con-
verts, by the Israeli government. This was the community among whom I
conducted ethnographic fieldwork between 1992 and 1996, and although it
took three years of political and bureaucratic wrangling to achieve, they did
eventually arrive in Israel under a plan that gave their stated desire to “return
to Judaism” official sanction and form.
The Return to Judaism program under which Felashmura were permitted
to immigrate was officially sanctioned for the first time in 1994 under a de-
ceptively simple plan. An interministerial committee had been convened to
deal with the related crises of Felashmura refugees and of family reunifica-
tion for new Ethiopian immigrants who had left relatives behind. The com-
mittee concluded that applicants with first-degree relatives in Israel should
be admitted to the country on a humanitarian basis. This was less than Fe-
lashmura advocates had sought, since it did not recognize them as Jews and
would not allow all of them to immigrate at once. However, a compromise
was reached according to which immigrants who had arrived under family
reunification could then participate in an accelerated Return to Judaism pro-
gram administered by Israel’s Chief Rabbinate. They would secure their
own recognition as Jews first and then would be able to apply for family re-
unification of their own relatives who remained in Ethiopia. Although the
program was in theory optional, failure to participate meant among other
things that relatives in Ethiopia might not be brought to Israel, so that in the
end only a few among the thousands of individuals who immigrated be-
tween 1994 and 1996 actually refused.
Return to Judaism was never described by its advocates as a program for
conversion. It was officially open only to persons of Beta Israel (i.e., Jew-
ish) descent who wished to return to their religious roots. At the same time,
however, it is important to note that all of the procedures adopted by the
program- an accelerated (three-month) course in basic Judaism, circumci-
sion for men, and immersion in a mikveh for both men and women-were
derived from normal Jewish conversionary practice in Israel. The primary
differences between “return” and normal conversion as practiced in Israel
at the time were that the program took only three months (as opposed to a
year or more) to complete and that no one who was eligible was ever dis-
couraged from participating in the program or turned away.
The program was administered by Rabbi Menahem Waldman, who
boasted a long history of activism on behalf of Felashmura immigration to
Israel. He insisted that the program was penitential rather than conversion-
ary, and this claim was crucial to his attempts to gamer support from a reli-
gious establishment that was, to say the least, suspicious of anything that
sounded like mass conversion. On the other hand, Rabbi Waldman did ac-
knowledge that the format of the program allowed for some flexibility, since
it did in fact meet all of the religious requirements for conversion to Judaism,
thereby obviating the need for foolproof genealogical screening of program
applicants. Although he always maintained that participants in the Return to
Judaism program were “pure” in a genealogical as well as an intentional
sense, therefore, it can also be said that the success of the program relied
heavily on his careful but unspoken pragmatism.
In political terms, the Return to Judaism was subject to attack from a num-
ber of different directions, all of which began from more or less plausible,
though not necessarily correct, arguments about the agency exercised by pro-
gram participants. For officials at the Ministry of Immigrant Absorption,
which was controlled at the time by a party identified with the secular left in
Israeli politics, Felashmura were unwanted “economic refugees” whose Beta
Israel descent should not be used in cynical attempts to gain Israeli citizenship.
At the same time, powerful voices in Israel’s religious establishment expressed
doubt that Felashmura could be described as sincere penitents, since their
manifest desire to leave Ethiopia was so strong. In 1996, rumors about the in-
sincerity of program participants actually led to the suspension of the entire
Return to Judaism for a period of several months and consequently to a hiatus
in Felashmura immigration from Ethiopia. Ritual observance among partici-
pants in the program varied a great deal during this period, but all understood
that the public face of the program must be one of unqualified commitment to
Orthodox Judaism, and immigrant leaders spoke about this need frequently.
In a very real sense, the whole Return to Judaism can be seen as an imper-
fect tool for the suppression of anxiety about the religious agency of new im-
migrants. This anxiety focused on two distinct historical moments that were
constantly juxtaposed in public debates, including the formal deliberations of
the 1994 interministerial committee. The descendants of converts were de-
scribed alternately in Israeli media as anusim, or forced converts (evoking the
fifteenth-century Iberian conversos), or as mitnazrim, voluntary Christianiz-
ers. Ultimately, the avowedly neutral term “Felashmura” was settled upon
thanks to a fanciful Hebrew derivation from felushu she-hemir et dato
(“Falasha who exchanged his religion”) that was bandied in the press.
This significance of the debate over nomenclature should not be underesti-
mated. The difference between anusim and mitnazrim is a difference between
victims of catastrophe, who are in principle deserving of “Jewish solidarity”
(in the words of one expert witness to the 1994 interministerial committee),
34 Don Seeman
and traitors for whom the State of Israel bears little or no responsibility. Con-
version to Christianity was framed in this debate primarily as a national and
ethnic defection beyond any specifically religious meaning it may have held.
Converts and their descendants were portrayed as individuals who had aban-
doned their people for personal gain during periods of persecution. This was
significant because although apostasy as a religious sin may be canceled by
repentance (“An Israelite remains an Israelite even though he sins,”according
to the accepted Jewish religious norm), this kind of secular apostasy is a stain
from which converts and their descendants may never recover. The historical
question of past conversion and its motivation is, therefore, rarely treated as a
purely historical problem but rather as a determining element in the moral cal-
culus that underlies contemporary social policy and through which bureau-
cratic categories are determined and maintained. For the new immigrants, it
was important to frame their history as one of suffering so great that it could
serve to mitigate the claim of infidelity with which they were charged.
Initially, therefore, Rabbi Waldman angered Felashmura leaders when he
refused to accept their claim that all converts to Christianity in Ethiopia
had done so on pain of death and should be considered “forced converts” un-
der the terms of Jewish law. On the other hand, he worked hard to deempha-
size the importance of this initial apostasy by focusing on the Return to Ju-
daism that was already underway unofficially in Addis Ababa. He argued that
apostasy was a religious category that could be repaired through heartfelt re-
pentance and that this was precisely what the Felashmura were prepared to
offer. “The ‘Beta Israel’ community in Addis Ababa has repeatedly demanded
of Israel and its representatives,” he wrote in 1996, “‘We are Jews. We have
abandoned our past. Accept our regret. Teach us the way of Torah and
mitzvot”’ (Waldman 1996). By locating the problem of agency in a context
under his own control (i.e., the Return to Judaism program rather than earlier
apostasy), Rabbi Waldman became a powerful and effective advocate of Fe-
lashmura immigration. His view should be contrasted with that of a Ministry
of Absorption spokeswoman, who was publicly cited in a deportation case ar-
guing, “They [the immigrants] are always trying to fool us [regarding their
identities and motivation for coming to Israel]. . . . We cannot allow them to
go on fooling the people of Israel.”
Of course, neither of these depictions of agency among Beta Israel converts
and their descendants won unqualified success in the political battle over Fe-
lashmura immigration. And neither managed to transcend the narrow sectar-
ian interests in whose service it had been constructed: immigrant advocacy on
the one hand or opposition to immigration on the other. Wherever one posi-
tions oneself in that debate, the discourse on purity of heart tends to erase
from view the lives of the people whom it purportedly describes.
THIN DESCRIPTIONS
On a morning in November 1995, some sixty recent immigrants from

Ethiopia boarded a bus at the Neve Carmel absorption center near Haifa for
the short ride to a nearby school where they would complete the formal re-
quirements of their Return to Judaism. Some had immigrated as recently as
three months before and had enrolled in the program even before learning He-
brew. New immigrants typically lived in trailer homes at Neve Carmel, and
here they were subject to a great deal of formal and informal scrutiny by ed-
ucators, immigration officials, and representatives of the religious establish-
ment. Because each of these groups wielded some degree of power over new
immigrants but did not necessarily see eye-to-eye on the Return to Judaism
or its goals, participants were subject to a great number of contradictory pres-
sures during their first months. They were also subject to a profound politics
of distrust, in which their motives and behavior were analyzed and parsed by
competing, not necessarily sympathetic parties.
The mood on the bus was subdued but not anxious. Participants in the Re-
turn to Judaism program tended to accept the need for participation but to
avoid discussion of what that acceptance might imply. At public rallies or in
encounters with the Israeli media, they still largely rejected the whole Fe-
lashmura designation as senseless and stigmatizing, arguing that they had
never been Christians at all or that their ancestors had only converted to
Christianity under duress. In private, more complicated realities surfaced
obliquely. “I’ve eaten many things in my lifetime,” one mother of five named
Rachel told me, referring to her family’s complicated religious history -but
“now all we want is to raise our children as Jews and get on with our lives.”
I will return to her story shortly.
The unwillingness of most immigrants to discuss the intimate details of
their religious histories may have been a reasonable strategy under circum-
stances in which such information could easily be used to cause them harm.
But it also contributed to a sentiment expressed by many academic re-
searchers, politicians, and members of the public that the entire Return to Ju-
daism program was a fraud that should be discontinued. During the period of
my fieldwork at Neve Carmel, rumors began to circulate in the news media
that many participants in the program were engaging in Christian missionary
activity, further compromising public support. These rumors were never sub-
stantiated and were in my judgement false, but accusations of missionary ac-
tivity also began to surface in social disputes between immigrants them-
selves, with the same force and destructive potential that has been ascribed to
witchcraft allegations in other settings. As in witchcraft allegations, these ac-
cusations followed the contours of social fissures within the community,
36 Don Seeman
demarcating lines of jealousy or malice that set local relationships in stark

relief. Immigrants’ attacks on one another’s religious motivations and agen-
das mirrored those to which the community as a whole was subject in its deal-
ings with the state.
In this setting, of course, the question of agency in religious life arises both
as an ethnographic and as a political conundrum. To avoid raising the ques-
tion at all on the grounds that it is subjective or falls outside of the anthro-
pologist’s purview is to bracket one of the most important social facts con-
straining the lives of new immigrants. But how does one ask or write about
agency in religious conversion without falling into the same rhetorical habits
as the political actors described above, for whom ideological needs determine
not only the questions asked but also to a large extent what answers may be
given? One way is to try to account for the diverse social institutions and po-
litical actors who have an interest in the outcome of questions about agency
and who contribute to its social articulation. Most of these actors had only the
barest firsthand knowledge of the Felashmura community, but I found it sur-
prisingly difficult to articulate any more responsible alternative for bureau-
cratic or political use. I have come to believe that this has something to do
with the recalcitrance of social experience to the politically expedient “pure
hearts” discourse on which state bureaucracies rely.
Consider the ritual aspect of the Return to Judaism. As participants disem-
barked from the bus, they were divided into groups by sex. All of the partic-
ipants had already passed a perfunctory exam on Jewish law and practice, and
the men had already undergone either circumcision or a kind of symbolic re-
circumcision known as hatafar dam brit, in which a drop of blood from the
penis is drawn. Now, in same-sex groups of about twenty, all the immigrants
were led to a ritual pool, or mikveh, where they would remove their clothes
(women donned loose-fitting robes) and immerse. This took place under the
watchful eyes of the bet din, an informal court of three adult males needed to
ratify conversion. The participants stood in line afterwards to receive the pa-
perwork that confirmed their new status, and then got back on the bus for
Neve Camel.
These proceedings were conducted in a spirit that can only be described as
bureaucratic efficiency. This was hardly the “total transformation of the per-
son by the power of God” that scholars like Lewis Rambo (1993) identify as
“genuine conversion.” The most consistent feature of the rituals themselves
was probably the demand for submission to bodily scrutiny by the state ap-
paratus. During immersion, men and women submitted their unclothed bod-
ies to the shaming gaze of outsiders who were empowered to affirm or to re-
ject the “return” they sought to enact. Shame was an even more explicit
feature of the hatafar dam brit procedure, in which men waited in line to have
a drop of blood drawn from their bodies under the gaze of a ritual court. The
procedure was relatively painless, a mere pinprick, but that pinprick had to be
witnessed by the individual members of the court. The mohel (circumcision
expert) who conducted the procedure spoke little with participants but kept up
a lively commentary for the witnesses on the quality of the circumcisions that
many men had had performed in Ethiopia, the way an experienced diamond
cutter might appraise another professional’s work.
Although most recent immigrants submitted to the procedure as just one
more indignity, participants who had been in the country somewhat longer
were often openly resentful and clearly shamed. For the members of the
court, harafat dam brit was a purely technical requirement of Jewish law to
be conducted as quickly and dispassionately as possible. But for participants
in the Return to Judaism program, submission to the drawing of blood and to
its scrutiny by the court was a visceral enactment of their whole compromised
subject position vis-8-vis the state. Through these rituals of domination, as
well as the formal and informal scrutiny of daily life at the immigrant center,
they learned that the taint of apostasy could only be repaired through the re-
peated baring of hidden intimacies to public view, and, worse, that even this
submission might never be pronounced “enough .”
We tend to believe as anthropologists that “thick” enough description of
cultural and social context can elucidate any problem, and this is not a com-
mitment I am prepared wholly to undermine. We do need to distinguish be-
tween all the different kinds of winks and nods that Geertz (1973) describes,
and not just in our professional lives. But perhaps the problem of agency is
less transparent than most of our interpretive models seem to suggest. We
tend to focus on the shared, public, and communicative “web” of culture to
the detriment of its strategic, idiosyncratic, and sometimes deliberately mys-
tifying uses in lived experience, where culture is a contributory but never de-
terminative factor of what it means to be human. It may be possible to thickly
describe the sheep and cows in a plausible account of social action, as Geertz
recommends, yet to nevertheless fail to recognize the indeterminacy of hu-
man presence that animates and transcends social action in its every move.
Let me return to the story of Rachel, the woman who told me she had
“eaten many things” during the course of her religious life. Like most intimate
revelations, this one came not as the result of an interview or an interrogation,
but in the course of daily life some months after I had become a functional
member of her household. Rachel and her husband came to Israel with an un-
usually high level of education and had ambitions to become schoolteachers.
Her grandfather had converted to Christianity long before Rachel was born,
but he nevertheless demanded that his offspring memorize the genealogies
that linked them to a number of important Beta Israel families who eventually
38 Don Seeman
came to Israel during the 1980s. By chance, I knew some of these extended
kin and was able to verify their links to Rachel’s grandfather, as well as the
fact that they wanted little to do with his grandchildren “because they went
off and became ‘Felashmura.”’
Perhaps because Rachel and her husband were educated and relatively suc-
cessful economically, and perhaps also because an ethnographer from Amer-
ica had been spending so much time in their household, rumors began to
spread that they were among the Pentecostal missionaries allegedly receiving
money from foreign sponsors. I had already conducted interviews and at-
tended prayer meetings with the four or five Pentecostals who were active at
the absorption center, and I knew that Rachel and her husband had no real
connection with them, but still the rumors intensified. I felt sure that I could
not have missed the signs of something so fundamental as Pentecostal activ-
ity, given our proximity and friendship, but decided after some trepidation to
confront Rachel and find out what she thought. Apparently, one of the rabbis
from the Return to Judaism program had also confronted her the week before,
and she was still angry. “He came to the door and said ‘I know you are Pen-
tecostal. You can be thrown off the program.’ I told him it wasn’t true and shut
the door in his face. I swore I would never enter his synagogue again.”
Rachel’s anger, bordering on despair, was also directed toward her neigh-
bors and fellow immigrants who had spread the rumors about her. “We just
have to finish [the program] and leave here,” she told me, and in fact hers was
one of the first families to leave Neve Carmel for permanent housing several
months later. This is when she grew thoughtful and said, “I have eaten many
things in my life. . . . But it was our grandfather’s mistake, not ours. What do
they want from us?’
A few days later, Rachel brought up this incident again and made essen-
tially the same comments. But she continued this time with an odd story about
the everyday experience of the Return to Judaism with which I want to draw
this chapter to a close. On the previous Saturday, Rachel told me, she had
been suffering with a terrible headache. Like other Beta Israel women, she
typically participated in communal coffee-drinking sessions up to three times
a day with family and neighbors. This was an important part of social exis-
tence at Neve Carmel, and only Pentecostals (for whom coffee was addictive
and hence Satanic) typically refrained from participating. The problem for
women in the Return to Judaism program, however, was that the use of fire
for cooking is prohibited on the Jewish Sabbath, and this effectively meant
that Saturdays would have to pass without coffee. For some, this meant ex-
treme headaches and withdrawal throughout the day. When Rachel’s
headache got so that she could hardly stand it, she decided to make some in-
stant tea of coffee for relief-anything that the neighbors wouldn’t be able to
smell from their own immigrant trailers, just across the road. But when her
then nine-year-old son saw her doing so, he interrupted her in obvious dis-
tress. “If you make coffee,” he asked, “where will they bury you?” Rachel’s
decision to share this story with me marked a turning point in our relation-
ship, but its meaning was only partly transparent. Concern that one will be
buried amongst one’s kin and coreligionists is an ever-present anxiety among
members of the Felashmura community and also has deep roots in Beta Israel
culture as a whole. It had been a topic of some discussion in the rumor mill
at Neve Carmel that month that failure to complete the Return to Judaism pro-
gram might be grounds for denial of burial in a Jewish cemetery, which if true
would be a harsh punishment indeed. This was an especially bitter subject for
Rachel, who blamed Israeli authorities for having held up her family’s emi-
gration from Addis Ababa while her father grew ill and was ultimately buried
there as a refugee. I had visited his unmarked grave when I first met Rachel
in Ethiopia in 1992, so I knew why her son’s question hit her with such force.
She told me that she had cried when she heard his question and promptly gave
up her plans for coffee that day. Later, she repeated the story to her husband,
who also cried, and then took some of the limited savings they had collected
in order to buy an electric heating tray that could keep water hot throughout
the Sabbath. In technical terms, Rachel’s problem was solved, but this
episode also points to the more insoluble elements at the heart of Felashmura
experience in Israel.
The emotive significance of this story to Rachel and her family far out-
strips its seeming importance in objective terms, but it is key to my under-
standing of agency in the story of her “return.” She told me this story partly
in order to assert her sincerity and to demonstrate the groundlessness of the
missionary accusations that had been levied against her and the whole Fe-
lashmura community by extension. She had gone so far as to give up prepa-
ration of coffee in order to reassure her son that her return was complete, and
that she would be buried among her own people in the land of Israel. But this
account is ultimately very different from the purity of heart narratives offered
by bureaucrats, rabbis, and some academics. Its “moral,” if it may be said to
have one, is more opaque, because it opens onto a life-world in which the Re-
turn to Judaism takes place under severe constraint and in which the social
pressures generated by bureaucratic taxonomies extend even to private inter-
actions between a nine-year-old boy and his mother.
Rachel emerges in this story as neither cynically utilitarian nor single-
mindedly devoted to an abstract ideal of “return.” Anthropologists in a variety
of settings have argued that religious conversion sometimes has more to do
with strategies of social or ethnic affiliation than with frankly confessional no-
tions of interior spirituality (Kipp 1995), and that seems at least in part to be
40 Don Seeman
the case here. Sagi and Zohar (1994) have shown that the traditional Jewish
responsa literature also emphasizes conversion as affiliation, as in “Your peo-
ple shall be my people, your God my God”, while leaving the latter more open
to interpretation than the former. But I do not want to exchange one set of re-
ductionist stories about religious agency here for another by arguing that
Rachel’s conversion experience is somehow essentially Jewish for that reason.
Rachel’s Return to Judaism clearly involves a desire to benefit from citi-
zenship in a relatively prosperous welfare state. But it also involves deep sen-
timents of loss and recovery, of the return to origins, and of a decidedly com-
munal sense of relation to the God of Israel. Despite her bitterness toward
some aspects of the Return to Judaism program, all of Rachel’s children now
attend religious schools and conduct what in Israel is described as a “tradi-
tional,” though not strictly Orthodox, lifestyle. The contours of her agency in
conversion can only be mapped obliquely from within an unfinished life story
in which various things are invariably at stake simultaneously so that no “one
thing” can ever be willed to the exclusion of all others. By focusing in part
on the bureaucratic institutions and processes that impose themselves on
Rachel’s experience, I am not trying to shift attention from religious experi-
ence to social structure, but to convey a sense of the texture of an inhabited
world. This may be the most-and the best-to which ethnography can as-
pire. We ought to escape bureaucratic habits of mind that focus on abstracted
“identities” and the seamless movement between them as the proper subject
for ethnography of religious conversion.
This is not an argument for less precision in ethnographic writing but for
much greater precision in our descriptions of lived experience, and for hu-
mility in the face of attempts to represent human agency more fully. We can
approach that goal asymptotically through “thicker” descriptions and more
inclusive theoretical models. Depictions of social and religious transforma-
tion that exclude the constraining institutions and strategic interventions of
powerful social actors should, for instance, be rejected out of hand. So, too,
should accounts that fail to explicitly account for our constructions of plausi-
bility and what they exclude, or that exclude without reflection the voices of
those whose lives we have undertaken to represent. But even the very thick-
est of descriptions will inevitably remain thin by comparison with what they
must describe. We should be honest about the limitations of our craft and an-
alytical about where those limitations lie. The very best accounts of conver-
sion and other transformational experiences may well remain those that man-
age to convey the irreducible “abundance” (cf. Feyerabend 2000) and
indeterminacy of social life, an abundance that exceeds our grasp.
REFERENCES
Emmanuel, Tamrat. “The School for Falasha Children in Ethiopia at the Time of the
Italian Invasion.” Pe’amim 58 (1994): 98-103.
Feyerabend, Paul. The Conquest of Abundance. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 2000.
Geertz, Clifford. The Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books, 1973.
Herzfeld, Michael. The Social Production of Indifference. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1992.
Kaplan, Steven. “The Beta Israel Encounter with Protestant Missionaries.” Jewish
Social Studies 49 (1987): 27-42.
Kipp, Rita Smith. “Conversion by Affiliation: The History of the Karo Batak Protes-
tant Church.” American Ethnologist 22 (1995): 868-882.
Messing, Simon D. The Story of the Falashas: “Black Jews” of Ethiopia. Brooklyn,
N.Y.: Balshon Printing and Offset, 1982.
Rambo, Lewis R. Understanding Religious Conversion. New Haven, Conn.: Yale
University Press, 1993.
Sagi, Avi, and Zvi Zohar. Conversion to Judaism and the Meaning of Jewish Identity
(in Hebrew). Jerusalem: Bialik Institute, 1994.
Seeman, Don. “One People, One Blood: Public Health, Political Violence and HIV in
an Ethiopian-Israeli Setting.” Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry 23 ( 1999): 159-95.
-. “The Question of Kinship: Bodies and Narratives in the Beta Israel-European
Encounter (1860-1920).” Journal of Religion in Africa 30 (2000): 86-120.
Waldman, Menahem. “The Return to Judaism of the Felashmura” (in Hebrew).
Techumin 16 (1996): 243-272.
4
Converted Innocents and Their Trickster Heroes:
The Politics of Proselytizing in India
Kalyani Devaki Menon
I n January 1999, the Australian missionary Graham Staines and his two
young sons were brutally murdered in the eastern Indian state of Orissa. This
was not the first incident of violence against Christians in India. The fatal at-
tack on Staines and his sons came in the wake of two months of attacks on
Christians,’ Christian missionaries: and Christian churches? However, this
event captured the attention of the world’s media and highlighted the urgency
of understanding the escalating tension between Hindu nationalists and the
minority population of Christians in India.
Hindu nationalists claim that people convert to Christianity either because
they have been tricked by missionaries or because they have been seduced by
offers of material remuneration. By effectively linking conversion with issues
of national security and cultural actualization, they argue that proselytizing is
part of a conspiracy to destroy “Indian” culture and to destabilize the “Indian”
polity. These objections have led to numerous protest rallies and speeches
and, in some specific instances, to violent confrontations between Hindus and
Christians. However, Hindu nationalist criticism of conversion and prosely-
tizing is fraught with contradictions in both theory and practice. For instance,
the movement has been actively “reconverting” Christian tribals to Hinduism,
yet asserts that Hinduism does not engage in conversion.
The dissonance between the rhetoric and actions of the movement suggests
that what is at issue is not simply the act of conversion from one religion to
another, but rather what conversion implies. Conversion to Christianity chal-
lenges Hindu nationalist definitions of India as a Hindu nation and threatens
the mass base of the movement. Thus, underlying these dissonant acts and
rhetoric are the struggles to contain the perceived challenges to Hindu na-
tionalism implied by conversion to Christianity.
43
44 Kalyani Devaki Menon
HINDU NATIONALIST CRITICISM

OF CONVERSION AND PROSELYTIZING
The Hindu nationalist movement in India has existed in various forms for
over a century, but at no time has it been more powerful in the sociopolitical
landscape of India than it is today. The movement is united by the common
desire to purge the country of all “foreign” (i.e., Muslim and Christian) influ-
ences and to establish India as a Hindu nation. Although violence between
Hindu nationalists and Muslim communities in India has a long history, large-
scale violence between Hindus and Christians is relatively unprecedented.
I begin by analyzing the charges leveled against missionaries by Hindu na-
tionalism, or Hindutva, in order to contextualize the escalating tensions be-
tween the two groups. I then present some of the contradictory practices of
Hindutva to argue that the movement uses conversion to create subjects of a
nationalist Hinduism that privileges Brahmanical values and the scriptural
prescriptions embodied in Vedic texts over the myriad local articulations of
Hinduism (Hansen 1999: 66-67).
The following story, related to me by an elderly male member of the move-
ment, effectively captures the criticism that Hindutva has of Christian prose-
lytizing in India. It recalls the popular Hindu epic about the god-king Ram,
now an icon of Hindutva. In this epic, Ram’s wife Sita is kidnapped by the
demon-king Ravana and taken to Lanka, from which Ram, with his army of
monkeys, must rescue her. In most versions of the epic, Sita emerges as the
embodiment of purity and virtue despite attempts by Ravana to seduce her.
The story suggests the contrary:
These missionaries, they go to villages and hoodwink innocent and uneducated
villagers. There was a missionary who took three magnets on which he had
pasted pictures of Ram, Sita and Ravana. The uneducated villagers knew noth-
ing about magnets. The missionary had cleverly placed the picture of Ram and
Sita on magnets with a positive charge while the picture of Ravana was on a
negative charge. He then showed it to the villagers and asked them: why is Sita
always going towards Ravana and not to Ram, her husband. He said that Hin-
duism was such a corrupt religion to worship Sita when she was so low as to be
attracted to Ravana and to turn away from her husband.
In this version of the story, the missionary uses his devious tricks to “hood-
wink” innocent villagers and cast aspersions on Sita’s chastity in order to den-
igrate Hinduism. The story embodies many criticisms that Hindutva has
against Christian proselytizing: the trickery of missionaries, the duping of
“innocent” Hindus in order to convert them, and the disrespectful denuncia-
tions of Hinduism. Urvashi Aggarwal told me another story that, like the one
Converted Innocents and Their Trickster Heroes 45
above, suggests the naivete of the convert while portraying missionaries as

devious and calculating. She said: “These Christians mix medicines like As-
pirin into water and say this is holy water. Then they give this water to sick
Hindus and they get cured.” According to Urvashi, the missionaries then
claim that the recovery was a divine miracle and tell the person that it was the
holy water blessed by Christ that cured them. Urvashi asserts that this is how
missionaries establish the power of Christianity and trick unsuspecting and
ignorant Hindus into converting from Hinduism to Christianity. She contends
that missionaries also give money and food to convert people.
These stories reflect the belief in Hindutva that nobody converts of his or
her own free will. Converts are innocents who have either been duped, as the
above stories demonstrate, or seduced by material inducements offered by
missionaries. As Jayant Chandra remarked to me, “If someone converts be-
cause he wants to that is his outlook. But here . . . there is inducement. Con-
veniences are offered. If your child does not have a job then one will be given.
A person who does not have bread to fill his stomach does not worry too
much about his religion. He says, ok, I must fill my stomach.”
Equally important to all these stories is the assumption that the convert was
originally a Hindu who was tricked out of the fold. A woman called Tuiji
(aunt) by members of the movement, who has devoted over fifty years of her
life to Hindutva, said, “Before they became Muslims and Christians they
were Hindus weren’t they?’ She told me a story about a person in Varanasi
who had become a Christian. Even after his conversion, he would go to the
River Ganga to worship the Sun God every morning, as he had done ever
since he could remember. The local padre told him that he must stop doing
this. The man refused, saying that even though he was a Christian, he could
not give up what was part of his culture.
This story reflects an idea that is key to Hindutvu, namely that Hinduism is
not simply a religion but is rather a culture or a way of life. Christianity is
seen as a threat to this unified IndiadHindu national culture. During one of
many protest rallies against the Pope’s visit to India in November 1999, one
prominent male member of the movement used rape as a metaphor for con-
version, arguing that the practice raped people of their culture. The cultural
threat of Christianity is often constructed upon women’s bodies, suggesting,
as many scholars have shown, the gendered nature of nationalist discourses
(Yuval-Davis and Anthias 1989). Vimla, a twenty-eight-year-old woman in
the movement, had this to tell me about Christianity and women:
An unmarried girl gave birth to Jesus. So Christians do not believe that it is a

matter of shame if someone gives birth to a child while they are still unmarried.
They say, never mind, the lord Jesus is being born, this is how the lord Jesus was
born. So since the day that the Christian faith first set foot in this country, since
that day there has been rape and oppression of women in India. . . . In our cul-
ture girls cannot even see their husbands before marriage. Without veiling they
cannot go outside their homes. And after they are adults girls cannot even sit
next to their fathers or their brothers. But today they wander around with
strangers. All this should not happen. Whatever filth has spread in our nation it
has been spread by Christians.
A major concern expressed by members of the movement has to do with al-

legiance to the nation. This concern is one that suggests the problematic use
of religion to construct nationalist subjectivity. According to Hindutvu logic,
since India is Hindu, all Hindus swear allegiance to the Indian nation. How-
ever, since Muslim and Christian gods are located elsewhere, the same can-
not be said for them. Although some Indian Christians trace their conversion
to the arrival of St. Thomas on the Malabar Coast in 52 c.E., for those in the
Hindutva movement Christianity is a “foreign” religion forever associated
with the Western world.
Although the Christian population in India is barely 3 percent of the total
population (Philip 1999: S), many in the movement fear that conversions to
Christianity pose a threat to the stability of the Indian polity. By publicly link-
ing these fears to the powerful memories of the partition of the subcontinent
into India and Pakistan, nationalists effectively convey the need for mobilizing
against conversion and against those who would spread Christianity in India.
Nandini Bharati, a leader of the women’s wing of Sewa Bharati, a branch of
the movement, told me that conversions from Hinduism are part of a larger
world conspiracy to divide India along religious lines. She told me that this
was how Pakistan was “taken away” and how “they” tried to take away Pun-
jab by calling for the separate Sikh state of Khalistan. Aditya Trivedi made an
important connection between conversion to Christianity and the violent re-
bellions in many of the northeast states of India, saying, “The terrorist organ-
isations in the north-east are getting support from international Christian mis-
sionaries .” Echoing the sentiments of Nandini, Trivedi asserted (in English):
Their strategy is such that we will concentrate on certain pockets and those cer-
tain pockets will be made anti-Hindu. And anything which becomes anti-Hindu
becomes anti-India. We believe that once somebody changes his religion he
changes his nationality also. Solid proofs are Kashmir where Islam is the dom-
inant factor. They say we don’t want to live with India. Here the dominant fac-
tor is Christians. They say we are a different country.
The use of the northeast as an example to demonstrate the antinationalism of

Christianity is problematic in many respects. Paul Brass asserts that, in fact,
language and religion were not primary to the tribal peoples of the northeast,
but rather that “the main argument for separation and secession was that tribal
peoples were simply not Indians at all” (Brass 1994: 202). A. J. Philip notes
that in the northeast, “The church has in many ways stood for national inte-
gration. The Meiteis, the Tripuris, the Bodos, and the Assamese ULFA cadres
are not Christian. In Nagaland and Mizoram, the church has helped in restor-
ing peace within the Indian framework” (Philip 1999: 8). Brass contends fur-
ther that ULFA, a violent secessionist movement in the northeastern state of
Assam, grew out of already existing movements by Hindu Assamese ex-
pressing their resentment of the loss of jobs and land to non-Assamese, par-
ticularly Bengalis, who had been migrating to the northeast and dominated
the government since the British period when Assam was part of the Bengal
presidency (1994: 204-5). The problems of the northeast are multiple, are
very complex, and cannot be reduced to the simple manipulations of a few
Machiavellian missionaries. In his analysis of the multiple violent secession-
ist movements in the northeastern states of India, Brass argues that the prob-
lems of the northeast should be understood as deriving in large part from the
relationship that the central government has had with these regions in recent
years. Brass suggests that the problems of the northeast arise “from the ten-
sions created by the centralizing drives of the Indian state in a society where
the predominant long-term social, economic, and political tendencies are to-
wards pluralism, regionalism and decentralization” (1994: 227).
When violence broke out between Hindus and Christians in Gujarat in
1998 and was followed by attacks against Christian missionaries and Christ-
ian churches in 1999, many observers wondered why Christians had suddenly
become the target of Hindu nationalist attention. Christians, after all, despite
a presence in India for 2,000 years, have been fairly removed from all the ma-
jor upheavals that have marked the relationship between Hindus and Muslims
through history. Stories like those recounted above became critical tools
through which to create a sense of public outrage and mobilize people against
Christians in India. For those who may remain unmoved by suggestions that
Christianity, because it is inherently Western, poses a threat to the Indian/
Hindu way of life, the movement presents cases of more tangible threats, such
as those presented by forced conversions, massacres, or national security.
Linking Christianity to violence in the northeast is a powerful means to cre-
ate that sense of outrage, particularly because it taps into an already existing
sense of discomfort about the randomness of violence in the northeast. It also
suggests that such violence is a threat to the sanctity of India’s borders just
like the Kashmir issue or the Khalistan issue-again tapping into fears and
threats that are already part of public consciousness. In recent years, much has
been written about the power of collective memory to mobilize communities
for collective action (Swedenberg 1995).These stories can be understood as

part of an effort to shape public memory about Christians in India that por-
trays a nation under siege and makes the Hindu nationalist political agenda
compelling to ordinary people.
CONTRADICTORY PRACTICE
Although Hindutva is very critical of missionaries offering inducements in or-

der to convert people, its members see no logical contradiction in their own
efforts to prevent conversions by offering similar inducements. Ela Mishra
told me, for example, that one of the main aims of Sewa Bharati in starting
schools in slums and amongst tribal populations is to prevent conversions.
The purpose of these schools is not only to prevent the tribals from convert-
ing to Christianity, but also to teach them that they are Hindus and that their
tribal religions are simply a local, and therefore corrupt, expression of Hin-
duism (Hansen 1999). Missionaries, by contrast, are criticized for converting
people under the guise of helping the poor by setting up schools and hospitals.
Others in the movement, although clearly situating the social work of the
movement as a response to conversions, place the blame on Hindus rather
than on the missionaries. Taiji asserted, “We [Hindus] are the ones who have
shunned the poor and the lower castes while the Christian missionaries have
embraced them. If we do not want people to convert, we must make sure that
they are well taken care of within our own communities. Otherwise how can
you blame them for converting?” She said that the movement’s work is di-
rected at ensuring the uplift of poor and backward-caste communities. She
said that this is why when the cyclone hit Orissa, “Our girls went running
there. They distributed steel plates, bowls and glasses because these people
had nothing left.” The movement sent in its troops to demonstrate to cyclone
victims that they were part of a larger, benevolent Hindu community. Neither
Tuiji nor others I spoke to saw this as duplicity on the part of the movement.
More disturbing, perhaps, was their failure to question the ethics of capitaliz-
ing on the tragedy of cyclone victims. Ironically, missionary activity is ac-
cused of immorality for exploiting the misfortunes of the poor and for using
schools and hospitals to proselytize.
Ela vehemently condemned missionaries, saying, “I like everything about
Christianity except for this hidden aim underlying all their activities to con-
vert under the guise of helping.” At the same time, she too sees no duplicity
in the Hinduntu movement’s attempts to circumscribe the power of mission-
aries to convert people. The movement is not above offering direct material
rewards to establish community and to prevent people from converting. Al-
though the movement has condemned the payment of dowry for a girl upon
her marriage, I was told of several occasions when the movement stepped in
and paid a girl’s dowry in order to prevent her from converting to Christian-
ity. Vimla told me of an occasion when she prevented an entire family from
converting to Christianity because, unable to afford the dowry being de-
manded, they had found it impossible to many their only daughter. For them,
conversion would mean not having to pay this dowry. Vimla convinced the
family not to convert by promising that the movement would pay the required
dowry. Although she is critical of missionaries who offer material rewards to
converts, Vimla does not question the ethics of purchasing allegiance to the
nation through material remuneration.
Many nationalists assume that conversion takes people out of the Hindu
fold. They assert that unlike “foreign” religions, people cannot convert into
Hinduism, and thus the religion can never replace those who convert. These
arguments do not take into account such as efforts as the Arya Samaj Move-
ment, spearheaded by Swami Dayanand Saraswati. In response to conver-
sions to Islam, particularly in the h n j a b region in the latter part of the nine-
teenth century, Arya Samaj was responsible for mass “re-conversions’’ to
Hinduism (Madan 1996). Nationalists also do not recognize the recent mass
reconversions to Hinduism, organized by their own movement (particularly
amongst Christian tribals), as the practice of conversion. (In an interesting
parallel to Christian conversions, those who agreed to reconvert in Ahwa, Gu-
jarat, were made to take a dip in the hot springs of a nearby village. Then the
officiating priest tied a locket with the picture of the monkey-God Hanuman
with black string around the neck of the newly re~onverted.)~
Few have challenged the use of the term “reconversion” by the movement,
so that the question of whether these tribals were Hindu before they became
Christian has remained largely unaddressed. Sumit Sarkar argues that the use
of the term reconversion is a form of “semantic aggression,” for it suggests
the natural reorientation of people back to their “original” state (Sarkar 1999).
In addition, Hindu tribals are also being converted to another form of Hin-
duism through the “civilising mission” that animates the movement’s educa-
tional institutions in tribal areas. Thomas Hansen describes this as the project
of “nationalist sanskritisation,” which appropriates the “little traditions” of
Hinduism into the “Brahmanical great tradition” of nationalist Hinduism
(Hansen 1999: 104-7): “Sanskritisation” is a term coined by M. N. Srinivas
to refer to the process by which lower castes (especially those belonging to
the intermediate strata) attain higher positions in the caste system by adopt-
ing (allegedly) Sanskritic values (Srinivas 1952: 65). Hansen argues that “the
syncretic platform, the recruitment of the religious establishment, and the pa-
ternalistic reconversion strategies all point to the equation of a brahmanical
‘great tradition,’ seeking to heal up and cover over the many disparate, con-
tradictory, and fragmented ‘little traditions’ of dispersed Hindu practices un-
der a simplified, ‘thin’ national Hinduism, largely defined in terms of san-
skritised practices” (Hansen 1999: 107).
THE POLITICS OF CONVERSION
The dissonance between the actions and rhetoric of the movement suggests
that what is at issue is not the act of conversion itself, but rather the challenge
that conversion to Christianity presents to Hindutva. Conversion to Chris-
tianity threatens the construction of India as a nation for Hindus. Hindu na-
tionalists regard Christianity as a foreign religion that is seducing people
away from their original faith, Hinduism.
Christianity has been an integral part of the religious landscape of India for
centuries, particularly in states like Kerala which have a significant Christian
population. While the assertion that Syrian Christians in Kerala were con-
verted by St. Thomas in 52 C.E. cannot be supported or invalidated by histori-
cal evidence, Corrine Dempsey argues that historical data establishes the exis-
tence of Christian communities by the fourth century (Dempsey 200 1: 5). The
construction of Christianity as “foreign” to India, despite this lengthy presence
in the subcontinent is part of a larger trend of nationalist discourses in which
cultures (in this case, Hinduism) are “unproblematically”inscribed onto terri-
tory (Gupta and Ferguson 1992). Conversion becomes a metaphor for the in-
vasion of national territory by “foreign,” and indeed illegitimate, religions.
Conversion to Christianity threatens the “competitive logic of numbers” in-
troduced by the colonial census that established the numerical division of the
population by religious grouping and fueled the majoritarian impulses of the
modern nation-state (Sarkar 1999). Peter van der Veer asserts that because
“numbering is an intrinsic part of the modem nation-state,” constructions of
majority and minority groups are centrally implicated in the debates over
conversion (1996: 14).
Conversion to Christianity also threatens the very essence of Hindu na-
tionalist subjectivity,thus prompting the movement to engage in its own form
of conversion, or “re-conversion.” Conversion can be understood as what
Nicholas Dirks calls “the project of translation” (1996: 134) necessary to in-
corporate “others” into the metanarrative of the nation. Dirks contends that
conversion is “a sign of the epistemological violence implied by myriad ef-
forts to know, domesticate, name, claim, and ultimately inhabit ‘the other”’
(1996: 121). Conversion places individuals within a new epistemological uni-
verse, one that requires, as Robert Hefner claims, a “commitment to a new

kind of moral authority and a new or reconceptualized social identity” (1993:
17). Hinduma’s attempts to counteract the actions of missionaries can be un-
derstood as the practice of conversion to “translate” both Hindus and non-
Hindus into a new kind of Hindu nationalist subject.
CONCLUSION
To conclude, Hindu nationalists have protested against conversion and pros-

elytizing, arguing that missionaries either trick innocent Hindus into convert-
ing to Christianity or that they bribe them by offering material remuneration.
Although this may often be the case, I argue here that Hindumu is not above
engaging in these very practices either to prevent people from converting to
Christianity or to incorporate them into the metanarrative of the Hindu nation.
The re-conversion of Christian tribals, their sanskritisation in Hinduma
schools, and the appropriation of Hindus into the “imagined community”
(Anderson 1983) of the Hindu nation through social work or financial help
can be read as the practice of conversion by Hinduma. These practices are
part of a larger process of translation (Dirks 1996: 134), whereby the indi-
vidual is inserted into the hegemonic narrative of the nation. The appropria-
tion of the “other,” the domestication of difference (Dirks 1996: 121), and the
curtailment of defection are all key to understanding the supremacy of Hin-
duma in the cultural and political landscape of India.
The dissonance between Hinduma’s criticism of the conversion practices
of Christian missionaries and their own practices of conversion suggests that
it is not the concept of conversion that is at issue but rather the challenge to
Hindutva, both numerical and semantic, implied by conversion to Christian-
ity. Conversion to Christianity is portrayed as an act that threatens the in-
tegrity, security, and cultural essence of the nation. By vilifying Christians,
Christianity, and Christian missionaries not only as morally suspect but also
as a threat to the sanctity and integrity of the Indian polity, the movement is
able to project its agenda as the moral and patriotic duty of all Indians,
thereby establishing its own legitimacy and mobilizing support for its politi-
cal platform. Conversion is not seen as simply an individual expression of
faith but rather as a political choice that necessarily implicates questions of
national allegiance, patriotism, and cultural determination. Conversion to
Christianity threatens the very raison d’etre of Hindu nationalism: that India
is, and has always been, a Hindu nation in which Hindu values, culture, and
beliefs must be privileged.
Funding for this project was provided by the American Institute for Indian Studies.
I would like to thank Susan Wadley, Ann Gold, John Burdick, Arlene Davila, Sudipta
Sen, Ken Olsen, Mark Hauser, Andrew Buckser, and Stephen Glazier for their sug-
gestions. I have used pseudonyms to protect the identity of my informants.
1. See Times of India, 30 December 1998, 1; and Times of India, 31 December
1998,8.
2. See Times of India, 26 January 1999, 1 1 . For more on the Staines incident, see
Times of India, 25 January 1999, 1 ; Times of India, 25 January 1999, 3; and Indian
Express, 28 February 1999,4.
3. See Times of India, 28 December 1998, 1; and Times of India, 29 December
1998,8.
4. See the description in Hindustan Times, 16 January 1999, 1.
5. Hansen, Saffron Wave, 107.
REFERENCES
Anderson, Benedict. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of

Nationalism. London: Verso, 1983,
“Archbishop Condemns Missionary’s Murder.” Times of India, January 25, 1999,3.
“Attack on 4 More Churches in Gujarat.” Times of India, December 29, 1998,8.
“Attacks on Christians Signals VHP-BJP Rift.” Times of India, December 30,1998,l.
Brass, Paul. The Politics of India since Independence. New York: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 1994.
“Central Team to Submit Report on Dangs Today.” Times of India, December 3 1,
1998,8.
“Dangs Tribals Snared in Communal Tussle.” Times of India, December 31, 1998,8.
Dempsey, Corinne. Kerala Christian Sainthood: Collisions of Culture and Worldview
in South India. New York: Oxford University Press, 200 1 .
Dirks, Nicholas B. “The Conversion of Caste: Location, Translation, and Appropria-
tion.” In Conversion to Modernities: The Globalisation of Christianity, edited by
Peter van der Veer, pp. 115-36. New York: Routledge, 1996.
“Four Missionaries Attacked in Allahabad.” Times of India, January 26, 1999, 1 1 .
Gupta, Akhil, and Ferguson, James. “Beyond Culture, Space, Identity and the Politics
of Difference.” Cultural Anthropology 7, no. 1 (1992): 6-24.
Hansen, Thomas Bloom. The Saffron Wave: Democracy and Hindu Nationalism in
Modern India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. 1999.
Hefner, Robert W. “Introduction: World Building and the Rationality of Conversion.”
In Conversion to Christianity: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives on a
Great Transformation, edited by Robert W. Hefner, pp. 3-44. Berkeley: University
of California Press. 1993.
Hindustan Times, 16 January 1999, 1 .
Indian Express, 28 February 1999,4.

Jaffrelot, Christophe. Hindu Nationalist Movement and Indian Politics: 1925 to the
1990s. New Delhi: Penguin Books India, 1999.
“Killings a Monumental Aberration.” Times of India, January 25, 1999, 1.
Madan, T.N. Modern Myths, Locked Minds: Secularism and Fundamentalism in In-
dia. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996.
“More Attacks of Churches, Schools in Gujarat.” Times of India, December 28,
1998, 1.
Philip, A. J. “The Missionary and the Paranoid: Who’s Afraid of Conversion?“ Indian
Express, 12 January 1999,8.
Sarkar,Sumit. “Conversions and Politics of the Hindu Right.” Economic and Politi-
cal Weekly 34, no. 26 (June 26, 1999): www.epw.org.in/showArticles.php?root=
1999&leaf=06&filenarne=2763&filetype=html.
Snnivas, M. N. Religion and Society among the Coorgs of South India. London: Asia
Publishing House, 1952.
Swedenburg,Ted. Memories of Revolt: The 1936-1939 Rebellion and the Palestinian
National Past. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995.
Van der Veer, Peter. “Introduction.” In Conversion to Modernities: The Globalisation
of Christianity, edited by Peter van der Veer, pp. 1-21. New York: Routledge. 1996.
Yuval-Davis, N., and Anthias, F. Woman-Nation-State. New York MacMillan. 1989.
r
Comparing Conversions
among the Dani of lrian Jaya
Charles E. Farhadian
T h i s chapter compares two types of conversion: the first a conversion from

a local religion to Christianity, and the second a conversion from a Western
missionary understanding of Christianity to a reformulation of Christianity
using putatively Melanesian categories. The social context of the first con-
version is the Dani upland located in the district of Jayawijaya, which is in
the central mountains of Irian Jaya. The second social context is the metro-
politan center of Jayapura, which is located on the north coast of the island.
THE FIRST CONVERSION: HIGHLAND DAN1
Evangelical Protestant missionary endeavors in Irian Jaya (West Papua) were

permeated by a deeply felt spiritual vision about humanity and its purpose
within the created order and heavenly realm. In Kenelm Burridge’s words, the
goal of missionaries “to build a Christian community in a virgin field never
was simply a social or personal challenge and adventure but a divine instruc-
tion, why they were born.”’ Evangelical missionaries in Irian Jaya were ex-
plicit about their desire to work for the evangelization of the world as a pre-
cursor to Christ’s Second Coming. Early missionary endeavors were
motivated by a spiritual vision to tell Dani that Jesus “shall save you from
your sins.”2 Great emphasis was placed on telling the story of the gospel in
order to invite hearers to join Christians on a journey toward heaven.
For the Dani, Western mission activities encompassed much more than a
single communicative act of proclaiming the gospel. As one college-educated
urban Dani put it to me, “The missionaries built up their evangelism post by
bartering salt and steel axes and shovels. By that way, the missionaries
55
56 Charles E. Farhadian
brought the gospel.” Christian and Missionary Alliance (CMA) missionaries

went to Irian Jaya to share a spiritual gospel unencumbered by worldly en-
trapments, but they were seen as possessing unbelievable material wealth.
Nearly every early contact story features an instance in which gifts of food
and tools were given by the missionary to the local group. Gifts were often a
crucial medium of contact.
As missionaries built airstrips and received copious goods delivered by
Mission Aviation Fellowship (MAF) Cessnas and helicopters, Dani associ-
ated material blessings with Christian missions. From the missionary per-
spective, all contact materials such as salt, planes, and airstrips were a means
to attain one goal: the religious conversion of the Dani. From the perspective
of the Dani, however, material contact was inseparable from the message of
the newcomers. Displays of material wealth shored up the potency of the mis-
sionaries’ spiritual message.
A significant outcome of missionary contact with the highland Dani was
the demise of the traditional warfare and the concomitant celebration of peace
between formerly warring clans. Discussions were initiated among Dani
leaders concerning the benefits of accepting the new knowledge. Occasion-
ally, Christianity’s reception was backed directly by village big men who rep-
rimanded those unwilling to convert.
It should be noted that although thousands of Dani identified with Chris-
tianity, there were also resistance movements that were often led by powerful
chiefs. Moreover, conversion to Christianity challenged the authority of tra-
ditional systems of magic, attempting to displace magic with a commitment
to Christ. Official missionary reports suggest that “if a group resists the
Gospel, they should be roughed up, and they will then ‘find their hearts’ and
embrace the Gospel . . . several of our people were killed.”3
Constructing the New Jerusalem

Driven by an urgency to share the gospel in the Dani vernacular, early mis-
sionaries became students of local languages and cultures. Myron Bromley
and Gordon Larson, missionaries with the CMA, began evangelizing along
the eastern and western borders of Daniland, respectively. Translation of the
Bible into local languages, medical care, education, and literacy were geared
toward getting the evangelized ready for the modern world! Dani expecta-
tions of a better world burgeoned as a new world was literally constructed in
their presence.
Bodily habits and practices were modified through missionary influence;
for example, upland Dani began cutting their long hair and washing with
soap. Missionary-initiated health clinics administered medicines that are
Comparing Conversions among the Dani of Irian Jaya 57
mentioned prominently in early conversion narratives. Like Western material

goods, the efficacy of Western medicine was interpreted as a potent symbol
of the power of the Western missionaries’ God.
The initial conversion of highland Dani to Christianity is recorded in the
anthropological literature as well as in missionary accounts. The Highland
Dani interpreted mission Christianity in terms of their own concept of
nubelan kubelun, a concept of salvation that is shared by small-scale commu-
nities throughout the highlands. Nubelun kubelun describes a quality of life in
which death and mourning cease. It is a state where Dani experience the re-
unification with their dead ancestors and a return to life as it had been lived
in the past? Nubelun kubelun was an abstract ideal, but it was measured con-
cretely through an increase in food supply, betterment of health, and general
prosperity. Highland Dani interpreted mission Christianity as a fulfillment of
nubelun kubelun because missionaries emphasized that converts would re-
ceive eternal life and abundance if they accepted the message of the gospel.
According to a Dani informant, one reason for large-scale conversions to
Christianity was the belief that nubelan kubelun had arrived on Earth in the
message and persons of the missionaries. For some, the missionaries were
closely associated with God; this association legitimated their call for change,
even in the most mundane aspects of life. One missionary report reads, “The
missionary is the mouthpiece of God; therefore this is a command from Him!
Failure to build the little house [i.e., toilet house] behind the village will call
forth the anger of God.”6
Natives believed that accepting the message of the gospel was tantamount
to receiving eternal life on Earth. It was a guarantee that their skin would be
regenerated, disease would end, and their fields would yield large and plen-
teous sweet potatoes. Accompanying missionaries were material goods that
the Dani saw as evidence of having entered the time of nubelan kubelun. A
Papuan leader put it to me this way: “For our people, the very presence of the
missionaries, the airplanes, which they had never seen, the clothes, even their
bodies were part of [salvation]. Everything was new. . . . Why not accept it?’
The Burning Movement

The Dani responded to invitations to become Christians with large-scale con-
versions and spontaneous “burning movements” in which, in the words of
missionaries, ancestor charms and weapons of war were burned, signifying
that the Dani were going to follow “the Jesus way.” These burnings occurred
in most highland Papuan communities. Participants, numbering in the tens of
thousands, believed that the end of the world was near and that soon Jesus
was going to return.
Western missionaries and local Dani perceived each other through onto-
genic categories. Some missionaries, who had been trained in evolutionary
anthropology, saw the Dani as uncivilized. The Dani saw missionaries as
ghosts and ancestors. Each, therefore, questioned the humanity of the other.
Conversion to Christianity contributed significantly to social tensions among
the Dani. The first generation of Dani Christians assumed that a state of hu-
man perfection and fulfillment would immediately follow their conversion,
but death, disease, and other marks of human finitude persisted. Missionary
Christianity introduced a new system of knowledge and morality based on
biblical passages, church authority, and peculiar evangelical convictions con-
cerning human beings, sin, and salvation.
The Christian message was not universally accepted within highland com-
munities, but it engendered a large-scale, interregional community who
shared a common hope that nabelan kabelan had indeed arrived. The unify-
ing power of this shared vision enabled local communities that were once
primarily self-sufficientto become subject to a similar transethnic confidence.
THE SECOND CONVERSION: A SUBJUGATEDPEOPLE
The second Dani conversion occurred within the context of metropolitan

Jayapura during the late New Order regime. It represented a conversion from
a privatized form of religion to a view of religion that sought active engage-
ment in the public sphere. Established by President Suharto in 1966, the New
Order regime implemented an aggressive development scheme coupled with
policies designed to bring about economic stability. But the New Order’s vi-
sion of a unitary nation-state resulted in numerous human rights violations
against the Dani, as well as a massive military presence in metropolitan cen-
ters of Irian Jaya. The province resembled an occupied territory.
The Indonesian military’s “integrative political power”’ directly promoted
its vision of a New Society through direct (and often harsh) execution of the
national ideals of the Pancasila and the 1945 Constitution. For most of the
New Order regime, the dual function (dwifungsi)of the military establish-
ment, whereby “Indonesian armed forces have permanent responsibilities in
the fields both of national security and of social-political-economicdevelop-
ment” dominated the sociopolitical landscape of the entire archipelago? This
symbolized both the unity of a national vision and the growth of a state ap-
paratus that announced and maintained the New Society.
Given that the military was deeply embedded in civilian life, it was
the most prominent image of Indonesian national unity in Irian Jaya?
Papuans were frequent victims of human rights violations perpetrated by In-
donesian armed forces. Their sejarah sunyi (silent history)l0 deeply impacted
their self-understandings and visions of the future. But Dani fear was
shrouded in a cloak of silence. Many Dani preferred to live with trauma rather
than die at the hands of the Indonesian armed forces. They seldom told their
stories publicly.
During the New Order regime, stories of trauma were often confined to in-
dividual families and communities. They lacked a common institutional ap-
paratus or written articulation that would have served to notify distant tribes
of each other’s shared suffering. The Dani remained sequestered in their per-
sonal lives. During pastoral visits to the districts of Jayawijaya and Paniai in
the mid-l990s, a Dutch Roman Catholic priest used the term sejarah sunyi
(silent history) to describe to me the trauma experienced by people in these
regions. He claimed that during pastoral visits he heard comments like, “This
is where my husband was taken away and they tortured him over there,” “My
father died there, by that tree,” and “This is where I was raped.” These stories
were not included in official textbooks but were carried in people’s minds and
often inscribed on their bodies.
THE BISHOP’S REPORT
On August 3, 1995, Bishop H. F. M. Munninghoff, OFM, of the Roman

Catholic Diocese of Jayapura, released a summary report, Violations of Hu-
man Rights in the Timika Area of Irian Jaya, Indonesia: A Report by the
Catholic Church of Juyapura. Munninghoff’s report eventually led to a con-
scientization of diverse Papuan groups throughout the province. The report
detailed executions, murders, disappearances, arbitrary arrests, detentions,
tortures, surveillance, and destruction of property, and it provided specific
names, dates, and surrounding events of human rights violations. Some abuses
were perpetrated on those who were considered supporters of raising the
Morning Star (Bintang Kejora) flag -a sign of Papuan political independence.
Others were brutalized for unsubstantiated suspicions of having had connec-
tions with the Operasi Papua Merdeka (Free Papua Movement, or OPM).I’
It is significant that stories of abuse and intimidation came from members
of both Roman Catholic and Evangelical churches (i.e., GKII) and brought to
light the experiences of various Papuan groups (e.g., Amungme, Dani, Me, and
Damal).12In addition to Bishop Munninghoff’s report, the Conciliar Protestant
church (Gereja Kristen Injili, or GKI) produced a report chronicling Irian
Jaya’s thirty years under Indonesian rule . I 3 Both reports were written origi-
nally in Bahasa, Indonesia. In early August 1995, Bishop Munninghoff sent his
report via the Indonesian Bishops’ Conference to the Indonesian National
Commission for Human Rights. The report was later obtained by various non-
governmental human rights organizations (e.g ., Human Rights Watch), and it
was posted on the Internet. Australia used the document to challenge Indone-
sia’s earlier reports denying human rights violations. When Papuans read
Bishop Munninghoff and the GKI’s reports on the experience of living under
Indonesia, a new awareness and solidarity among Papuans developed.
The Rise of “Papuanness”

In the late 1990s, the term “Papuan” was reintroduced into the public dis-
course. Reports from the Roman Catholic and GKI churches gave disparate
Papuan groups awareness of their common predicament. As some put it,
learning of Bishop Munninghoff’s report made all Papuans of “one heart.”
Their common experience in suffering fostered a construction of Papuan
identity and transtribal commonality that spanned beyond highland commu-
nities. A revalorized concept of “Papuanness” began to overcome the pejora-
tive and humiliating connotations formerly attached to the term: uncivilized,
“cultureless,” black natives. With the distribution of missionary reports, peo-
ple began to feel that, in the words of one of my highland informants,
We’re just like others . . . they’ve been killing us all these years, but we’ve been
silent. We thought this is how we are supposed to live. Then, this report changed
things. If we open up ourselves, putting these issues on the table and making a
good report, then there will be people who will listen to us and help us. . . . Yes,
it’s all of us. We’ve all been affected. Yes, they’ve been doing that among the
Amungme and Dani, but they’ve also been doing that to us too.
Various tribal groups recognized their own stories reflected in ecclesial re-
ports. Even the methods of torture and intimidation seemed similar.The expe-
rience of “unity in suffering” led to a widespread new feeling of Papuanness.
This concept became the vehicle for a reconfigured Dani self-understanding.
An Absence of Outlets
Even after human rights violations became widely known, there was no in-
stitution to address Papuan discontent. The GKII’s evangelical tradition,
which focused primarily on doctrinal matters and church growth, categori-
cally disallowed political involvement. Based on their reading of Romans 13,
evangelical missionaries frequently argued for the support of government au-
thorities. Church elites justified themselves by appealing to evangelical mis-
sion theology and policies that had been introduced by Western missionaries,
allowing little room for new expressions of Christian faith or the voices of the
afflicted. Moreover, the New Order regime provided no institutional outlet for
the distressed in Irian Jaya, and Papuans held the government responsible for
oppressive measures and corruption. The Dani traditionally dealt with suffer-
ing through religious means, using the ritual of pig sacrifice. Within this tra-
dition, suffering and sickness were believed to have a prior cause, stemming
from problems with relations with humans, spirits, or the environment.
The Repoliticization of Private Spheres

With no institutional channels available for expressing Papuan discontent, a
new discourse of action arose in the late New Order period that repoliticized
private spheres. Raising of the Morning Star flag, for example, a putatively
Papuan cultural symbol of political independence, became a public form of
resistance that occurred frequently throughout the province. Protest and re-
sistance had long been a part of the Papuan response to foreign domination,
going back to the Dutch occupation.14What is most significant in the late
New Order and post-New Order periods is the degree to which resistance
consisted of multi-Papuan voices and the emergence of an inchoate institu-
tional apparatus to channel Papuan political aspirations. Increasingly, high-
land Dani hopes for human fulfillment were subsumed within a larger pan-
Papuan vision that came to define Dani resistance and protest. The social
carriers of this vision of political independence were Papuan intellectuals
(i.e., educators, pastors, and government employees) who advocated a new -
and distinctly Papuan-vision of the future.
“Onward Christian Soldiers”

Songs of protest were a particularly poignant example of how conversion to
Christianity bolstered identity conservation and political aspirations. The
performative structure15 of Papuan discourse is a result of an encounter
among Papuan cultural logic, Malay pendatang (outsiders, non-Papuans),
and the culture of Western missionaries. Public displays of resistance and
the choruses of chants and songs functioned as a counter-statement to the at-
tempted colonization of Papuan identity. In the late and post-New Order pe-
riod, for example, urban Dani students gathered in public places to protest
against human rights violations. This was a different approach from the
small-scale guerrilla activities of the OPM, whose tactics involved raiding
transmigration villages, attacking mining facilities, and kidnapping people.
The hymn “Onward Christian Soldiers” (Maju Laskar Kristus) was adopted
by Dani protestors and recast as a vehicle for the insertion of Papuan polit-
ical will, thereby casting a political message in religious terms. Beginning
in the late 1980s and early 1990s, diverse Papuan groups adopted “Onward
Christian Soldiers” as a rallying cry.
The hymn was so closely associated with political independence that it was
no longer sung in some churches; when the predominately American evan-
gelical community of the mission station called Pos 7 sang “Onward Chris-
tian Soldiers,” its members stressed that the words expressed highly spiritu-
alized sentiments-the fight was between God and Satan, good and evil, not
between “flesh and blood.” Among Papuans, however, the social use of this
hymn was infused with political meaning. What was axiomatic for Papuans
was not so much church performances as public performances. Following tra-
ditional Dani practice, religion becomes authentic by performance. There
were few common non-Christian songs, apart from Indonesian nationalistic
ones. Many third- and fourth-generation Dani Christians protested. In Jaya-
pura, the voices of highland Christian Dani, whose conversion dated only to
the 1960s, merged with that of coastal Papuans, whose conversion to Chris-
tianity dated back more than a hundred years. They formed a unified Papuan
awareness. “Onward Christian Soldiers” provided a new language for the
Dani. Using it in public protest suggested that Christian language could be
used as a cultural vehicle to communicate Papuan frustration. Protesters sang
“Onward Christian Soldiers” while they marched, making it difficult to dis-
tinguish between verbal and physical modes of protest.
An example of how songs were utilized occurred in 1989, when a large
garden was being organized by Papuans to commemorate the Morning Star
flag raising by Kotowangai a year earlier. People came from all over the dis-
trict of Jayapura. One of my informants remembered that the police stopped
traffic in Kota Raja, a small town east of Jayapura. All pendurung were al-
lowed to proceed through to Jayapura, but all Papuans were instructed to stop
and turn around. The police determined whom to stop on purely racial
grounds, based on skin color and hair type (brown or black skin, curly or
straight hair). My informant continued,
We couldn’t go through. So, the Papuans started singing, “Onward Christian

Soldiers.’’ This helped people realize that they were different from the pen-
datang, the Indonesians, and a feeling of “we-ness” was created.
THE DEPRIVATIZATION OF CHRISTIANITY
Since the demise of the New Order regime, Dani conversion to Christianity
has become more public. It became “deprivatized.” Christianity in the 1990s
was no longer contained within a particular ecclesiastical structure. Rather,
conversion to Christianity led to a reconfiguring of Papuan identity. This re-

configuration was at once discontinuous and continuous with Papuan tradi-
tions. It was continuous because conversion to Christianity entailed a partial
fulfillment of Papuan religious yearnings. It was discontinuous with Papuan
religious traditions because it introduced a standardized scripture, the Bible,
which was seen as the final authority on all matters ranging from personal
ethics to political theory. The “Word” became an authority that transcended
the authority of local tribal chiefs, government officials, and Western mis-
sionaries. In that process, new voices arose, articulating and challenging the
notion that what were at odds were not sectarian truths, but public truths.16
Christianity as a force for social change and a new vision of hope combined
with Papuan traditional religion, and religious truths, which could not help
but be public and performative, became real. Papuans accepted missionary
pronouncements about heaven and eternal life, but did not accept the Carte-
sian split inherent in post-Enlightenment Western epistemology.
COMPARING CONVERSIONS AMONG THE DANI:

THE OBJECTIFICATIONOF CULTURE
The first conversion introduced a transtribal, transcendent authority and

new social structure among a previously disparate highland people. Tradi-
tional boundaries once supported by alliances and kinship patterns gave
way to religiously based identities. This created greater social cohesion and
social divisions (see Hayward, 1997). A distinct transtribal church emerged
from readjustments of social and religious boundaries. Church dioceses
were initially formed by faith missions according to their comity agree-
ments rather than along confederacy lines, which frequently necessitated
holding a series of peace treaties among warring tribes prior to a diocese’s
establishment . I 7
The second conversion was characterized by moving from Western
mission-highly privatized-understandings of Christianity to a view
marked by a pragmatic Melanesian notion of public performance. In the late
and post-New Order periods, Christianity among the Dani and other
Papuans provided a robust vocabulary of democratic idioms that could be
injected easily into the public sphere. An irony is that the public use of re-
ligion was discouraged by the very persons who had introduced Christian-
ity to the Dani. Political intervention was rejected by Western evangelical
mission officials who characterized public engagement as “worldly.” Yet
the publicness, that is, the performative structure, of Dani religiosity invig-
orated Dani cultural confidence.
Stimulating Reflexivity
On the heels of Western missions, a new discourse within the Dani commu-
nity emerged. On the one hand, it threatened the persistence of traditional au-
thority structures and cosmologies. On the other hand, it provided answers to
the Dani longing for eternal life, human fulfillment, and hope for a better
world. Although not wholly determinative, there are connections between
Dani religious conversion and social change. Mission Christianity influenced
traditional Dani lifeways by its “deroutinization” of existing practices. It
placed traditional practices within a larger social and religious universe and
enabled its content to act upon those practices in a way that was at once con-
tinuous and discontinuous with Dani desideration. Dani reflexivity centered
on an analysis of the validity of mission Christianity and its promises within
the local context. The concept of nubelan kubelun, reconfigured along the
lines of biblical affirmations, served as a channel to articulate an alternate vi-
sion and provided a medium in which to channel Dani political aspirations.
In its uneven appropriation mission, Christianity grew to be a significant
boundary marker between those inside and outside the faith (see Buckser,
chapter 6). Yet for the majority of Dani, Christianity was an appealing alter-
native to previous ways. Much like the medieval church, the mission church
in the Dani highlands provided a host of human services beyond simply
preaching. It advanced a unified vision of social advancement that integrated
physical, intellectual, and spiritual ministries, and it did so with surprising
success given the relative paucity of Western missionaries.
Conversion to Christianity required membership in a new organization with
new rules and social expectations. It was often precipitated by contact mate-
rials (e.g., salt, clothes, food, gramophones, airplanes, and airstrips), use of
missionary high status within the village, healthcare, education, and literacy.
Sunday became a day of rest, and virtually all villagers attended church ser-
vices that closely followed an evangelical Protestant model. Monday through
Saturday were days for work and school. Numerous Dani cultural particular-
ities-such as polygamy, men’s long hair, greasing with pig fat, finger cutting,
bride price, and pig sacrifice-were discouraged because they were part of the
“former life,” while idioms reflecting the new creation were introduced.
Western missionaries offered a highly rationalized religious perspective,
reflecting established theological emphases within American evangelicalism
and as well as ushering in incipient modem conditions. They introduced
“standardized, literacy and education-based systems of communication.”18
They pioneered the standardization, dissemination, and “rationalization” of
mission Christianity as well as other spheres of life through record keeping.
They introduced modern economic social conditions by stipulating that ac-
cess to education required payment of either cowry shells or national cur-

rency. In addition, Western missionaries supplied a “readily accessible reser-
voir of meanings” through the process of religious rationalization.I9
Papuans sought to use the Bible not just as a spiritual guide but for their
whole lives. Religious truths incarnated in Melanesian lives could not help
but be public, made real by performance. As noted, Papuans received the
Word about heaven and eternal life, but not the Cartesian split inherent in
post-Enlightenment Western epistemology. Whereas Western Evangelical
mission theology highlighted personal transformation stemming from a per-
sonal relationship with Jesus, Papuan Christians emphasized Jesus’ religious
pragmatism in feeding the multitudes, healing the sick, and turning the tables
in the temple. This same religiosity would animate their public use of Chris-
tianity. In the case of Papuan Christians of Irian Jaya, conversion to Chnstianity
led them to challenge the very moral foundations of the New Society that was
being formed by Indonesian political authorities.
NOTES
1. Kenelm Burridge, In the Way: A Study of Christian Missionary Endeavors

(Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1991), 240.
2. Russell T. Hitt, Cannibal Valley (New York: Harper and Row, 1962), 14.
3. James Sunda and Doloras Sunda, “Conference Report of Pyramid Station,”
unpublished manuscript, 1964,3.
4. Frank L. Cooley, Indonesia: Church and Society (New York: Friendship Press,
1968), 61.
5. See Douglas Hayward, “Time and Society in Dani Culture,” IRIAN: Bulletin of
Irian Jaya 11, nos. 2-3 (June and October 1983): 42; Jan A. Godschalk, “Cargoism
and Development among the Western Dani,” paper presented at the Seminar on De-
velopment in Irian Jaya and Research of Indonesian East Section 11, Jayapura; Uni-
versitas Cenderawasih, Jayapura, Irian Jaya, 1988,2-5; and Jan A. Godschalk, “How
Are Myth and Movement Related?’ in Point Series 2 , ed. Wendy Flannery (Goroka,
Papua New Guinea: Melanesian Institute, 1983), 68-69.
6. James Sunda, “Your Skin My Skin: A Quest for Eternal Life,” unpublished man-
uscript, 62.
7. Christine Drake, National Integration in Indonesia (Honolulu: University of
Hawaii, 1989), 53.
8. Benedict Anderson, Language and Power: Exploring Political Cultures in In-
donesia (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1990), 115.
9. See Christine Drake, National Integration in Indonesia (Honolulu: University of
Hawaii, 1989); and Adam Schwarz, A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s
(Boulder, Colo.: HarperCollins).
10. J. Budi Hernawan, OFM, and The0 van den Broek, OFM, “Dialog Nasional
Papua, Sebuah Kisah ‘Memoria Passionis,”’ Efa Irian (week three, March 1999): 8.
1 1 . Operasi Papua Merdeka (Free Papua Movement) is the pan-Papuan indigenous
independence movement of Irian Jaya.
12. GKII, or Gereja Kemah Injil Indonesia (Evangelical Tabernacle Church of In-
donesia); also known as KINGMI.
13. Gereja Kristen Injili, “Irian Jaya Menjelang 30 Tahun Kembali ki Negara Ke-
satuan Republik Indonesia. Untuk Keadilan dan Perdamaian. Laporan Disampaikan
kepada MPH-PGI dari GKI di Irian Jaya” (Jayapura, Irian Jaya, April 1992).
14. See Nonie Sharp, The Rule of the Sword: The Story of West Irian (Malmsbury,
Victoria, Australia: Kibble Books in association with Arena, 1977).
15. See Marshall Sahlins, Islands of History (Chicago: The University of Chicago
Press, 1985).
16. See George Weigel, “Roman Catholicism in the Age of John Paul 11,” in The
Desecularization of the World: Resurgent Religion and World Politics, ed. Peter
Berger (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1999).25.
17. Douglas Hayward, Vernacular Christianity among the Mulia Dani: An Ethnog-
raphy of Religious Belief among the Westem Dani of Irian Jaya, Indonesia (New
York: American Society of Missiology and University Press of America, 1997), 94.
18. Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University
Press, 1983), 54.
19. Robert W. Hefner, “World Building and the Rationality of Conversion,” in
Conversion to Christianity: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives on a Great
Transformation, ed. Robert W. Hefner (Berkeley: University of California Press,
1993), 18.
REFERENCES
Anderson, Benedict. Language and Power: Exploring Political Cultures in Indonesia.

Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1990.
-. Imagined Communities. New York: Verso, 1998.
Berger, Peter, Brigitte Berger, and Hansfried Kellner. The Homeless Mind: Modem-
ization and Consciousness. New York: Vintage Books, 1974.
Boland, B. J. The Struggle of Islam in Modern Indonesia. The Hague: Martinus Ni-
jhoff, 1982.
Bromley, Myron. The Grammar of Lower Grand Valley Dani in Discourse Perspec-
tive. Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1972.
Bumdge, Kenelm. Mambu: A Study of Melanesian Cargo Movements and Their So-
cial and Ideological Background. New York: Harper & Row, 1960.
Casanova, Jose. Public Religions in the Modem World. Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press, 1994.
Cooley, Frank L. Indonesia: Church and Society. New York: Friendship Press, 1968.
Drake, Christine. National Integration in Indonesia. Honolulu: University of Hawaii
Press, 1989.
Comparing Conversionsamong the Dani of Irian Jaya 67
Gellner, Ernest. Nations and Nationalism. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press,
1983.
Gereja Kristen Injili. Irian Jaya Menjelang 30 Tahun Kembali ke Negara Kesatuan
Republik Indonesia. Untuk Keadilan dun Perdamaian. Laporan Disampaikan
kepada MPH-PGI dari GKI di Irian Jaya. Jayapura, Irian Jaya, April 1992.
Godschalk, Jan A. “Cargoism and Development among the Western Dani, Irian Jaya
Seminar. Maklah Seminar Pembangunan Irian Jaya dan Penelitian Indonesia
Bagian Timur 11” [Working Paper for the Seminar on Development in Irian Jaya
and Research of Indonesian East Section 11, Jayapura] . Universitas Cenderawasih,
Jayapura, Irian Jaya, 1988.
-.“How Are Myth and Movement Related?” In Religious Movements in Melane-
sia Today, edited by Wendy Flannery, pp. 62-77. Goroka, Papua New Guinea:
Melanesian Institute, 1983.
Hayward, Douglas. Vernacular Christianity among the Mulia Dani: An Ethnography
of Religious Belief among the Western Dani of Irian Jaya, Indonesia. New York:
American Society of Missiology and University Press of America, 1997.
-. “Time and Society in Dani Culture.” IRIAN: Bulletin of Irian Jaya 11, no. 2-3
(June and October 1983): 31-55.
Hefner, Robert W. “World Building and the Rationality of Conversion.” In Conver-
sion to Christianity: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives on a Great Trans-
formation, edited by Robert W. Hefner, pp. 3 4 . Berkeley: University of Califor-
nia Press, 1993.
Heider, Karl G. The Dugum Dani: A Papuan Culture in the Highlands of West New
Guinea. Chicago: Aldine, 1970.
Hernawan J. Budi, OFM, and The0 van den Broek, O W . “Dialog Nasional Papua,
Sebuah Kisah ‘Memoria Passionis.’” T f a Irian (week three, March 1999): 8.
Hitt, Russell T. Cannibal Valley. New York: Harper and Row, 1962.
Hoskins, Janet. “Entering the Bitter House: Spirit Worship and Conversion in West
Sumba.” In Indonesian Religions in Transition, edited by Rita Smith Kipp and Su-
san Rodgers, pp. 136-60. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1987.
Hutchison, William R. Errand to the World: American Protestant Thought and For-
eign Mission. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987.
Keyes, Charles F., Helen Hardacre, and Laurel Kendall. “Contested Visions of Com-
munity in East and Southeast Asia.” In Asian Visions of Authority: Religion and the
Modern Societies of East and Southeast Asia, edited by Charles Keyes, Helen
Hardacre, and Laurel Kendall, pp. 1-16. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press,
1994.
Kipp, Rita S. Dissociated Identities: Ethnicity, Religion, and Class in an Indonesian
Society. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1996.
Lijphart, Arend. The Trauma of Decolonization: The Dutch and West New Guinea.
Yale Studies in Political Science, vol. 17. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University
Press, 1966.
Linnekin, Jocelyn, and Lin Poyer. “Introduction.” In Cultural Identity and Ethnicity
in the Pacijic, edited by Jocelyn Linnekin and Lin Poyer, pp. 1-16. Honolulu: Uni-
versity of Hawaii Press, 1990.
Martin, David. Tongues of Fire: The Explosion of Protestantism in Latin America. Ox-
ford Blackwell, 1990.
Munninghoff, H. F. M., OFM. Violations of Human Rights in the Timika Area of Irian
Jaya, Indonesia: A Report by the Catholic Church of Jayapura. Report 6. Irian
Jaya, Indonesia: The Diocese of Jayapura, August 1995. Available at
www.cs .utexas.edu/usersiboyer/fp/bishop-irian-jaya.
Osborne, Robin. Indonesia’s Secret War: The Guerilla Struggle in Irian Jaya. Boston:
Allen & Unwin, 1985.
Sahlins, Marshall. Islands of History. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press,
1985.
Sanneh, Lamin. Translating the Message: The Missionaly Impact on Culture. New
York: Orbis Press, 1989.
Schwarz, Adam. A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s. Boulder, Colo.: Harper-
Collins, 1994.
Start, Daniel. The Open Cage: Murder and Survival in the Jungles of Irian Jaya. Lon-
don: HarperCollins, 1997.
Weigel, George. “Roman Catholicism in the age of John Paul 11.” In The Desecular-
ization of the World: Resurgent Religion and World Politics, edited by Peter Berger,
pp. 19-35. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1999.
6
Social Conversion and Group
Definition in Jewish Copenhagen
Andrew Buckser
Studies of religious conversion have often focused on conversion’s experi-

ential dimensions. Scholars have produced rich analyses of what goes on in
the minds of converts (e.g., James 1929; Lofland and Stark 1965; Rambo
1993; Snow and Phillips 1980), as well as of the social texts and circum-
stances that shape the conversion process (e.g., Cohen 1986; Finn 1997;
Hefner 1993;Whitehead 1987). Much less has been said about conversion as
a social event, a phenomenon with meanings and consequences for the social
groups within which they occur. Conversion to a religion is an irreducibly so-
cial act; one does not merely join a faith, but one enters into a set of new re-
lationships with members of a religious community. Conversion, therefore,
changes not only the individual, but also the groups that must assimilate or
give up the convert. In addition, it raises a set of questions that the commu-
nities must address-how to socialize the new convert, how to establish the
authenticity of conversion, which internal factions the new convert will sup-
port or undermine, and so on. Answers to these questions affect the internal
politics, social organization, and self-understanding of religious groups.
These social dimensions of conversion have not been a focus of anthropolog-
ical research (though see Hefner 1993: 27-31; Viswanathan 1998).
Some of the most sensitive questions surrounding conversion relate to def-
initions of religious community. Conversion suggests ideas about the nature
of group and other, and especially about the boundaries between the two. For
groups assimilating converts, therefore, conversion creates an occasion for
debating and negotiating the contours of community. Even in relatively co-
hesive groups, differences exist on such issues, and these oppositions affect
attitudes toward taking in new members. Conversion is not merely a site of
celebration and a reinforcement of group beliefs, but also a site of conflict,
69
I0 Andrew Buckser
a point at which competing notions of group and other directly confront one
another. In groups for which boundaries are highly contested, where factions
have deep and enduring antagonisms over what the group should be and
whom it should include, conversion can become one of the most inflamma-
tory and divisive moments in community life. The intensity of conflict will be
greater, and the position of the convert more fraught, the more disagreement
and ambivalence attend the definition of the group’s nature and boundaries
(cf. Barth 1969; Cohen 1985).
This chapter looks at these dynamics in a group for which the nature of
community is highly contested and in which conversion is a site of continual
dispute and political tension: the Jewish community of Copenhagen, Den-
mark, where I have conducted fieldwork since 1996. Within this group, the
vast majority of conversions are social conversions, stemming in one way or
another from mixed marriages. The experiences of those of who seek to con-
vert to Judaism become points of conflict over the nature of Jewish commu-
nity, authority, and religiosity. This conflict makes conversion one of the most
explosive issues in congregational politics, and it subjects those who have
gone through it to ongoing suspicion and scrutiny. This chapter discusses the
forms these conflicts take, and it suggests some implications for our under-
standing of the social aspects of conversion more generally.
BACKGROUND
The Jews of Copenhagen comprise the oldest and best-established minority

group in the small Scandinavian nation of Denmark.’ The community dates
back to the early seventeenth century, when Jewish merchants from Germany
and Holland first began settling in the capital. Isolated and alien in its early
years, the community began to integrate with the larger society around 1800,
and its members achieved full citizenship in 1814. In the years since, Copen-
hagen’s Jews have created a substantial institutional and cultural tradition in
the city. Their institutions include a stately synagogue in the center of town,
a large administration building near Christiansborg Palace, an active Jewish
school, and such institutional adjuncts as day care centers, kosher deli-
catessens, alternative synagogues, and a museum. Jews also operate a wide
variety of voluntary associations, including cultural societies, journals, social
clubs, Zionist associations, musical societies, and youth groups. The size of
the community has varied over the decades, hovering between 5,000 and
7,000 for much of the twentieth century; membership has fallen in recent
years, but the group still represents one of the most active and engaged reli-
gious groups in contemporary Scandinavia.
Social Conversion and Group Definition in Jewish Copenhagen 71
Most of this activity falls under the authority of a single official organiza-
tion, the Jewish Community of Copenhagen (Det Mosaiske Troessamfund, or
MT). The MT owns and operates the main synagogue, as well as most of the
other Jewish institutions in the city. It also funds and provides offices for
most of the Jewish voluntary associations. The MT bills itself as an inclusive
organization, a “unity congregation,” and it tries as far as possible to include
all Jews within its borders. Doing so can be difficult; the Jewish community
in Copenhagen is deeply fragmented, and factions built around religious and
social differences have existed since its inception. Some of these differences
derive from the waves of immigration that have brought Jews to Denmark
over the centuries, as newly arriving groups have found themselves at odds
with the established communities. Other differences relate to disagreements
over ritual practice, with an Orthodox minority struggling bitterly with the
more religiously liberal majority. Still others derive from arguments over the
meaning of “Jewishness,” language, the community’s relationship to Israel,
issues in Danish politics, and a host of other issues. Such divisions color al-
most all Jewish activity in Copenhagen, including the politics and adminis-
tration of the MT itself. The MT has endured nonetheless, in large part due
to its flexible approach to defining Jewish activity and practice. It funds
groups with very different outlooks on Judaism, and it allows any Jewish
resident of Denmark to join or run for office. Likewise, it maintains strictly
Orthodox ritual practice within the synagogue, for the stated purpose of al-
lowing members of all branches of Judaism to participate. As a result, al-
though not all Danish Jews belong to the MT, none dispute its centrality to
Jewish life in the city.
One distinctive feature of the Jewish world in Denmark is its deep engage-
ment with the surrounding culture. Danish Jews encounter very few barriers
to full participation in the larger society; the anti-Semitism so endemic to
much of European culture has never gained a strong foothold in Denmark,
and in recent decades it has disappeared almost entirely. This acceptance
found dramatic expression in 1943, when thousands of resistance members
and ordinary Danes combined to rescue almost the entire Jewish community
from the occupying Nazis? For their part, most Jews have entered deeply and
enthusiastically into Danish culture. They dress, talk, and act entirely like
other Danes. They work in regular Danish occupations and have contributed
important figures to Danish politics, media, and popular culture. Because
they are so few in number, most Jews live their daily lives in non-Jewish set-
tings. Most Jewish children attend regular Danish schools for much of their
education, most adults have largely non-Jewish social circles, and almost all
Jews work in non-Jewish workplaces. For most members of the MT, there-
fore, Danish identity is as central to self-perception as Jewish identity.
12 Andrew Buckser
Bringing these two identities together can be a difficult task (Buckser

2000). Danish Jews tend to think of Jewishness in primordial terms, as some-
thing inscribed in the body and blood as well as in heritage and religion. Most
feel that Jews have a distinctive manner and appearance, even if they cannot
say exactly what those are. At the same time, however, most Jews identify
heavily with Danish culture, a culture that tends to stress homogeneity and
belonging and to stigmatize difference. Danish popular culture defines Dan-
ish commonality through some of the same practices that Jewish culture uses
to define Jewish distinctiveness, including foodways, affective style, humor,
and tradition (see Buckser 1999; Jokinen 1994; Knudsen 1996). Being a Dan-
ish Jew, therefore, requires the combination of two distinctive and often con-
tradictory identities. Many of my informants describe the process as difficult,
unending, and emotionally painful. Their resolutions vary with their particu-
lar circumstances, and they entail a variety of understandings of what Jew-
ishness and Danishness consist of. Decisions about what it is to be a Jew, and
by extension what is meant by Jewish community, are not arrived at by com-
munity consensus but through a profoundly individual project of reconciling
two dimensions of self that stand in fundamental conflict.
These circumstances make the precise boundaries of the Jewish commu-
nity extremely difficult to establish. Who is a Jew? Who should decide who
counts and does not count? Are some Jews more real, more authentic, closer
to a primordial essence than others? Danish Jews answer these questions in
widely differing ways. Some disagreements run along factional lines -
liberal Jews, for example, tend to favor a more inclusive definition of Jewry,
but the more Orthodox favor a narrower one-but others do not. As noted,
the MT has survived by avoiding these questions as much as possible, by
taking a “big tent” approach that allows a variety of different understandings
of Judaism to participate and interact. With its Orthodox ritual and inclusive
membership, the MT allows the meaning of Jewishness to be resolved at an
individual -not a community -level.
CONVERSION IN JEWISHCOPENHAGEN
The flexibility of the MT is tested when it faces the problem of conversion.

Conversion is an unavoidably communal issue; it implies not merely a change
in one person’s self-identification, but also the ratification and recognition of
that change by the wider community. The issue carries a particular impor-
tance in Denmark because it arises so often there. In comparison to other
world religions, Judaism does not generally seek converts, and indeed it tends
to discourage them. For much of Jewish history, conversion to Judaism has
Social Conversion and Group Dejnition in Jewish Copenhagen 73
been relatively rare and has had little social impact. In Denmark, however, the
close engagement of Jews with the surrounding culture has made conversion
a much more important issue. This is not because Danes have been widely at-
tracted to Judaism-few Danes have any detailed knowledge of Jewish be-
liefs or practices-but because Jews have intermarried with non-Jewish
Danes at extremely high rates. Most estimates put the current rate of mixed
marriages in the Jewish community at 75 percent or higher. This pattern is not
new. Although intermarriage rates have risen and fallen repeatedly over the
past 200 years, such unions have made up a significant portion of the total
since the early 1800s (see, for example, Arnheim 1950a; Arnheim 1950b;
Arnheim 1950c; Balslev 1932). For most of its modem history, and increas-
ingly over the last several decades, intermarriage has constituted a basic fea-
ture of the social world of Danish Jewry.
By some standards, Copenhagen Jews treat intermarriage quite leniently.
Intermarried Jews remain part of their families of origin and the MT. They
are not regarded as having left Judaism except on the very rare occasions
when they explicitly do so. The Orthodox interpretation of Jewish law, how-
ever, imposes constraints on the recognition of mixed marriages. Partners
must have a civil wedding, not a religious one, and they may not conduct it
in the synagogue. A non-Jewish spouse may not be buried in the Jewish
cemetery or participate in certain Jewish social activities. Perhaps most im-
portantly, traditional Jewish law, known as halakhah, reckons Jewish de-
scent through the maternal line; accordingly, if a man intermarries, the MT
will not regard his children as Jewish. (Judaism has no particular term for
such children; for convenience, I will call them “patrilineal Jews.”) These
problems make conversion an appealing prospect for many intermarrying
couples, as well as for some children of intermarried Jewish men. Most Jew-
ish marriages, therefore, raise the issue of conversion, either for their par-
ticipants or their offspring, and decisions about conversion touch almost
every Jewish family.
It is possible, of course, to convert out of strictly religious motives, with-
out Jewish ancestry or plans for a Jewish marriage. But such instances are
rare, and they tend to be regarded with suspicion by members of the commu-
nity. In most cases, conversion is not a matter of religious insight, a valida-
tion of a transformation of consciousness, but a means of reckoning with the
consequences of a particular social action.
The question of conversion can raise a variety of questions involving dif-
fering notions of ethnicity, religiosity, and the connection of the Jewish com-
munity to the larger world. Here, I focus on two: the questions of the defini-
tion of community raised by conversions at marriage, and the issues of
authority that attend the conversion of patrilineal Jews.
74 Andrew Buckser
Marriage Conversion and the Meaning of Jewishness

Anna Jensen, now a 28-year-old psychology student in Copenhagen, was a
20-year-old undergraduate when she began dating a Jewish boy named Oskar
Goldschmidt. Anna did not regard herself as religious, having seldom at-
tended church since her confirmation; Oskar, likewise, seldom attended reli-
gious services, and he regarded himself as an atheist. During a year-long stay
in Israel as a teenager, however, Oskar had become deeply conscious of his
Jewish identity, and at age 20 he was actively involved in Jewish youth and
sports associations. When the couple began discussing future possibilities of
marriage and children, Oskar expressed concern about the difficulties of a
mixed marriage. He was very anxious that his children be Jewish, and he
wanted his sons to identify with the Jewish traditions and social networks that
meant so much to him. He therefore asked Anna if she would consider con-
verting. The idea struck her as strange at first-she associated conversion
with a kind of religious experience that was utterly foreign to her-but as she
learned more about it, she found the prospect appealing. Converting would
give her and Oskar something in common, an ability to participate together in
Jewish rituals and keeping a Jewish home. It would mean a great deal to Os-
kar and to his parents. She didn’t foresee any problem with her own family,
none of whom were religious. Indeed, they, like her, saw something vaguely
exciting in the distinctiveness of a Jewish identity, something temptingly un-
usual amidst the bland homogeneity of Danish culture. She found the exotic
and intricate requirements of Jewish ritual practice fascinating, a puzzle of
sorts, to work out in the process of daily life. As their marriage approached,
conversion appeared to her as a straightforward and interesting way of solid-
ifying her relationship with Oskar and the identities of their children.
For the Jewish community, by contrast, Anna’s conversion and others like
it raised some very difficult questions. Was this kind of motivation a suffi-
cient justification for conversion? Could anyone convert to Judaism who fell
in love with a Jew, or did there have to be some sort of independent interest
in being Jewish? Could a convert be accepted who had expressed neither be-
lief nor interest in the tenets of Jewish theology? If the answer was yes, what
sort of requirements should be expected of such a convert? Surely, she
would have to commit to living as a Jew-but what does living as a Jew in-
volve, and how could her sincerity be proven? And what would happen if
her marriage to Oskar were to fail, as so many marriages do? Answering
such questions is a subject of serious dispute among the city’s Jews, as it has
been for the past century.
Answers tend to fall into two categories. One position sets high barriers to
conversion. Conversion, it is argued, should be restricted to those who pos-
sess a deep connection to Jewish religion and culture, not to those who find
Social Conversion and Group Dejnition in Jewish Copenhagen 75
it a convenient way to simplify a marriage. People like Anna should be re-

quired to show a spiritual interest in Judaism over a long period of time and
to undergo extensive instruction in Jewish life and ritual before being con-
sidered as candidates for conversion. Intermarriage is, after all, a serious
transgression of Jewish law, and allowing easy conversions amounts to con-
doning it. Moreover, a marriage convert like Anna cannot be expected to be-
come truly Jewish. She may call herself a Jew, and she may observe some of
the rituals, but she will remain at heart a gentile. She will raise her children
with Danish customs and a Danish worldview, not Jewish ones. Though the
conversion will make them halakhic Jews, it will not make them spiritual
Jews, and they are likely to shed their Judaism when they grow up. If she and
Oskar divorce, experience suggests that she will return with the children to
the family and church of her childhood. This view of conversion finds its
strongest support among the deeply religious members of the MT, many of
whom have close connections to Orthodox Jewish communities elsewhere in
Europe. In many cases, they turn to such communities for spouses for their
own children. Better to find a real Jewish spouse in London or Antwerp, they
argue, and maintain the traditions and beliefs of Judaism than to pick a con-
venient Danish wife and call her a Jew.
The second position finds its strongest adherents among the less observant,
Danish-identified members of the congregation and argues that the Orthodox
approach is unrealistic. As noted, Danish Jews intermarry at extraordinarily
high rates, and one cannot expect the situation to change; the decision to be
made is not whether intermarriage should occur, but how to deal with it after
it has occurred. In that context, an easier and even routine conversion offers
the best possibility for maintaining Jewish community and culture. Anna’s
ability to pass on Jewish tradition may be limited, but conversion can only in-
crease her knowledge of Jewish tradition. Surely, she would not raise better
Jews if she were still a Christian. Her conversion also admits her children to
Jewish education and rituals. And if she is not a perfectly observant Jew, how
many Jews are? Most Danish Jews are very lax in synagogue attendance,
kosher housekeeping, and other forms of Jewish religiosity. Converts, who
consciously commit to a Jewish life, arguably practice better Judaism than the
majority of the congregation. If Jews worry that converts are insufficiently
committed, that they will return to Christianity in the event of a divorce, then
they should make converts more welcome. Rather than keeping people like
Anna outside the community, the argument goes, Jews should pull them in.
The differences between these two positions reflect a deeper split in the
constitution of the Danish Jewish community itself. On the one hand, the com-
munity is built upon a structure of law, ritual, and ideology derived from a pre-
modern tradition (cf. Di Bella, chapter 7); halakhah and much of Orthodox
76 Andrew Buckser
theology were formulated before 1800,when Jews constituted an organic and

largely self-contained community. To be a Jew, according to this body of law,
is to be part of such a working social entity. In daily life, however, Danish
Jews experience Jewishness in the context of late modem ethnicity, a type of
ethnic affiliation Herbert Gans (1979) describes as “symbolic ethnicity.” To-
day, Jews are integrated into a number of communities, through occupation,
interests, and family, none of which constitutes more than a small portion of
their world. Ethnicity in such a context is not so much a connection to social
entity as a feature of self, defined individually in the context of a largely Dan-
ish social experience. As Jews work out individual resolutions to the problem
of Jewish identity, they tend to use one or the other of these contexts for defin-
ing the Jewish community to which they belong. The most Orthodox turn to
halakhic model, examining conversion in the light of its effects on an inte-
grated and distinct Jewish society. Their opponents, on the other hand, turn to
the symbolic model and focus on conversion’s effects on the fragmented so-
cial world of the individual.
Opposition emerges in the ways in which people on the two sides articu-
late issues of conversion. When I asked Orthodox members about cases like
Anna’s, they responded in terms of the meaning of Jewishness and the Jew-
ish community. Jewishness, I was often told, is not something one just puts
on like a suit of clothes; it requires a commitment to be a Jew, to follow Jew-
ish law, and to regard the Jewish community as one’s home and reference
group. Orthodox members took care to distance themselves from particular
cases-“Mejnar is a nice man,” an ultra-orthodox leader told me about one
case, “I don’t have any problem with him. But one has to think about what
being Jewish means.” Liberals, by contrast, usually focused on the specific
case at hand, emphasizing the hardship or emotional hurt imposed by a strin-
gent policy toward conversion. Was it fair, they asked, that this or that person
who was willing to contribute to the Jewish community was turned away?
What is, for the Orthodox, a question of community definition is for the lib-
erals a question of individual pragmatics-how to deal with the given fact of
intermmiage in a world defined by immersion in Danish society.
Fortunately for Anna, her conversion took place during the last years of
Rabbi Bent Melchior’s tenure. This was one of the easier periods in which to
convert in Denmark, and her conversion went very smoothly. Melchior re-
quired her to attend conversion classes for almost a year, together with Oskar.
There she learned the basic information necessary for leading a Jewish life:
the ritual calendar, the logistics of kosher housekeeping, the rules of the Sab-
bath, the format of the Jewish service, and so on. Anna then underwent a con-
version ceremony, complete with immersion in a ritual bath. She became
a Jew; in fact, she became quite an observant Jew, considerably more reli-
giously active than Oskar, who told me that he finds some of her scrupulous
ritual observance annoying. He’s glad that she’s Jewish now and thinks it will
make things easier for their children when they have some, but it’s been hard
giving up roast pork.
Descent Conversion and the Construction of Authority

Conflicts over conversion entail not only definitions of community, but also
constructions of authority. They involve not only concerns about what the
Jewish community should be, but also who should be allowed to make that
decision. These questions emerge with particular force in the other main oc-
casion for conversion in Denmark, that involving patrilineal Jews. Although
precise statistics are difficult to establish, clearly only a minority of non-
Jewish spouses convert. For the majority, the issue of conversion moves into
the next generation, to the children of Jewish fathers and non-Jewish moth-
ers. Such individuals face a very different sort of transformation than Anna.
For those who seek conversion, the process represents a formalization of a
Jewish identity, not its creation; they decide to convert because they consider
themselves Jewish, not because they wish to become Jewish. Often, they have
a thorough Jewish education and extensive Jewish social networks, and in
most cases they have a more conscious commitment to the community than
the majority of its members. From a halakhic standpoint, however, they have
no more claim to Jewish identity than any other Dane, and the rabbi often re-
quires them to undergo a lengthy conversion process. Conversion thus privi-
leges formal MT institutions over personal experience in establishing Jewish
identity, a distribution of power that raises opposition and resentment from
many of those affected by it.
This dynamic is characterized by Esther Herzog, a 26-year-old bank ad-
ministrator who converted in 1996. Esther’s parents divorced when she was
10 years old, and afterward she lived with her non-Jewish mother. Her rela-
tionship with her father was somewhat distant, especially after he moved back
to his native Israel a few years later. Esther grew up with connections to Ju-
daism, however, and her mother had tried to foster Esther’s Jewish interests
after the divorce. She sent Esther to the Jewish school for several years and
encouraged her to socialize with Jews. On her graduation from gymnasium,
Esther lived with her father in Israel for about six months. She looks back
fondly on that time and says that she often considers moving to Israel perma-
nently. On her return to Copenhagen, she decided that Jewishness was her
true identity. She went to the rabbi and told him that she wanted to convert.
She expected the rabbi to welcome her immediately and was shocked and
hurt when he did not. Rather, the rabbi suggested that she begin going to
78 Andrew Buckser
services for a while and get involved in Jewish activities, and he would let her
know when he thought she was ready. She followed his advice, throwing her-
self headlong into the Jewish world. She attended services, observed holi-
days, and joined a youth group and a Zionist organization. She checked in
with the rabbi occasionally, making sure he knew of her involvement, but he
remained noncommittal about admitting her to conversion. He hinted that it
would help matters if she had a Jewish boyfriend, a suggestion that led to sev-
eral short and unhappy romances. After almost a year of anxiety, the rabbi fi-
nally decided to admit her to conversion instruction, and within a few months
she was formally converted.
The conversion process brought Esther face-to-face with the dual nature
of Jewish identity in Copenhagen. To be a Jew is both to belong to a partic-
ular community and to hold a particular understanding of self. Like most
Copenhagen Jews, Esther thought of Jewishness primarily in terms of per-
sonal ethnic identification; she regarded herself as a Jew because she felt
Jewish, irrespective of her tenuous ties to Jewish worship or her distance
from Jewish community. The MT, by contrast, regarded such feelings as ir-
relevant. Jewish identity, in its view, depended not on the subjective assess-
ments of individuals but on a common religious and legal framework. For
Esther, conversion represented the primacy of this community law over in-
dividual experience. The rabbi who required it, who set the conditions upon
which Esther could “really” be a Jew, embodied the power of the group to
shape personal identity.
Esther resented this power enormously. Her bitterness over the ordeal, even
several years later, is plainly evident. She was angry at being forced to attend
services, at having to make a show for the rabbi to prove her own identity.
The anxious waiting period and the possibility of rejection struck her as a
cruel means of forcing her to acknowledge the rabbi’s power over her. It felt
arbitrary and archaic, she says, and she says it showed how out of touch the
community was with contemporary Jewish life. Even their criteria seemed
sexist and absurd. Why should she need to go through all this, she asked, just
because her mother, not her father, was a non-Jew? Esther’s ire has led to ac-
tive involvement in the MT, where she champions the cause of mixed couples
and women in committee work and community journals.
I met similar reactions to the conversion process not only among patrilin-
eal converts but also among many other liberal Jews. The notion that a set of
arcane traditional laws should determine who is a Jew, rather than the felt ex-
perience of living people, clashed with liberal understandings of the nature of
Jewish ethnic identity in contemporary Denmark. In cases like Anna’s, these
understandings have led to calls for easier access to conversion; in cases like
Esther’s, they have led to anger at the authority structure of the congregation.
POLITICAL IMPLICATIONS OF CONVERSION
In a fragmented community like that of the Copenhagen Jews, many congre-

gational disagreements lie simmering for years. The group has survived in
large part by avoiding outright confrontations, letting a variety of viewpoints
on Jewishness and Jewish religiosity coexist alongside one another. Issues of
conversion, however, require clear choices. The community, through its rep-
resentatives, must make an unambiguous statement of who does and who
does not belong, and it must apply that statement to specific individuals seek-
ing entry to the group. Such decisions have concrete and immediate conse-
quences. Individuals may or may not be allowed to marry in the synagogue,
to circumcise their sons, or to send their children to Jewish institutions. Such
consequences touch not only the individuals but also larger family and social
networks. As a result, conversion presents one of the most politically fraught
moments in the life of the Jewish community-a moment in which the con-
gregation must declare its position on the nature of Jewishness-and the an-
swer will have a widespread effect.
This situation imbues conversion with both danger and possibility for a re-
ligious leader. As in most Jewish communities, the Chief Rabbi of Copen-
hagen holds final authority over the conduct of ritual in Denmark; since he
alone is able to perform the conversion ceremony, he decides who will be al-
lowed to convert and the terms under which they can do so. In some cases, his
decisions have unleashed revolts within the congregation. In 1903, for exam-
ple, the traditionalist Rabbi Tobias Lewenstein decided to change the condi-
tions by which patrilineal Jews could enter the community. Earlier rabbis had
routinely converted patrilineal Jews as long as they had been raised as Jews.
Lewenstein tightened requirements sharply, demanding that converts be
raised in kosher homes and attend religious school throughout childhood. His
action provoked an outcry from congregational liberals, who after an ex-
tended, public, and very bitter battle, had him dismissed from office. A reverse
case occurred in the 1970s and 1980s, when the liberal Bent Melchior earned
the enmity of traditionalists through what they saw as his rubber-stamp ap-
proach to conversion. In 1981, by aligning with another disaffected group, the
traditionalists managed to terminate Melchior’s contract. The current rabbi,
Bent Lexner, has pushed his congregation in a more Orthodox direction and
has worked hard to woo liberals to his position. Although many of those I in-
terviewed liked him very much, his restrictive views on conversion remain a
powerful barrier to their supporting him. The intensity of feelings surround-
ing conversion make it a recurring danger to the political tenure of rabbis.
At the same time, conversion policies also can be a source of strength.
Lewenstein’s stance on conversion made him a hero to the congregation’s
80 Andrew Buckser
traditionalist wing. After his dismissal from the MT, supporters established a
second synagogue for him to lead, a synagogue that remains in operation to-
day. Likewise, although Melchior 's conversion policy made him enemies
among the Orthodox, it also made him friends among liberals. After the board
terminated his contract in 1981, an energetic campaign by these supporters
managed to replace the board and reinstate Melchior in 1982. When carefully
managed, conversion policy can provide a source of allies as well as antago-
nists, and most rabbis tread a delicate line on the subject.
The political valence of conversion also touches the lives of converts. In-
tense feelings surrounding the process have led a number of converts to be-
come more active in congregational affairs. Converts like Esther, for exam-
ple, frequently appear in the leadership of the congregation, especially in its
social clubs and intellectual societies. Tensions surrounding conversion
also shape their perception by other Jews in daily life. A number of converts
told me of a lingering sense of illegitimacy, a feeling-in many cases quite
justified- that other Jews regard them as frauds or interlopers. Esther com-
plained that she constantly had to prove her Jewishness, and it was never
enough; through a snide reference here or a cryptic comment there, people
in the MT repeatedly cast doubt on whether she was a genuine Jew. As a re-
sult, she says that she has to follow Jewish law with far greater care than
would a born Jew. Most Jews can eat a nonkosher meal, work on Saturday,
or go out with a non-Jewish man, and no one thinks anything of it. But if
Esther does these things, people will question the sincerity of her conver-
sion. Jewishness is a conscious identity she has deliberately chosen, but it
is one in which she never feels entirely secure.
Conversion, in this sense, does not make one a regular Jew. It makes one a
convert, a distinctive status that carries ongoing symbolic and practical con-
sequences. Converts exemplify basic conflicts in the construction of Jewish
identity: individual versus group, choice versus obligation, objective law ver-
sus subjective experience. Conversions thus become not merely evanescent
rites of passage but permanent features of the self.
CONCLUSION
The association of religious conversion with theological insight has deep

roots in the Western Christian tradition. It stands at the center of the tradi-
tion's key narratives, including the cathartic transformations of saints like
Paul and Augustine. In such stories, conversion involves a fresh vision of the
truth, a realization that the new religion represents a higher understanding of
the world. Such conversions are echoed in Protestant revival movements and
in “born-again” churches, where even longtime members seek to experience
a new consciousness of the meaning of their faith. This notion also informs
much of the social scientific work on conversion, which has focused on the
processes through which radical changes in religious worldviews take place.
While acknowledging the influence of social dynamics on conversion, schol-
ars have trained their gaze largely where Christianity has trained it: on
changes in belief and experience of the world that Christian conversion de-
mands. Like born-again Christians, they have tended to overlook conversions
that lack that sort of change; they have regarded them as less than “true” con-
versions and classified them as political or social rather than religious phe-
nomena. Consequently, they have said relatively little about the effects of
such conversions on either the experience of converts or on the religious com-
munities that they join.
Yet the social and experiential correlates of social conversion are no less
complex or wide-ranging than conversions motivated by belief. In Copen-
hagen, conversions lay bare a variety of tensions concerning the nature of
Jewish identity, authority, and religiosity, and they force individuals to come
to terms with their own views on these issues. Converts provide a focus for
community debate as well as symbols of ambivalence and tension afterward.
The nature of these conflicts reflects the particular social and cultural position
of Jews in contemporary Denmark; the organizational stresses surrounding
the incorporation of the community into the modem state, and the stresses in-
volved in secularization, push the debate over conversion in a specific direc-
tion and place specific actors on either side of the issue. In other groups, con-
version reflects different strains on social organization or the construction of
identity. But even in groups that value belief-conversion more than the Dan-
ish Jews, and even in groups that deny the validity of purely social conver-
sion, the social dimension of conversion offers a revealing window into group
ideas about identity and community.
We should not assume, moreover, that social conversions are somehow less
authentic or less complete than those based on religious inspiration. Mem-
bership in a religious community derives from more than a set of beliefs; it
also involves a set of relationships with other members, a set of practices and
habits, and a set of aesthetic orientations and discursive styles (Hefner 1993:
27-28). Converts are able to assimilate such elements without the correspon-
ding beliefs, and indeed these elements may provide a better index of a per-
son’s conversion. During the partition of the Indian subcontinent, for exam-
ple, social workers often met fierce resistance when they tried to return
women who had been forcibly converted to Islam to their original Hindu
82 Andrew Buckser
homes (Menon and Basin 1993; Viswanathan 1998: xii-xiv). Having married
Muslim men, raised Muslim children, and lived Muslim lives, they had ef-
fectively become Muslims, whatever their religious beliefs or the circum-
stances of their conversion. The social and practical dimensions of conver-
sion, that is, had significance beyond and above that of faith. A similar case
could be made for converts in Jewish Copenhagen. Orthodox Judaism places
greater weight on practice than on belief; although it is good to believe in
God, it is essential to carry out the commandments of halakhah. An atheist
can be a perfectly observant Jew, and indeed many are. To evaluate the com-
pleteness of a conversion on the extent to which it is rooted in faith, therefore,
rather than on the extent to which a convert is immersed in Jewish practice
and social networks, is to impose a false standard of authenticity.
Indeed, it might well reverse the real situation on the ground. I did meet a
religiously inspired convert in Copenhagen, a pleasant young woman who
had fallen in love with Judaism while on a visit to an Israeli kibbutz. She had
studied the Jewish scriptures intensively and could discuss Jewish theology
with considerable sophistication. She was, above all, forthright concerning
her belief in God and the divine foundations of Jewish ritual. Her belief was
obviously a comfort to her, and it justified an impressively stringent regime
of ritual practice. However, her belief did not make her more authentically
Jewish than other converts I met. If anything, it made her less so. Most
Copenhagen Jews do not walk about in a state of theological certitude; like
most other Danes, they have serious doubts about the existence of God and
balance their interest in religious observance against their participation in a
decidedly secularized culture. Their attitude toward religion is ridden with
ambivalence and skepticism, making the observance of halakhah a compli-
cated decision. Arguably, it is not the true believer but someone like Esther
who is closer to the Jewish experience. Brought into the group by family con-
nections, conflicted about her own beliefs and identity, unsure of her place in
the community and angry at its leadership, Esther may little resemble the
classic picture of the successful convert- but she certainly exemplifies the
experience of a great many of the Copenhagen Jews.
NOTES
1 . For general historical studies of the Danish Jews, see Bamberger (1983), Borch-
senius (1968) and Feigenberg (1984). For a discussion of the contemporary commu-
nity, see Buckser (1999a, 1999b, 2000).
2. For studies of this event, see Buckser (2001), Sode-Madsen (1993), Goldberger
(1987), and Yahil(l969).
Social Conversion and Group Dejinition in Jewish Copenhagen 83
REFERENCES
Amheim,A. (1950a). “Joderne i Danmark-Statistisk Set.” J@diskSamfund 24, no. 1:

18-19.
-. (1950b). “Jfiderne i Danmark-Statistisk Set.” J@disk Samfund 24, no. 2:
20-2 1.
-. (1950~).“Jodeme i Danmark-Statistisk Set.” J@disk Samfund 24, no. 3:
18-19.
Balslev, B. (1932). De danske J@dershistorie. Copenhagen: Lohse.
Bamberger, I. N. (1983). The Viking Jews: A History of the Jews of Denmark. New
York: Shengold.
Barth, F., ed. (1969). Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of
Culture Difference. London: Allen & Unwin.
Borchsenius, P. (1968). Historien om de Danske J@der:Copenhagen: Fremad.
Buckser, A. (1999a). “Keeping Kosher: Eating and Social Identity among the Jews
of Denmark.” Ethnology 38, no. 3: 191-209.
-. (1999b). “Modem Identities and the Creation of History: Stones of Rescue
among the Jews of Denmark.” Anthropological Quarterly 72, no. 1: 1-17.
-. (2000). “Jewish Identity and the Meaning of Community in Contemporary
Denmark.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 23, no. 4: 71-734.
-. (2001). “Rescue and Cultural Context during the Holocaust: Grundtvigian
Nationalism and the Rescue of the Danish Jews.” Shofar 19, no. 2: 1-25.
Cohen, A. (1985). The Symbolic Construction of Community. London: Tavistock.
Cohen, C. L. (1986). God’s Caress: The Psychology of Puritan Religious Experience.
New York: Oxford University Press.
Feigenberg, M., ed. (1984). Indenfor Murene: Jodisk liv i Danmark 1684-1984.
Copenhagen: C. A. Reitzel.
Finn, T. M. (1997). From Death to Rebirth: Ritual and Conversion in Antiquity. New
York: Paulist Press.
Goldberger, L., ed. (1987). The Rescue of the Danish Jews: Moral Courage under
Stress. New York: New York University Press.
Hefner, R. W., ed. (1993). Conversion to Christianity: Historical andAnthropologica1
Perspectives on a Great Transformation. Berkeley: University of California Press.
James, W. (1929). The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in Human Nature.
New York: Random House.
Jokinen, K. (1994). “Cultural Uniformity, Differentiation, and Small National Cul-
tures.” Cultural Studies 8, no. 2: 208-19.
Knudsen, A. (1996). Her gdr det godt, sendflere penge. Copenhagen: Gyldendal.
Lofland, J., and R. Stark (1965). “Becoming a World-Saver: ATheory of Conversion
to a Deviant Perspective.” American Sociological Review 30, no. 6: 862-75.
Menon, R., and K. Basin (1993). “Recovery, Rupture, Resistance: Indian State and
Abduction of Women during Partition.” Economic and Political Weekly: 2-1 1.
Rambo, L. R. (1993). Understanding Religious Conversion. New Haven, Conn.: Yale
University Press.
84 Andrew Buckser
Snow, D. A., and C. Phillips (1980). “The Lofland-Stark Conversion Model: A Criti-
cal Reassessment.” Social Problems 27, no. 4: 43047.
Sode-Madsen, H. (1993). “F@reren har Befalet! ”: J@deaktionen Oktober 1943.
Copenhagen: Samleren.
Viswanathan,G. (1998). Outside the Fold: Conversion, Moderniv, and Beliefi Prince-
ton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
Whitehead, H. (1987). Renunciation and Reformulation: A Study of Conversion in an
American Sect. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.
Yahil, L. (1969). The Rescue of Danish Jewry: Test of a Democracy. Philadelphia:
Jewish Publication Society of America.
7
Conversion and Marginality in Southern Italy
Maria Pia Di Bella
T h e relationship between language, ritual, and liminality in the act of con-

version will be highlighted, in this chapter, by two examples, one historical
and one ethnographic. The first example shows how a marginal social
figure -in this case, a criminal condemned to death -is reintegrated into
society after having experienced a particular ritual focused on conversion or
reconversion. The second shows how conversion to Pentecostalism in a rural
setting marginalizes the faithful due to their use of glossolalia. Although these
two examples are taken from different regions of Italy-Sicily for the first
case, Apulia for the second-and from different time periods-the early mod-
em era for the first and the contemporary era for the second-their compari-
son sheds light on the ways in which conversion not only plays a major role
in inserting the individual in (or separating him or her from) a collectivity but
also determines the pragmatics of the language that converts are allowed to
use or are capable to develop.
CRIMINALS’ CONVERSIONS
The first example is from archival materials (Di Bella 1999a, 1999b). It con-
cerns tasks performed by a Sicilian company, The Company of the Saintly
Crucifix (Compugnia del Suntissimo Crocifisso),better known as the Biunchi
(White Ones). The Biunchi, constituted in Palermo in 1541, was composed
mainly of aristocrats. Their tasks consisted of comforting, for three days
and three nights, all persons who had been condemned to death for criminal
offenses.
85
86 Maria Pia Di Bella
From 1541 to 1820, the Bianchi assisted 2,127 persons, forty of whom
were women (Cutrera 1917). The period 1541 to 1646 was a very cruel one
for the condemned, especially commoners, for they were usually carried to
the gallows on a tumbrel, where an executioner racked them with hot pincers,
cut off their right hands, and burned their feet; their limbs were tied to horses
in order to pull them apart; and they were quartered alive. After 1642, hands
were cut only from the corpses, and only corpses were quartered.
The condemned were handed over to four members of the company and
isolated in a section of the prison that was set aside for such occasions and
designated as the chapel, where the Bianchi assisted them morally and spiri-
tually by following a specific ritual. Thus, the “health of the souls” of those
to be executed was entrusted to the Bianchi, who instructed the condemned
on “how to die a good Christian death.” Three liminal days of seclusion were
spent preparing the condemned to accept fully his fate and convince him to
die bravely. Any earthly sufferings that his body would endure were consid-
ered to be the sine qua non condition of salvation, for sufferings gave access
to an afterlife that would otherwise have eluded him. The psychological
preparation provided by the Bianchi thus enabled the condemned to accept
the “separation of soul and body” with religious detachment (Di Bella 1999a).
A brief description of the prescribed ritual followed by the Bianchi is nec-
essary in order to show the relationship between language, ritual, and limi-
nality. When the prisoner was brought in front of the four hooded Bianchi,
they first informed him of the place, the day, and the hour of execution. After
a few words of comfort, they declared him a member of the company and, to
signify his full integration, they lifted their hoods in order to show him their
faces. Then they led him in front of the Ecce Homo and the statue of Our Lady
of Sorrows (Addolorata), whose hands he had to kiss. Next was an inquiry
into his person, the circumstances of imprisonment, and his feelings about it.
If he gave signs of resistance, he was firmly exhorted to accept his fate. Af-
ter being escorted to his cell (dammuso),the four Bianchi embraced him and
kissed his feet as a sign of humility. For any material or spiritual comfort dur-
ing the night, he could summon the Bianchi by pulling on a rope.
Over the remaining two days, the condemned was taken, first, to the ora-
tory of the chapel to pray with a lighted candle in front of the Ecce Homo.
This occurred both before and after the several masses in which he had to as-
sist. Next, he was taken for confessions and communions and, last, to re-
hearse the ladder exercise (esercizio della scala), that is, the gestures and the
words to perform during the procession from the prison to the scaffold. If re-
quested, the Biunchi also allowed the condemned to dictate a “discharge of
conscience” (discaricodi coscienza),which enabled him to die without sin of
false accusation on his conscience.
Conversion and Marginality in Southern Italy 87
On the day of his execution, the condemned left the prison blindfolded and
was taken in procession to the scaffold. He was attended by the four Bianchi
who had assisted him and was followed by the fifty-two remaining members
of the Bianchi, who recited litanies or chanted Miserere or De profundis.
When the procession arrived at the place of execution-usually the central
Marina square-it halted. Here, the condemned knelt in front of the Bianchi’s
priest to receive absolution. To the question whether he wished to die like a
Christian, he answered in the affirmative.The priest began to recite the Apos-
tle’s Creed, and at the words passus et sepultus est, the hangman put the rope
around his neck. When the prayer was over, the condemned kissed the hang-
man’s feet and the steps of the scaffold. A small chain representing Our Lady
of the Dying (Madonna degli Agonizzunti) was given him for comfort. Fi-
nally, the hangman pulled the rope and launched him into the air.
Manipulation of the bodies of the condemned was at the core of these
spectacles of justice offered to vast audiences in the streets of Palermo, re-
minding everyone of the martyrs’ and, most of all, of Jesus’s sufferings. The
official discourse, on the other hand, stressed the care of souls of condemned
persons, while the body was left to its expected resurrection. Theological
references gave the people of Palermo a basis that made their compassionate
actions appropriate. Since Christ’s sufferings-endured to save humanity as
a whole -were constantly present in Christian conscience, all the social
spectrum of Palermo participated by material help or by prayers, either to
save the condemned soul or to send it, in the worst of cases, to purgatory.
Thus, the expiation of the crime became the collective concern of all mem-
bers of the community.
The epilogue of reintegration of the condemned into the Christian commu-
nity took place in the church of the beheaded bodies’ souls. From 1795 on,
the corpses of the condemned were buried in the nearby cemetery, and the
faithful attached to the beheaded bodies’ souls a status that was typical of can-
onized saints. Sicilian priests accepted the fact that parishioners addressed
themselves to the beheaded bodies’ souls as if the latter were beatified or can-
onized, and, most strikingly, permitted ex-votos to hang in the churches in
their charge.
CONVERSIONS TO PENTECOSTALISM
The second example is based on small Pentecostal groups that began to ap-
pear in southern Italy at the end of World War 11. Ethnographic research on
the impact of this new doctrine in a rural milieu was carried out principally in
Accadia in the Apulia region, as well as in other places where the Unitarian
doctrine developed (Gesualdo, Villanova in Campania; San Fele in Basilicata;

Randazzo, Marsala in Sicily). Unitarian doctrine was then compared to cer-
tain neighboring Trinitarian Pentecostal groups (Anzano and Monteleone,
also in Apulia).
The introduction of Pentecostalism and its growth in rural settings fol-
lowed roughly the same pattern. Three distinct phases can be discerned: the
conversion phase, followed either by the consolidation or rupture phase, and
the institutionalization phase. Only the first phase will be considered: the
phase of conversion, which is characterized by the arrival of a missionary in
the village, vigorous proselytizing to his or her extended “family,” the first
baptisms (often collective), and persecution of the embryonic group by vil-
lagers, local clergy, and police.
For all Pentecostal groups studied, missionaries shared similar back-
grounds: they were village natives who emigrated to the United States or
Latin America at an early age and later converted to Pentecostalism. By its
frequent use of glossolalia (speaking in tongues), Pentecostalism removes the
obstacle of language among its faithful, and this has been shown to foster im-
migrants’ integration into new environments (Wilson 1970). Pentecostal con-
verts believe they are “saved” thanks to a new baptism and by the presence
of the Holy Ghost within their bodies. As they become conscious of this dif-
ferent status, they return home to “save” their families.
After returning to their native villages, families react to the new doctrine
according to their personal evaluation of the missionaries: if they have devel-
oped a reputation of “succeeding” in the United States or Latin America, the
whole family converts. If, on the other hand, missionaries have a reputation
of failure, they will be rejected. Moreover, missionaries seek to expand their
circle of converts, but they do not search very far since their ambition is lim-
ited to converting persons with whom their family has ties. Nevertheless,
their personal reputation and the social origin of their families determine the
degree of success in native villages: the more modest the family origin, the
more limited the success.
From the perspective of the convert, conversion is seen as following a
“personal” calling-usually contained in a dream or after a long sickness-
which they feel incapable of resisting. The “calling” is thereafter confirmed
by a “gift” from the Holy Ghost, which, in southern Italy, is manifested
mainly by glossolalia. In Accadia, the faithful who receive the gift of glos-
solalia display it prominently during prayers. Prayers are offered twice at
every service and usually last twenty minutes or more (Di Bella 1982). Dur-
ing these prayer interludes, converts are on their knees, extemporizing
aloud, or singing long litanies, punctuated by a collective “gloria, gloria,
Gesu, Signore, halleluia.”
Missionaries are not considered to be responsible for a believer’s conver-

sion to Pentecostalism; they are only carriers of Jesus’ message. Glossolalia
determines a convert’s adherence to the faith. This involuntary emission of a
message that in the speakers’ regular language has no meaning (Di Bella
1988) is interpreted as a sign of the Holy Ghost’s presence in their body or
mind. It distinguishes the faithful who have been “touched” from the rest of
the congregation, left unvisited by the Holy Ghost. Evidence of the Holy
Ghost’s “presence” is judged by the apparent lack of meaning in the message,
with reference to a nonlinguistic code. Nonsense takes on a precise signifi-
cance. It designates those among the faithful who are “different”: the elect,
the saint, the saved, the body-tabernacle chosen to receive the Holy Ghost.
Glossolalia establishes a difference between those who are “saved” and
those who are not. At the same time, it establishes equality among the faith-
ful who have been “saved” by the Holy Ghost. Whereas baptism separates the
believer from the rest of the village, speaking in tongues differentiates the
elect from the non-elect. This “gift” of tongues can raise significant barriers
among adepts. For example, a marriage between a believer who has the “gift”
of glossolalia and a believer who does not is frowned upon. Members who
make no effort to receive the gift are ostracized, and those who do not receive
it, despite many efforts, are pitied.
DIFFERENCES IN THE CONVERSIONS’ RESULTS
Both examples focus on marginals (criminals in the first example, poor peas-
ants in the second), but outcomes of their respective conversions are diamet-
rically different. In the first example, ritual conducted by the Bianchi during
the liminal period of three days and three nights becomes a necessary pre-
condition to stage a theater of public consent in the streets of Palermo. It is
the acquiescence of the condemned- to play dutifully the Christic role- that
reintegrates him into the community, while his bodily sacrifice brings about
sanctification.
In the second example, poor peasants who convert to Pentecostalism are
doubly marginalized: first from their community of origin on the day they de-
cide to leave the Catholic church, and second in their own group if they do
not speak in tongues. Although converted or reconverted criminals acquire an
enhanced status, provided they expire on the scaffold in the prescribed way,
Pentecostal converts find themselves expelled from their original social posi-
tions and are confronted only by the presence of Jesus.
The social reintegration that follows conversion of the criminal is sym-
bolic for it happens after death. For this reason, criminals were not allowed
to say anything personal during the procession from the prison to the gallows
so as not to disturb the symbolic order. For this same reason, criminals had
to content themselves with repeating prescribed formulas learned by heart
during the ladder exercise. Pentecostal believers, on the other hand, are left
alone, but alive, in a dialogue that allows them to express freely their per-
sonal religious feelings and experiences, but in a way that limits communi-
cation with outsiders.
CONCLUSION
Language, ritual, and liminality are important elements in the study of con-
version (Csordas 1997). In the two examples, the centripetal or centrifugal di-
rection was illustrated by showing how, in the first case, acts were determined
by the aims and processes of conversion, whereas in the second one the aims
and processes of conversion were preceded and determined by acts. In both
cases, language is seen as a disruptive force. The Biunchi confraternity man-
aged to subdue disruption by convincing criminals to refrain from public lan-
guage, whereas Pentecostals legitimize language through a nonlinguistic code
that is understood only by the Holy Ghost. Ritual thus ranges from control to
the encouragement of disruptive forces of self-expression. Finally, liminality
highlights the transformation the converted has gone through by a sign easy
to interpret: either by making the convert lose his capacity to talk or to see-
as in the case of the criminal going to the gallows-or by encouraging the
convert to speak in tongues-as in the Pentecostal case.
I would like to thank Robert Anderson (British Museum) and the editors of this book
for their help in looking over my English.
REFERENCES
Cassin, H. 1956. “Quelques facteurs historiques et sociaux de la diffusion du protes-

tantism en Italie mkridionale.”Archives de Sociologie des Religions 2: 55-72.
-. 1960. “La Vie religieuse.” in La Calabre: Une rkgion sous-dkveloppke de
L’Europe mkditerrankenne, edited by J. Meyriat, pp. 225-61. Paris: Colin.
Castiglione, M. 1972. “Aspetti della diffusione del movimento pentecostale in
Puglia.” Uomo e Cultura 9: 102-18.
Courtine, J-J., ed. 1988. “Les glossolalies.” Langages 91: 5-124.
Csordas, Thomas J . 1997. Language, Charisma, and Creativity: The Ritual Life of
a Religious Movement. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Cutrera, A. 1917. Cronologia dei giustiziati di Palermo 1541-1819. Palermo: Scuola
Tip. Boccone del povero.
De Certeau, M. 1980. “Utopies vocales: glossolalies.” Traverses 20: 26-37.
Di Bella, M. P. 1982. “Un culte pentechtiste dans les Pouilles.” Les Temps modernes
435: 824-33.
-. 1988. “Langues et possession: le cas des pentec6tistes en Italie mCridionale.”
Annales ESC 4: 897-907.
-. 1999a. La Pura verita: Discarichi di coscienza intesi dai “Bianchi” (Palermo
1541-1820). Palermo: Sellerio Editore.
-. 1999b. “L‘omerta pietosa dei condannati a morte in Sicilia.” Prometeo 68:
98- 104.
Lewis, I. M . 1971. Ecstatic Religion. An Anthropological Study of Spirit Possession
and Shamanism. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin.
May, C. 1956. “A Survey of Glossolalia and Related Phenomena in Non-Christian
Religions.” American Anthropologist 58: 75-96.
Miegge, G. 1959. “La Diffusion du protestantisme dans les zones sous-dCvoloppCes
de 1’Italie meridionale.” Archives de Sociologie des Religions 8: 8 1-96.
N.A. 1975. “Glossolalie”. In Encyclopaedia Universalis, vol. 19, pp. 790-791. Paris:
Encyclopaedia Universalis France.
Samarin, W. J. 1972. Tongues of Men and Angels: The Religious Language of Pente-
costalism. New York: MacMillan.
Scotellaro, R. 1952. “Vita di Chironna evangelico.” Contadini del sud. Bari: Laterza.
Seguy, J. 1972. “Les Non-conformismes religieux d’occident.” In Histoire des Reli-
gions, edited by H. c. Puech, vol. 2, pp. 1229-1303. Paris: Gallimard-PlCiade.
Wilson, B. R. 1959. “The Pentecostal Minister: Role Conflicts and Status Contradic-
tions.” American Journal of Sociology 64: 494-502.
-. 1970. Les Sectes religieuses. Paris: Hachette.
CONCEPTUALIZING CONVERSION:
ALTERNATIVE PERSPECTIVES
“I Discovered M y Sin!”:
Aguaruna Evangelical Conversion Narratives
Robert 1. Priest
Ducitak, a grandmother, began:
I used to be tudau (“sinful”), pegkegchau (bad). I did many bad things Apujui
(God) does not like. When I heard the word of Apajui, I discovered (dekuwumi-
ajui) my sin (tudau), what I am. I said, “truly I am going to the place of fire ( j i -
inumap).” Thinking of this, I wept much. And so I “contracted myself’ (suju-
mankumiajai) to Jisucristui. Then I began to obey the word.
In the 1970s, many Aguaruna-Jivaro villages of northern Peru temporarily

saw a majority convert to evangelical Christianity under the influence of
Aguaruna evangelists. By the time of my field research (1987-1989), the
number of active converts had stabilized at 10 percent to 30 percent in many
villages. Aguaruna assistants helped me tape, transcribe, and translate thirty-
four conversion narratives that form the base for this chapter.
The concept of sin seems to play a key role in Aguaruna conversion to
Christianity. William James (1902) argued that a “sense of sin” accompanies
a certain kind of personality characterized by a “sick soul” or a “divided” self.
This sense of sin predisposes people to religious conversion but is itself sim-
ply a personality trait, apparently unconditioned by prior beliefs, symbols, and
discourses. Others (e.g., Proudfoot 1985) argue that belief is prior to and con-
stitutive of experience, and that only where people have been fully socialized
to Christian beliefs is it possible to have a fully Christian conversion experi-
ence, complete with a “sense of sin.” Indeed, anthropologistshave sometimes
implied that indigenous peoples, lacking such prior socialization, are unlikely
to be moved by “sin discourses” (Kroeber 1948: 612; Mead 1949: 126, 164,
277; Sahlins 1996: 425)-and thus unlikely to experience genuine religious
conversion to Christianity.
95
96 Robert J. Priest
“Sin” does play a part in Aguaruna conversion narratives -with most nar-
ratives containing the same basic elements found in Ducitak’s account above.
However, they typically present preconversion lives as ones without prior so-
cialization to Christian ideas and without a sense of sin. Puanchig, in his
fifties, says, “In the times before following Apujui . . . I did not sense myself
(dukuptsuijui) to be a sinner (tuduu) and did not feel that what I did was bad.”
The idea of self as sinner is presented as an emergent understanding triggered
by hearing the “word of Apujui.” Nuwakuk, in her forties, says: “[When] they
announced the word of Apajui, I discovered about myself (dekugmumuwumi-
ujui) that I was a sinner.” Old man Wampagkit says that upon hearing “the
word of Apajui . . . I saw/discovered (wuinmumkumiujui) my sin
(pegkegchuujun).” The theme of lacking a sense of sin is followed by an
emergent discovery of self as sinner and by vigorous affirmations of the self
as sinner: “Truly I am a sinner (tuduunuk)!”“I was very much of a sinner!”
“I was very evil (kufseknuk)!”“I am going to tell you how I worked badness
(pegkegchuun)!”“I used to work much sin.”
A sense of sin is emergent immediately prior to, or as an accompaniment
to, conversion. It does not appear to have preexisted as a core personality trait
or to have been structured by extensive prior socialization to Christian beliefs
and practices. It is this emergent sense of self as sinner that I explore in this
chapter. How are we to understand the statement “I discovered my sin”?
THE VOCABULARY OF SIN
When Aguaruna Christians characterize themselves as pegkegchuu, tuduu,

kutsek, yujuu, untuchu, or tsuwut, they are using everyday vocabulary.
Anything ugly, deformed, dirty, bad-tasting, damaged, or worthless is
pegkegchuu-“bad.” Applied to people, it is a term of moral condemnation.
Those who are thieves, adulterers, slanderers, stingy, lazy, or incestuous are
labeled pegkegchuu. Tuduu carries exclusively moral connotations and is
used to characterize anyone engaged in active transgressions like incest,
bestiality, wife-beating, adultery, sexual exhibitionism, theft, and, above all,
complaining about food one’s wife or mother has prepared. It is not used for
stigmatized but less active character traits like stinginess, gluttony, or lazi-
ness. Kutsek has the underlying idea of “damage.” It is used when one
breaks a pot or bums down a house, whether accidental or not. But it is also
used for adultery, theft, slander, homicide, fighting, and most disapproved
behaviors- with the implication that these are socially damaging. Yujuu is
used of those who are cruel, brutish, malicious, or without normal moral
sentiments. One who is yujuu, I was told, maliciously kills his neighbor’s
‘‘I Discovered M y Sin!” 97
animals, offers his sister to a passing stranger, molests women, carves im-
ages of female genitals along paths, and beats his mother, wife, child, or dog
when angry. Antuchu means “doesn’t listen” but is used to characterize any-
one rebelling against right order. Tsuwat literally means “dirty” but is con-
tinually invoked in moral discourse. Slander is tsuwat chicham (“dirty
speech”) and the slanderer tsuwat wenintin (“one with a dirty mouth”).
Tsuwat anentaintin (“one with a dirty heart”) is someone who outwardly
pretends good moral sentiments but is inwardly malevolent. One who
“works filth” (tsuwat takaamu) is committing adultery or stealing.
“Discovery of sin” for Aguaruna is not a result of new vocabulary being
learned. Contemporary Aguaruna Christians, like Old Testament Jews and
New Testament Christians, employ multiple words from everyday moral dis-
course to speak of moral defect and failure. No Aguaruna, Hebrew, or Greek
term has the distinctively religious connotations of our English word “sin .”
Theirs are everyday terms of moral disapproval that are also employed in re-
ligious discourse. The prior existence and deployment of such vocabulary in
everyday moral discourse is a necessary, but not sufficient, precondition for
the “sense of sin” found in Aguaruna conversions.
THE CONTENT OF MORAL IDEAS
But if the “discovery of self as sinner” is not contingent on new vocabulary,

might it not be contingent on new moral ideas that reframe formerly innocent
behaviors as sinful?
Conversion narratives touch on various sins. Sexual transgression is often
mentioned: “I, with women, have worked much sin.” Homicide figures
prominently: “I killed two people, and then another, and another and another.
Altogether I have killed five .” Slander, mockery, and threat are often men-
tioned: “I mocked other people.” “I spoke many bad words!” Sometimes bad
thoughts are mentioned: “I thought many bad thoughts!” Wife-beating and
theft are periodically referred to. And the sin of drinking or getting drunk
from manioc beer is a constant refrain. As these are described, narrators oc-
casionally voice the idea that formerly they did not see these as sinful. In the
context of describing his own homicides, one Christian says, “I saw the
killing which we Aguaruna do, and I thought it was good.” In the context of
listing his sins (“Drinking manioc beer, I beat my wife, and was a killer.”),
Puanchig stressed, “I did not understand that what I did was evil.”
The sins converts referred to tended to be ones already traditionally disap-
proved. There are two clear exceptions to this. Traditionally manioc beer was
a core staple, drunk from childhood. Mamai claimed that, as a child, she was
98 Robert J. Priest
told, “When we nampeamu (drink/party) without fighting, this makes Apajui

happy.” Although no other informant attributed such a sentiment to God, Ma-
mai accurately captures the traditional emphasis. Manioc beer is a source of
joy and pleasure. Moral warnings were against fighting, slandering, and pur-
suing affairs while drinking, not against drinking per se. Here, the moral mes-
sage of evangelists, under the influence of Nazarene missionaries, was a tee-
totaler message. Drinking was reconfigured as core to other evils.
Dati, a leading Aguaruna evangelist, told a story of Satan (Zwanch) sacri-
ficing a turkey, jaguar, and pig and pouring their blood over the plants from
which alcoholic beverages derive. Satan’s curse was that people who drink
too much will get puffed up and proud like a turkey, then mean and bad tem-
pered like a jaguar, and finally lie unconscious in their own filth on the
ground. The audience laughed uproariously, and the story was retold all af-
ternoon. Clearly, it was felt to reflect experienced realities. Aguaruna Chris-
tians describe preconversion lives where they frequently awoke after a nam-
pet (drinking party) with shame, anger, and fighting. My observations and
Harner’s (1972: 110) support this description. But although most mark their
conversion, in part, by their break with manioc beer, many subsequently mod-
ified their emphasis to an ethic of limited consumption-claiming to preach
only what the ancestors taught: “Don’t get drunk and fight.” On another oc-
casion, I heard Dati translating for a mestizo preacher. When he preached
against the sin of drinking beer, Dati stopped translating and said forcefully,
“We don’t preach that here! You can preach against getting drunk, but not
against drinking.” Dati, himself a teetotaler, no longer preaches a teetotaler
message. Many pastors have followed his lead. And yet conversion narratives
usually treat the break with manioc beer as core.
The second marked contrast with preconversion morality concerns attitudes
toward ikmat-“revenge.” Traditional moral discourse focused on a rhetoric of
diwi, or “debt.” Every death had to be avenged, thereby canceling the debt.
Under Aguaruna ideology, adult deaths were due either to physical violence or
to witchcraft (witches in this culture being male). And since every death had
to be avenged, homicide rates were high among Jivaroan groups. According to
Michael Brown’s (1984: 197) study, 37 percent of adult male deaths were due
to homicide-which he says is lower than in the past. Jane Ross’s study of the
less acculturated Achuar-Jivaro found that 59 percent of adult male deaths
were due to homicide, significantly higher than rates (21 percent and 41 per-
cent) reported for the Yanomami (Ross 1980: 46). When an Aguaruna Chris-
tian says, “I saw the killing which we . . . do, and thought it was good,” he ac-
curately reflects traditional sentiment. Aguaruna homicide is motivated by
indignation and justified as a righteous act of righting a prior wrong. Every
killer’s narrative begins with some other person’s unjustified homicide, which
“ I Discovered M y Sin!” 99
the killer is rectifying through a fully righteous act of ikmat-which cancels

the diwi. Since homicides were normally carried out by a group of men, each
spearing or shooting into the body and sharing credit for the killing, and since
male standing was directly dependent on participating in such violent acts,
most older men have participated in multiple killings. (For fuller treatment of
Aguaruna homicide, see Priest 1993: 244-353.)
Conversion narratives stress radical renunciation of a retaliatory ethic.
As evangelists stressed, “Unless you forgive others, Apajui will not forgive
YOU.” Wishu comments, “I did not know forgiveness until I followed Apajui.
Those who do me harm, I know Apajui will punish, so I do not worry.” And
again, “When my wife was unfaithful, and when they killed my brother,
I made no threats. I just told it to Apajui alone.” Dawai says, “My wife had
an affair . . .but I did not beat her. I treated her well.” Albino describes a man
beating him up for an imagined offense: “I did not retaliate. I only said,
‘brother, I reply in the name of Apajui. In vain you do this, but I forgive you.”’
Some traditionalists complain bitterly that pastors “protect witches” from be-
ing killed. Pastors defend accused witches not because they disbelieve the
witchcraft charge, but because God alone has the right to avenge a death.
When one old man, Wampagkit, went blind, others attributed it to witchcraft
and asked his authorization to retaliate against the witch. He refused, saying,
“If my enemy has harmed me, Apajui will defend me when he comes.”
When Aguaruna converts identify nampet (drinking/partying) or homicide
and other retaliatory acts as sins they have repented of, it appears that the
“discovery of self as sinner” is at least partially based on a recoding as sinful
of what was formerly approved. This does not fully explain the emergent
sense of self as sinner, however, since a majority of confessed sins are of a
sort already disapproved of within traditional culture.
BEFORE GOD
Elderly converts report minimal knowledge of Apajui prior to conversion.

Mamai says, “In former times we did not know of Apajui. The old ones just
said, ‘Apajui made the earth, and he lives. He will destroy it.”’ Apajui is fea-
tured in two traditional myths. In one, Apajui and Kumpanam lived on op-
posite cliffs where the Maraiion River cuts through the last ridge of moun-
tains. Apajui forbade Kumpanam from looking at his daughter. When
Kumpanam disobeyed, thus impregnating Apajui’s daughter, Apajui left in
anger for the sky. In another myth, Apajui comes to Earth, dirty and hungry,
seeking lodging. He is mocked and turned away. In anger, he announces a
flood. One family extended hospitality, so he told them to build a balsa raft,
100 Robert J. Priest
put dirt on it, plant crops, and build a house. The incestuous and those who
killed “in vain” (without justification) were excluded. Contact with the rain
by any who committed incest resulted in their flesh liquefying. Adults were
not to look at the sky, lest they die. As the water rose, threatening to crush
them against the sky, children who were sexually innocent were told to put
a staff through the roof and tap three times on the sky-at which point Apa-
jui caused the waters to recede.
The first of these myths corresponds to myths reported around the world of
a high god who withdraws from humankind after some transgression. The
second corresponds to similar flood myths reported in traditional societies
around the world. Whether or not such stories antedate or reflect European in-
fluences, they were deeply entrenched as traditional stories prior to the first
sustained presence of missionaries in the late 1920s.
Missionaries initially rejected Apajui as a term for God and used
“Tatayus”-a hybrid from Spanish and Quechua. But in the early 1960s,
when converts were observed addressing Apajui in prayer, missionaries con-
cluded that Apajui was an acceptable term for God. By the time of my field-
work, Tatayus was seldom mentioned.
The emergent sense of sin reported by Aguaruna converts is directly de-
pendent on discourses about Apajui, discourses reporting on “words” under-
stood as those of Apajui. Wampagkit describes his early life,
I lived in vain. . . . I was a nurnpen (drinkedpartier), and a fighter. When some-

one would be killed I would participate. My one desire was to be Kukujum. I
would mock other people. Living like this, I was happy. . . . I was not following
Apajui. Why? Because there was no one yet announcing the word of Apajui. At
that time I heard those who were announcing the word of Apajui, a good word.
And so I too followed Apajui. There I saw/discovered (wuinrnumkarniujui)my
sin @egkegchuujun). I said, “It is true. I have done that which Apajui does not
like.” And so I followed upu Jisusun.
REVERSING THE DIRECTION OF MORAL ACCUSATION
If one compares traditional moral discourses against those of Christian con-

verts, there does not appear to be a significant increase in the sheer number
of times that words of moral accusation occur. But there is a shift in where ac-
cusation is directed. Traditionally, it is almost always directed against an
“other,” virtually never against “self .” Some cultures encourage the individ-
ual to attribute misfortune to one’s own moral failure (“moral causal ontol-
ogy”), whereas others (“interpersonal causal ontology”) locate the source of
misfortune in another’s evil (Shweder, Much, Mahapatra, and Park 1997:
‘‘I Discovered M y Sin! ’’ 101
120-23). Aguaruna culture exemplifies the latter. That is, virtually every mis-
fortune triggers the quest for a guilty “other.”
Under Aguaruna ideology, a witch may be unaware he is a witch. But his
envy, hatred, anger, resentment, jealousy, and animosity toward another have
the mystical power to inflict sickness and death. In a typical scenario, when
someone is dying, a diagnostic process commences that includes social as-
sessments of the sentiments of neighboring men toward the dying person. Of
course, in a face-to-face community, where neighboring men have competed
for the few marriageable women, where individuals have cuckolded one
another, where some consistently have abundant food while others suffer
with less, and where gossip stirs resentments, animosities, and remembered
grudges, there will often be many whose known or suspected sentiments
make them prime suspects. And since every death must be avenged, every im-
pending death triggers a diffuse anxiety over who will be blamed as witch and
killed. A few weeks earlier, many may have clearly demonstrated envy, anger,
or resentment toward a healthy individual. As illness brings this person close
to death, however, the whole community shifts dramatically into a mode of
absolute solidarity with the victim, with vigorous pronouncements of righ-
teous indignation against the evil witch and a proclaimed willingness to
avenge the death of “my brother.” Each individual denies any witch-like sen-
timents within the self, adopts a moral stance of righteous indignation, and
joins in a communal act of identifying some other individual as the sole
repository of evil who must be eliminated by a righteous act of homicide.
People kill witches for the very traits often exemplified in their own lives.
Although witch discourse is only one part of moral discourse, it exempli-
fies a consistent tendency of traditional Aguaruna discourse to apply terms of
moral evil to “others” and almost never to “self.” “I discovered my sin!” is
notable, not for its moral vocabulary but for directing the accusing words
against the self. Conversion narratives, in agreement with the judgment of
Apajui, direct words of moral accusation against the self in a fundamental di-
vergence from patterns in the traditional culture. Conversion narratives name
the sins of the self in a context of repentance, confession, and renunciation.
FEAR A N D TREMBLING BEFORE GOD
Mamai’s reference to Apajui destroying the earth doubtless draws on the

flood myth and on the belief that earthquakes are sent by Apajui. In 1928, be-
tween May and December, there was a series of earthquakes and aftershocks
in this region measuring up to 7.3 on the Richter scale. I recorded numerous
Aguaruna accounts of this, including eight eyewitness accounts. Aguaruna
accounts describe landslides, salt springs pouring into rivers and killing fish,
and crevasses splitting houses in half. Night animals called out in daytime,
and day animals at night. Children were told not to “mock them.” People
gathered in large homes. They spoke in whispers. It was said Apajui was an-
gry and would destroy people for being tsuwat-dirty. Rumors spread that
women who had killed their infants would be eaten by worms. No one should
have sex lest Apajui be angry. The incestuous and those who had killed un-
justifiably were to be socially excluded lest everyone be destroyed. The flesh
of the incestuous would dissolve into liquid. Some said a flood would destroy
the world. Apajui, it was said, would send his chicken as a test. Narrators re-
port that animals (e.g., opossum, anteater, armadillo, cat, and turkey) entered
homes and acted tame. These were said to be the “animals of Apajui,” which
should be cared for, fed, and released, lest Apajui be angry. People danced
and sang to Apajui, asking why he created them if he is now destroying them.
“For what sin (tudau) do you now destroy us?’ They asked for pity and called
attention to their crying children or whimpering dogs. Later, the consensus
emerged that this dancing must be done nude. Men and women undressed and
danced, facing away from each other, holding up babies or puppies as they
looked to the sky and asked for pity: “Apajui, you see all of me, as I was born.
Have pity. Have pity on my crying baby.” As they danced, the earthquake
calmed. Men and women were not to look at each other, but some “bad men”
did not fear and looked at women, or reached out to touch them. Each time
this happened, the earthquake would start again. Adults eventually tired. The
children now sang and danced, puppies held up to Apajui. In some accounts,
only when the children danced, did the quakes stop. This event resulted in no
lasting religious changes, but the story, frequently retold, highlights Apajui as
one who brings judgment.
Fear of judgment by Apajui clearly contributes to many conversions. An-
quash describes visiting a village when an earthquake occurred: “I told them,
don’t be afraid of the earthquake. It is Apajui you should fear. He is fearsome
(ishamainuk). When I said this, everyone from Putjuk contracted themselves
(to Apajui).” Wishu said,
I lived in vain, killing people, getting drunk, fighting and talking in vain. Anto-
nio announced the word of Apajui, that those not contracted to Apajui will not
go to heaven (nayaimpinmak)but to the place of fire. And so I said, better that
I contract myself to Apajui.
Chijiap provides a similar account and concludes, “Because I saw the danger,
I followed Apajui.” In the context of discovering herself to be a sinner, Duci-
tak told herself, “‘Truly I am going to the place of fire.’ Thinking of this I
wept much.” Chamik heard the word of Apajui but rejected it. Later, as he re-
turned from participating in a homicide, he reports becoming overwhelmed

with fear, “thinking what would happen to me if I did not deliver myself to
Apajui.” A year later, he did so. Anquash, a self-described womanizer and
killer, reports having been warned, “If you don’t leave your sin (tuduu), you
will suffer very much.” The emergent sense of sin is, in part, an emergent fear
of deserved punishment. Prior fears of retaliation by an enemy now become
fear of punishment by an all-seeing and righteous God.
FORGIVENESS A N D SALVATION
Dawai ends his lengthy narrative with a two-sentence summary: “Before I

was a drunkard, a fighter (munin) and bad (pegkegchuu). . . . Now I know
what sin is, but I also know who Jesus Christ is.” Esach, after months of in-
ner turmoil over his spiritual state triggered by the death of a son, describes
going to a pastor’s house: “I wept when I spoke with him. He told me that it
was for my sin that Jesus died. And so I confessed my life before Apajui.”
“Jesus is able to ‘throw out’ sin,” Tiwi affirms. Anquash explains, “I asked
Apajui to forgive me (tsugkugtugtu), to erase (esukutjugtu)my sin.”
Conversion narratives maintain a clear focus on two alternatives, heaven
(nuyuinpinmuk) and hell (jinum). As sinners, people deserve hell. But for
those who renounce sin, seek forgiveness based on the death of Jesus, and
“contract themselves to” Apajui, there is forgiveness. Occasionally converts
describe dreams that feature heaven. Wishu describes a dream in which he
followed the “path of Apajui.” Beautiful flowers, delicious fruit, and per-
fumed birds are encountered.
I also saw the doves of Apajui. Their breast was the color of gold, and they sang
beautifully. The houses which I saw from a distance were very beautiful. A be-
ing told me, “you are going to live here. Even though you will suffer, don’t be
disturbed. Your suffering on earth will be in vain.” Telling me all, he showed me
the things of heaven. Even now I do not forget the things Apajui showed me.
In other narratives, individuals describe “dying” and being denied admit-

tance to a large house filled with followers of Apajui. Reviving, they “con-
tract themselves” to Apajui.
THE GOOD PATH
Aguaruna conversion narratives construct a vision of two alternative ways of

life. Puanchig says, “Dati preached the word of Apajui and the good path. He
preached that a follower of Apajui should not slander. From there I became a
true follower of Apajui.” He was also influenced by a dream in which “I saw
the dove of Apajui. It signaled me saying that this is the path of Apajui. And
so I contracted myself (to Apajui). Having contracted myself, I felt good.”
Repeatedly one hears of dreams in which two paths are faced, and the jour-
ney language of following a path or of following Apajui is frequent. Repeat-
edly “the good path” and “good words” and “the word of Apajui” are linked.
“Truly the word of Apajui is good” (Tiwi). “Now I live following good
words” (Shimpu). “I heard good words about Apajui” (Cruz). “I also want the
good path” (Tiwi). Perhaps the most common phrase describing conversion is
simply, “I followed (nemagkamiajai)Apajui.”
Preconversion lives are frequently presented as lives of personal disorder.
“I drank much, sometimes well, sometimes badly. Many times I fought. Vil-
lage leaders put me in jail. But this didn’t stop me. I drank much, killed some-
one, and attacked others (verbally). Those who followed Apajui I criticized. I
beat my wife, and injured her, so that her brothers beat me up” (Ujukam).
Drinking, retaliatory violence, slander, and marital fights and breakups are
typically featured as paradigmatic elements in a way of life subsequently re-
nounced in conversion. Testimonies and preaching construct a model of the
good life characterized by peace, forgiveness, love, sobriety, and fidelity. This
good life is found by following Apajui and his word. For converts, it was not
simply the condemnatory aspects of the religious message that motivated
them, but also the alternative vision of a good life. “With the word of Apajui,
we live in peace,” says Chamik, a former killer.
This is a society with a high rate of female suicide. In Brown’s (1984:
197) research, 58 percent of adult female deaths were due to suicide. And in
my own case material, it is clear that a majority of these are directly related
to the quality of marital relationships. The stories of suffering that women
tell, frequently as a result of the men in their lives, are poignant. The path
of Apajui provides new ideals. As Unug describes her conversion, follow-
ing that of her husband, she tells how, at his initiative, they made a promise
never to leave each other. “Very beautiful it is, to follow Apajui’s path,” she
concludes.
Many communities initially responded in mass to the new vision of peace,
stability, and love. Expectations, for some at least, were utopian. The break
with manioc beer was not sustained by many. Gossip, resentments, and bad
feelings did not fully disappear. Conversion narratives describe great strug-
gles, on occasion, with sexual desire, desire for manioc beer, and the wish to
retaliate against some offender. Many failed to maintain the new standards
and either temporarily or permanently dropped out of church life.
“The good path” was not fully instantiated in the lives of converts. But this
attractive image of the good is sustained in discourse, partially exemplified in
the lives of converts, and provides the context for discourses about sin. The
discovery of self as sinner is in part a result of an alternative vision of the
good life, against which specific actions and patterns are discovered to be sin-
fully problematic. As converts heard the word of Apajui-a word about the
good, not just about the bad-they discovered themselves to be sinners.
APAJUI AS COMPANION A N D GUIDE
Although the theme of escape from punishment is one component of these

narratives, a more central theme is that of entering into a personal relation-
ship with Apajui. Entsakua reports:
I contracted myself to Jesus. I came to know that Apajui loves us. I began to
obey Apajui. Before I knew Apajui I could not travel alone. After I contracted
myself to Jesus, when I traveled I felt as it there were two of us going together.
Now, praying to Apajui, I travel at night to hunt, without fear.
Wishu describes a dream he had at conversion: “Apajui put fragrant medicine

in my hair and bathed me. He said, I will never leave you. You are my son.
Upon awakening, my body had a fragrant smell. And I prayed to Apajui with
deep desire.” Mamai says, “When I contracted myself, I felt very contented,
light and good. I prayed all day to Apajui.” Jempets describes his conversion:
“I was very happy. With Apajui close by always, to talk to. And so I prayed
to Apajui, asking what I should do. Every day I prayed.” Again and again
when narrators describe sufferings undergone, they stress the companionship
of Apajui. Fifty-year-old Mamai describes her travails: “Although I suffered
much, I never left Apajui. . . . Although I suffer, I am with Apajui. . . . When
I get sick, no one cares for me . . .but I have Apajui. . . . I have suffered much.
. . . But whatever the sorrow, it passes. In the new life there are other thoughts.
We receive joy from Apajui.” Again and again, Wishu intersperses accounts
of his afflictions with comments like “Even if I walk alone, I am with Apa-
jui” and “Although I suffer, I go on with Apajui. Apajui is always with me.”
Puanchig says,
Having converted, I felt good. It seemed the spirit (wukuni) lived in my heart,
that it taught me and strengthened me. I went into the forest to pray. In this man-
ner I lived, happy. And because I have tried it, I say it is good to pray. . . , It
seems the spirit speaks in my heart, this way I feel what I should do, in my heart.
“Don’t do this, truly you cannot do this, those who work the work of Apajui do
not go about doing transgressions!”And I fear. While others commit faults, and
I have the thought of eating someone else’s fruit-whether papaya or peanuts-
Into my heart comes the thought that followers of Apajui do not eat the produce
of others, and this idea enters my heart. And so it is true what they say, that when
the spirit dwells in us, it teaches us.
SIN AS ONGOING REALITY
Narratives stress sins abandoned and removed at conversion: “All my sins I

left with Apajui” (Shimpu). But in fact their narratives reflect ongoing strug-
gle with sin. After mentioning his many preconversion sexual affairs, one
man comments, “Because I have worked sin so much, I do not feel sure of
not sinning, although I try.” A traveling evangelist laments. “It is hard to
preach without sinning. . . . With the strong bad desire for women I suffer.
. . . Although I have bad thoughts, I do not act on them.” Another says, “At
that time I confronted the powerful desire in my heart pushing me to sexual
(sin). But I decided to resist.” Another’s narrative includes this: “Then I
lusted greatly for many women. When this happened I went into the moun-
tain to pray to Apajui. (After fasting and prayer) I felt like a child, without
sexual desire.” The struggle with thirst for manioc beer, and ongoing strug-
gles with anger and the desire to retaliate for offenses and insults, are like-
wise frequent themes.
This chapter focuses on sin in Christian conversion, not sin in postconver-
sion life. However, it is worth noting that in these narratives ‘‘sin’’ is a concept
continually brought to bear in all phases of the Christian’s life. It is ongoing
subjective experiences related to struggling with sin that add greatly to the
grip that this concept has on the lives of Aguaruna converts. Many Aguaruna
who initially converted and subsequently left the church did so under circum-
stances involving what was understood both by them and by others as the in-
ability or unwillingness to overcome some temptation to sin. Indeed, I repeat-
edly encountered evidence that many such individuals believed themselves to
be in a state of sin that they someday expected to repent of or that they found
themselves unable to extricate themselves from. Pujupat, a former convert, de-
scribes having been slandered as a follower of Apajui, subsequently having an
affair, leaving the church, adding another wife, and returning to drink. Worry-
ing that he was “being lost for good,” he decided to spend time praying to
Apajui: “I wept and went into the forest alone. I said to myself, ‘when I do
this, I will feel good and joyful.’ But I felt only empty. I noted that Apajui did
not speak to me, and that I was completely abandoned. So I understood. From
“I Discovered M y Sin! ” 107
that time until now I have not been restored in my soul (wakan).Until now I
am like this.” In his narrative, he goes on to try and figure out what went
wrong in his own life. But his reasoning continues to operate within the frame-
work of Christian symbolism. That is, fully ten years after leaving the church,
Pujupat is gripped by a set of symbols-a pivotal one being that of sin.
In conversion, people grasp and are grasped by a system of symbols that
tells them about themselves and that contributes to the construction of new
selves (Stromberg 1985). One such symbol in evangelical discourses is sin, a
core element in what Hallowell (1976: 24) identifies as Christianity’s “folk
anthropology.” Evangelistic narratives of sin draw on traditional vocabulary,
speak to lived experiences of transgression and moral failure, construct alter-
native visions of the good, proclaim the existence of a morally concerned de-
ity, reconfigure self-identity around a shared sinful condition that requires
conversion, and encourage an active process of personal transformation in ac-
cord with the “word of God” and grounded in a personal relationship with
God. Personal testimony is the preferred form of communication -fusing to-
gether the symbolic and the experiential. Narratives examined in this chapter
fuse together personal experience and religious symbol in a way that provides
personal coherence and models the route to a new self. Even when the new
self remains unattained, the new symbols continue to exert influence and au-
thority not easily ignored.
REFERENCES
Brown, Michael. 1984. Una Paz Incierta: Historia y cultura de las Comunidades
Aguarunas Frente a1 Impact0 de la Carretera Marginal. Lima, Peru: CAAAP.
Hallowell, A. Irving. 1976. “The History of Anthropology as an Anthropological
Problem.” In Contributions to Anthropology: Selected Papers of A. Irving Hallow-
ell, edited by Raymond D . Fogelson and Fred Eggan, pp . 21-35. Chicago: Univer-
sity of Chicago Press.
Harner, Michael. 1972. The Jivaro. Berkeley: University of California Press.
James, William. 1902. The Varieties of Religious Experience. Longman, Green, and
co.
Kroeber, Alfred. 1948. Anthropology. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World.
Mead, Margaret. 1949. Coming ofAge in Samoa. New York: New American Library.
Priest, Robert J. 1993. Defilement, Moral Purio, and Transgressive Power: The Sym-
bolism of Filth in Aguaruna Jivaro Culture. Ph.D. diss., University of California,
Berkeley.
-. 2000. “Christian Theology, Sin, and Anthropology.” In Anthropology and
Theology: God, Icons, and God-talk, edited by Walter R. Adams and Frank A. Sala-
mone, pp. 59-75. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America.
Proudfoot, Wayne. 1985. Religious Experience. Berkeley: University of California

Press.
Ross, Jane B. 1980. “Ecology and the Problem of Tribe.” In Beyond the Myths of Cul-
ture, edited by Eric B. Ross, pp. 33-60. New York: Academic Press.
Sahlins, Marshall. 1996. “The Sadness of Sweetness: The Native Anthropology of
Western Cosmology.” Current Anthropology 37: 395-428.
Shweder, Richard A., Nancy C. Much, Manamohan Mahapatra, and Lawrence Park.
1997. “The ‘Big Three’ of Morality and the ‘Big Three’ Explanations of Suffering.”
In Morality and Health, edited by Allan Brandt and Paul Rozin, pp. 119-69. New
York: Routledge.
Stromberg, Peter G. 1985. “The impression Point: Synthesis of Symbol and Self.”
Ethos 13: 56-74.
9
Turning the Belly: Insights on Religious
Conversion from New Guinea Gut Feelings
Roger lvar iohmann
I n this chapter,’ I present a glimpse of a Melanesian way of experiencing

one’s own mind and will, in which there is not one soul but two, and one’s
souls are not only internal but also external. Human volition and agency are
most apparent to us when in flux and transition, and one of the greatest mo-
ments of change in the will occurs when one leaves behind one set of beliefs,
morals, and relationships and embraces another during religious conversion.
The people I describe are the Asabano, a group of 200 living in the moun-
tainous rainforests of Papua New Guinea.
I present an ethnographic description emphasizing how Asabano under-
stand religious belief and conversion to occur, based on their experience of
rejecting their traditional religion for Baptist Christianity. The Asabano see
conversion first of all as a change in relationships with supernatural beings
and only secondarily as an affiliation with new beliefs and people. Moving
beyond the Asabano perspective to my own theoretical one, I argue that su-
pernatural beings are imagined and suggest that in the case of the Asabano
conversion, at least, religious conversion involves discontinuing or severing
relationships with certain supernatural beings in favor of others. The old
spirits have not ceased to exist for Asabano; they are merely ignored. Ex-
tending from the Asabano case, I suggest that true, voluntary religious con-
version be measured in terms of this change in relationships with supernat-
ural beings and not simply in terms of “change in religious affiliation” or
even “cosmological and moral assumptions,” which are consequential (cf.
Barker 1993: 199).
109
110 Roger Ivar Lohrnann
TURNING THE BELLY
Conversion is often described as turning-away from one way of being and

toward another. In fact, turning and returning are literal meanings behind the
biblical Hebrew and Greek terms for conversion (Rambo 1993: 3). Nock
(1933: 7) calls it
a reorientation of the soul of an individual, his deliberate turning from indiffer-

ence or from an earlier form of piety to another, a turning which implies a con-
sciousness that a great change is involved, that the old was wrong and the new
is right.
Similarly, the Asabano and other speakers of the creole language Tok Pisin
describe transformations as turning, or tunim. “Translation” is rendered “turn-
ing speech,” or tunim tok; a witch may “turn [into a] pig,” or tunim pik, to
stalk human prey. When referring to religious conversion, the metaphor of ro-
tation signifies not only a transformed understanding but also a new set of de-
sires and actions. This turning takes place in the belly, where volition in the
form of two souls is understood to originate. Thus, like Nock, the Asabano
describe conversion as reorienting the soul through turning.
The notion of abdominally-residing volition, common in Melanesia, is also
manifested in Tok Pisin expressions. One communicates anger by saying
one’s belly is hot, or belhut, and reaching consensus is described as being of
one belly, or wunbel. Of course, in English one might speak of having but-
terflies in the stomach before a performance or a gut feeling that one has an
immortal soul. Desire, tension, and even supernatural revelations can be ex-
perienced and linguistically described as changes in the rumblings of human
bellies around the world.
It was through abdominal goings-on that the Asabano say they converted to
Christianity. Asabano personify aspects of human volition as spirits that reside
in the stomach and intestines, where they direct thoughts and actions. Belief in
a spirit, the Asabano say, brings it into contact with the person, and the spirit’s
presence in turn causes new beliefs and ideas to appear. The expression tunim
be1 means literally to turn one’s belly and can figuratively mean to change
one’s mind, affiliation, or feelings about something-in short, to convert.
For Asabano, however, describing religious conversion as a stomach turned
is not merely a metaphorical usage. They say that they accepted beliefs intro-
duced by Baptist missionaries only when the Holy Spirit literally entered and
turned their bellies-changed the orientation of their minds. For Asabano, re-
ligious conversion means taking on new directing beings and expelling oth-
ers from the multipartite self located in the digestive tract. Exchanging sub-
Turning the Belly 111
stances with others in Melanesia is the very essence of relationships, and it in-
dicates spiritual interpenetration as well (see Stewart et al., 2001). Therefore,
the relationships with supernatural beings that make up Asabano religious
commitment do not involve two independent beings. For the Asabano, reli-
gious conversion entails a blending of the person’s personified volitional
drives with those of the supernatural being to whom devotion is declared.
THE ASABANO
The Asabano are an ethnic group of about 200 people who speak their own
language (Lohmann 2000a). They live near the mountainous center of New
Guinea, in remote and rugged forest near the turbulent river Fu. They are
among the last of New Guinea’s peoples to be contacted by the West, having
been visited by an Australian colonial patrol for the first time in 1963.
At the time of this contact, the Asabano lived in several shifting hamlets,
consisting of a communal great house where women and families slept, a
men’s clubhouse, and a women’s menstrual house. The various small groups
made a living by slash-and-burn gardening, hunting, pig raising, and gather-
ing of wild foods. Their country was sparsely populated by groups speaking
Asaba and five other languages. Groups made shifting alliances and war with
one another in a series of paybacks that resulted in a continual threat of vio-
lence and abduction of women and children.
According to the Asabano traditional imagination, the world always ex-
isted. Founding ancestors changed the landscape and established human
groups and customs. A supernatural world suffuses and coexists with physi-
cal reality, where spirits inhabit or can transform into physical objects. Pools,
trees, and stones are associated with generally belligerent spirits that attack
people by making them ill. Such illnesses are still considered the physical
manifestation of soul capture. In the bush also dwell wobuno, sprite-like peo-
ple in mystical villages who can help hunters by leading them in dreams to
their wild pigs.
Living people too have supernatural aspects: a big soul responsible for gen-
erous thought and behavior and a little soul responsible for selfish thought and
behavior (Lohmann 2003a). Some people’s generous natures and good rela-
tionships with spirits lead them to become seers, making soul journeys to su-
pernatural haunts and healing the sick. Other people, their large intestines
(called alikamayasuw in Asaba) inhabited by anthropophagic baby animals,
are compelled to ruthlessly kill by witchcraft and consume the flesh of their
own family and friends. Big souls of the dead live in their own villages in
known areas of the forest and are capable of helping people in war, pig raising,
112 Roger Ivar Lohmann
and gardening, especially when their bones are preserved and honored. Mean-
while, their little souls lurk at their gravesites, ready to attack the living.
Traditional religious practices included mythological training for boys in
initiation rituals, in which secret myth versions and tabooed foods were pre-
sented amidst ordeals. Initiations were conducted away from women, who
were thought to have debilitating effects on men and were forbidden to know
the secrets of Asabano mythology. Prayers, offerings, and magic were di-
rected at the spiritual world to ensure success in food procurement and mili-
tary actions, the two most obsessive of traditional Asabano concerns.
By the early 1970s, the Australian government had halted most raiding.
Bands of Asaba speakers who had been diminished by military defeats and in-
fluenza joined together at the edge of their territory to be nearer to the Aus-
tralian patrol post at Telefomin. Ethnic Telefol missionaries led by a young
pastor named Diyos, themselves first-generation converts of the Australian
Baptist Missionary Society, set up a Bible college and an airstrip near the
Asabano village. The place is now labeled Duranmin on maps, after the Tele-
fol name for the Asabano.
Three years after the founding of the mission, Diyos presided over a charis-
matic revitalization movement known locally as the revival, in which virtu-
ally all Asabano converted to Christianity amid ecstatic religious experiences.
In church services punctuated with spirited preaching, people collapsed and
saw visions, spoke in tongues, and publicly confessed sins. Asabano people
told me that these things happened because the Holy Spirit came down and
entered people’s bellies. They never mentioned which specific organs were
involved-perhaps because this was an unfamiliar spirit whose residential
seat in the human body was unknown, or to signify that he occupied the en-
tire belly and thus brought all aspects of volition under his control.
They said that the Holy Spirit, through Diyos, demanded that men’s initia-
tion houses and ancestral bone sacra be burned. No more initiations were to
be staged; no more offerings were to be made to local spirits, who were la-
beled demons aligned with Satan. Prayer to God and Jesus were to take the
place of all dealings with local spirits. Several people, mostly women, had vi-
sions and dreams in which the Holy Spirit informed them that some men were
continuing to hide sacra and make offerings to wobuno, tree spirits, and an-
cestors. The men, many of whom really were hedging their bets by retaining
contacts with local spirits, were amazed when these revelations became pub-
lic. They were further convinced not only that the Christian supernaturals
were real but also that they demanded an exclusive relationship.
By the time I arrived in 1994 for a year and a half of fieldwork, their revival
had become a Baptist church. Most people decried their traditional religion as
a set of Satan-propagated deceptions designed to hide the existence of the
Christian god. They did not doubt that the local spirits existed, but they had self-
consciously turned their backs on them in order to further their relationship with
the Christian god and his associates, like Jesus, the Holy Spirit, and angels.
There was much to be gained from this relationship, they told me (Lohmann
2001). Since Christianization, retributive raids and executions of accused
witches had been stopped. Revenge was God’s business, and they were freed
from the responsibility to maintain the endless chain of paybacks. With the
male-centered religion abolished, the complex food taboos were abandoned.
God had made everything free for all to eat, pastors told them-only Satan de-
clared that women and children should not be allowed to share. With Christian
prayer, people said, gardens grew better and hunts were more successful.
To understand the Asabano conversion, we must examine their own expe-
rience and interpretation of what happened. I turn first to the Asabano theory
of volition, so that their perspective on volitional changes like religious con-
version are rendered sensible to the outsider.
ASABANO EXPLANATIONS OF VOLITION AND CONVERSION
Isaguo, a middle-aged woman who always called me “grandson,” described

how the Asabano accepted Christianity in the revival of 1977. One of the big
moments was the advent of Christian “spirit work,” when the Holy Spirit en-
tered their bellies.
Diyos and all the pastors and missionaries from big places came and told us [that
God created the world], and we ourselves got spirit work and the [Holy] Spirit
Himself explained this to us. When the revival came down, all of the men and
women got the spirit work, and the Spirit said to leave the old customs. So we
believed it. The movement [shaking, which accompanies possession] of the Holy
Spirit must be true, so we believe it. We believe strongly, when we plant food,
in only one or two months the food is already ready. It will grow fast and true,
so we believe it must be true. Another thing is that when the men go hunting they
kill more animals, so we believe God gives them this. We see the Holy Spirit
come down and go into the belly of a man in visions, so we know God is true. I
myself saw the Holy Spirit come down through the head and into the stomach.
The Holy Spirit is like a bird, a dove [Asaba: rnadibanedu]. We saw this first and
then we saw a picture of the Holy Spirit just like this afterwards-the pastors
who came to preach showed us the picture. Also in dreams we see that, so we
believe it. Starting with the revival we saw this. So we believe it’s true.
The Asabano say that they converted because the Holy Spirit entered and
turned their bellies, but what does this really mean? How do they model the
mental ability to decide and act? Virtually all peoples model volition by in-
voking the supernatural (Lohmann 2003b). We often envision a little person
at the controls: one who perceives, reacts, and directs the body. In most
ethnopsychologies, this self, will, life-spark, or witness is equated with or re-
lated to an internal spirit that is also somehow external. Many peoples believe
it able to leave the body during dreams and to remain alive and mobile after
the body dies. Spiritual sources of volition may also be entirely external. Eu-
ropean Christians sometimes excuse regretted actions by saying “the Devil
made me do it” or by crediting their creations to God, who used the human
artist as a mere vehicle. These are versions of classic religious beliefs that are
found among practically all peoples in the world, including the Asabano.
Whereas many Europeans imagine the personal volitional agent to reside
in the head, the Asabano believe volitional beings are in the torso and are par-
ticularly associated with the intestines, called alisaw in Asaba, but also with
the heart or sosabu, which is linked to caring for others. Witches supposedly
have their hearts cut out in their nefarious initiations so that when their intes-
tinal animal spirits demand human flesh, they will feel no compunction
against killing their own family members.
For most Europeans, the individual’s volition is understood by definition to
be internal, with “possession” by an external spirit considered to be a fairly
unusual and unnatural condition (see Goodman 1988). For Asabano, spiritual
control of the individual, in the form of competing actions of both internal
and external volitional agents, is considered the normal condition of life.
They see plentiful evidence for this in the form of people’s changing their
minds, behaving generously some times and stingily other times, having
awareness of certain ideas sometimes and others at other times, and wander-
ing about in dreams while the immobile body remains alive.
As Guthrie (1993) convincingly argues, anthropomorphism is ubiquitous
in religion. Virtually all peoples use anthropomorphic images to model voli-
tion, seeing whole, humanlike, more or less ethereal beings of a supernatural
kind -“souls”- as responsible for human thought and action. The Asabano
carry this supernatural image of the self farther than most Europeans, per-
sonifying volition very literally, seeing all beliefs and desires as spirit-mani-
festations. These intestinally dwelling beings direct the thoughts and actions
of their human host. The person is not understood to be a completely inde-
pendent being that merely reacts to them but is rather made up of these vari-
ous spiritual influences that are also influencing others. This is at least one of
the important ways that Melanesians experience themselves as much more in-
terconnected “dividuals” than the isolated individuals of Western ethnopsy-
chologies (cf. Strathern 1988).
Asabano traditional belief divides human volition into two basic kinds:
greedy and generous. Greed, epitomized by hiding to eat alone rather than
sharing, is selfish and promotes isolation. Generosity is epitomized by sharing
and socializing, promoting relationships and goodwill. Asabano consider both
of these volitional phases to be integral to the person-it is impossible for one
to be completely good or bad, but it is common for one side to dominate un-
der certain conditions. They model these volitional forces as two souls. As
noted above, the generous side is called the “big soul” and lives in the stom-
ach, called in Asaba alialubu, and the greedy side is called the “little soul” and
lives in the small intestines or alikamalanesaw. In waking life, the big soul is
with the body, promoting smooth relations with others, called in Tok Pisin
belisi or “tranquil belly.” In dreams and death, the superego-like big soul
leaves the body. The id-like little soul remains closely associated with the
body at all times, heating the belly by promoting selfish desires and antisocial
behaviors like fighting and anger or belhat. Even at death, the little soul stays
at the forest gravesite where it may maliciously attack the living.
Traditional Asabano religion was concerned with managing relationships
with spirits. They made use of antisocial feelings by directing the little soul’s
taunts at outside groups in the form of payback raids, while encouraging the
big soul’s generosity within the group. They minimized contacts with dan-
gerous spirits of natural objects by maintaining silence in known haunts, and
they made them offerings to achieve the return of ill people’s souls. Positive
relations with wobuno were sought through offerings to ensure good hunts.
Wobuno were supposed to sit on smokers’ backs during tobacco-enhanced
consultations and tell them what to say.
No one ever spoke of wobuno or nature spirits as actually entering the belly
to direct people’s thoughts and actions. Ironically, the intestinally dwelling
witchcraft spirit serves as the model for conversion to Christianity because in
both cases one’s own will is taken over by an entering spirit. Whereas the
witchcraft spirits direct a person to murder and cannibalism, the Holy Spirit
allows completely positive relations with others and makes a harmonious life
and afterlife possible.
Asabano explain that Christian belief, or bilip in Tok Pisin, means estab-
lishing a relationship with God by allowing the Holy Spirit to live in the
belly. Remaining in close contact with the person, the Holy Spirit causes new
feelings, thoughts, convictions, and ideas to appear, and it directs future ac-
tions. The Christian expression “God is my copilot,” if taken quite literally,
captures something of the sense of how Asabano experience this relationship
with volitional beings in their world. When Asabano people describe their
acceptance of Jesus’ sacrifice and their belief in God the father or Papa God,
as they routinely call him, they point to the Holy Spirit’s presence in their
bellies as having made this possible.
At the time of my fieldwork, I heard people describing their big soul as
though it were somehow identical to the Holy Spirit and their little soul as
though it were the same as Satan. I found myself drawing on my own cultural
background to build a mental image of this equation. Recalling Saturday
morning cartoons of my childhood, I pictured a cartoon devil on one shoul-
der encouraging naughtiness and an angel on the other urging restraint. Some-
times informants described their souls as free agents, but other comments
showed that they thought of them as being closely tied or even identical to the
grand external personifications of good and evil, God and Satan.
To summarize, in the Asabano view, multiple beings are responsible for hu-
man awareness and volition. Some are more idiosyncratic and internal, but
others are more universal and external. They interact and even merge in the
belly to result in the flow of images and thoughts that make up conscious
awareness. Depending on which among these spirits are able to share resi-
dence in the belly and which are excluded or dominated by those already ac-
tive there, one’s belly will be turned toward this way of being or that. To be-
have wickedly is to nurture one’s relationship with, or one’s own aspect of,
greedy, witch-like, or Satanic beings to the exclusion and suppression of
one’s generous or godly beings. To be virtuous is to maintain strong relation-
ships with the personified sources of generous social behavior.
For Asabano, to convert from one religion to another is to reduce contact
with or expel some directing spirits from one’s belly and to increase contact
and interactions with other directing spirits, taking them into the belly and
thus making them quite literally a part of the new person. From the Asabano
point of view, converting from traditional religion to Christianity involved
allying one’s big soul with an even bigger soul of similar disposition: the
Holy Spirit.
CONVERSION AND RELATIONSHIPSWITH IMAGINARY BEINGS
Religious adherence usually has a relationship with supernatural beings at its

center. A committed relationship with God is at the heart of what Asabano
mean when they say “belief.” Belief as a contractual, kinship, or love rela-
tionship with imagined beings provides not only intellectual satisfaction but
also the enriched emotional life and sense of loyalty and obligation that come
with all kinds of relationships. This accounts for the social rather than merely
intellectual quality of religious experience and identity -something that is
quite lacking in one-way relationships with ideas.
We have in religious relationships with imagined others what Buber

(1958) calls the “I-you” relationship- a mutual dialogical relationship be-
tween two knowing beings. He contrasted this with one-way “I-it” functional
relationships such as that between a person and a nonliving thing. Religious
believers accept the existence of spiritual beings as “real” in the sense that
they have consciousness and the ability to engage in mutual relationships
with people. The I-you relationships with supernatural beings in religious
belief, broken and reforged in conversion, are real in that people experience
them. However, they are imaginary in that they originate in the mind as per-
sonified models of subconscious or apparently autonomous feelings and
thoughts, such as those that come to us unbidden in dreams or when we are
of two minds about something.
In Mead’s (1930) classic study of Manus Island childrearing, she found
that children only came to believe in spirits after they were introduced to
them by their parents. Being told of spirits’ or gods’ existence as children,
people can imagine that they exist in theory by exercising the intellect. The
social support makes the supernatural seem so plausible that people often
take its existence for granted even without having any direct religious expe-
riences. Later, people often come to have an emotional stake in the assumed
existence of spiritual beings because they begin to relate to these imaginary
beings as though they were physical people. Talking to supernatural beings
in prayer and interpreting natural happenings as their responses, human lives
become entwined with them. This can be intensified in religious experience
when the person perceives a direct encounter with the spirit, typically in
dream or trance as was common in the Asabano revival. Direct religious ex-
periences are highly convincing as evidence and as emotional assurance of
one’s relationship with a supernatural other. Encountering a spirit represen-
tative of a new religion provides a potent catalyst to religious conversion
(Lohmann 2000b).
True conversion means taking on a relationship with new supernatural
beings and possibly (but not necessarily) severing relationships with old
ones. When advocates teach novices new bodies of mythology, it may at
first be remembered as a list of beliefs. But novices do not truly adopt the
beliefs and become true converts except as a consequence of establishing
imagined relationships with the new supernatural beings who feature in the
introduced myths.
When the Asabano describe the Holy Spirit turning their bellies, this shows
that an experience of relation with a greater, outside, humanlike being com-
mandeering the person’s volitional controls is how Asabano perceive and
model conversion. Consider this testimony by Peter, the headman of Yakob
village, describing how he became a serious Christian. “I was a willful boy
118 Roger lvar Lohmann
and used to hit my sisters. I wouldn’t close my eyes when we prayed. Then I
changed and I thought it must be God who had turned my belly, when I real-
ized that these ways were no good.” Only after Peter felt that God had entered
into a relational, volitional exchange with him did he accept the value of
Christian morality and belief.
When conceptualizing religions as a set of beliefs, it is easy to forget that
converts’ acceptance of beliefs and dogmas is often a secondary consequence
to their choosing a social relationship with imagined beings (and their physi-
cal representatives, missionaries and other advocates). The beliefs about
heavenly or cargoistic rewards that attract Christian-influenced Melanesians
are but consequences of a relationship with God and his associates. A person
may accept a new relationship with a recently introduced supernatural being
in part because of perceived benefits, such as promises of wealth or happi-
ness. But there is also often a sense in the convert that his or her own will has
been surrendered to the supernatural being who is the focus of the new reli-
gion, and the supposed rewards are but fringe benefits.
In a survey of religious conversion, Rambo (1993: 132) writes, “The ex-
perience of surrender is, for many converts, the turning point away from the
old life and the beginning of a new life, produced not by one’s own control-
ling volition but by the power of God’s grace.” Conversion involves chang-
ing one’s beliefs and morals, but only because of an interaction between
one’s own volition and that of the supernatural being into whose service one
is embarking.
Depending on what characteristics particular supernatural beings have, dif-
ferent kinds of relationships with them are possible. Religions featuring su-
pernaturals depicted as universally welcoming, regardless of the convert’s
ethnic or family background, are able to spread in a variety of social condi-
tions, whereas those featuring ethnocentric gods and spirits allow scant pos-
sibilities for relationships with outsiders (cf. Horton 197 1).
In his introduction to a collection of essays on conversion to Christianity,
Hefner (1993) points out that the world religions all have their origin in early
civilizations, and as such arose in response to the new problems presented by
multiethnic state-level societies. What makes them so successful, he argues,
is the link in their ideologies between a strong transcendentalism, with an im-
plication that human life can be dramatically transformed for the better, and
institutionalized proselytizing. This combination has produced “religions that
are without parallel in human history. Political empires and economic systems
have come and gone, but the world religions have survived. They are the
longest lasting of civilization’s primary institutions” (Hefner 1993: 34). These
observations hint at how different kinds of social relationships in the human
world make relevant and appealing distinctive types of imagined supernatu-

ral relationships. My point was made somewhat differently, of course, by
Durkheim (1965 [1915]) when he theorized that totems and gods are em-
blems that allow people to worship their own societies.
Social scientists often stress the importance of relationships with religious
group leaders, missionaries, and other human advocates in the religious soci-
ety that the new convert joins. For example, converts may be drawn to a
prophet’s charisma (Burridge 1995 [1960]; Lindholm 1990; Weber 1963
[1922]). They enjoy a sense of belonging in a group that is centered on the
same beliefs (Weininger 1955). And they can more easily rationalize and in-
dulge in the attractive spiritual beliefs of the group through socially rein-
forced plausibility (Berger 1980). These are some of the many benefits and
consequences of the new human relationships taken up in conversion (see
Rambo 1993: 108-1 13). But there is much to learn from shifting our attention
away from the relationships among members of a newly joined religious
group to see those inside the convert’s own imagination. Here are the rela-
tionships for which religious people themselves say they convert: mystical
exchanges of volition among supernatural personas-souls and other spirits,
mixing and exchanging desires and wills.
At the heart of much religion lies a sense of social relationship with imag-
inary supernatural beings. These beings are in fact parts of the self that appear
autonomous, that appear “wholly other,” to use Otto’s (1958 [ 19231) classic
phrase. Thus, we see kinship or companionable terms being applied to super-
natural beings (Rambo 1993: 160-61). For example, the Asabano call the
Christian deity “Father God.” This accounts for a number of emotions asso-
ciated with religious conversion experiences: mystery and awe from the fa-
miliar yet strange sense of another being’s presence in one’s own mind, and
comfort or fear as is elicited by any number of interactions with another so-
cial being. A sense of conflicting or embraced loyalty and caring are common
in any emotionally salient human relationship. To convert, then, becomes an
abandonment of one set of relationships with imagined beings as well as
physical persons, and their replacement with a new set.
We can learn much about changing imaginary relationships in religious
conversion by looking at how people behave in changing relationships with
their rejected spirits and with physical people. Entering into relationships with
a new set of supernatural beings, one carries manners of relating that were de-
veloped in the old relationships. For example, new Asabano converts to Chris-
tianity related to the Holy Spirit as though he were one of the wobuno, pray-
ing to incubate dreams in which he appeared with hunting information. This
enables them to approach him through enacting their own relational schemas.
120 Roger Ivar bhmann
CONCLUSION
In this chapter, I described how Asabano themselves modeled their religious

conversion to Christianity as the Holy Spirit’s entering into their bellies and
changing their volitional tendencies. They stressed a relationship with new
supernatural beings as being at the heart of their conversion.
I have argued that by simply thinking of religions as institutionalized sets
of lifeless beliefs, we miss the point that to most believers, relationships with
supernatural beings are central elements of religion. These relationships are
learned, of course, and exist only in the imagination, but they remain real and
important to those who hold them. When religion is understood as mere cos-
mology and mythology, explanations for conversion can look only to the rel-
ative appeal of different theories and accounts of the supernatural. Religion
appears to be nothing but a list of belief propositions. However, the personi-
fication of mental agents connects these beliefs in the idiom of group identity
and loyalty. Religious conversion is, therefore, something profound- a global
paradigm shift, or the transformation of relationships-rather than the mere
acceptance and endorsement of a few new ideas.
NOTE
1. Versions of this chapter were presented as a Mind, Medicine, and Culture Sem-
inar at the Department of Anthropology, University of California, Los Angeles on
March 11,2002; as a research talk at the Department of Anthropology, Central Wash-
ington University, Ellensburg, Washington, on April 2, 2002; as a colloquium at the
Department of Anthropology, Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine, on April 5,2002;
as a part of the session “Religious Discourse and the Global Context,” chaired by Phil
Stevens at a meeting of the Society for the Anthropology of Religion, Cleveland,
Ohio, April 6,2002; as a guest presentation for The Sociology and Anthropology Club
at The College of Wooster, Wooster, Ohio, on April 16, 2002; and as a research talk
at the Department of Anthropology, Grand Valley State University, Allendale, Michi-
gan, on January 31, 2003. I thank my listeners for their encouragement, stimulating
questions, and insightful comments.
REFERENCES
Barker, John. 1993. “‘We are Ekelesia’: Conversion in Uiaku, Papua New Guinea.”
Great Transformation, edited by R. W. Hefner, pp. 199-230. Berkeley: University
of California Press.
Berger, Peter L. 1980. The Heretical Imperative. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday.
Buber, Martin. 1958. I and Thou. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.
Bumdge, Kenelm. 1995 [ 19601. Mambu: A Melanesian Millennium. Princeton, N.J.:
Princeton University Press.
Durkheim, Emile. 1965 [1915]. The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life. New
York: MacMillan Publishing.
Goodman, Felicitas D. 1988. How About Demons? Possession and Exorcism in the
Modern World. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Guthrie, Stewart Elliott. 1993. Faces in the Clouds: A New Theory of Religion. Ox-
ford: Oxford University Press.
Hefner, Robert W. 1993. “Introduction: World Building and the Rationality of Con-
version .” In Conversion to Christianity: Historical and Anthropological Perspec-
tives on a Great Transformation, edited by R. W. Hefner, pp. 3 4 . Berkeley: Uni-
versity of California Press.
Horton, Robin. 1971. “African Conversion.” Africa 41: 85-108.
Lindholm, Charles. 1990. Charisma. London: Basil Blackwell.
Lohmann, Roger Ivar. 2000a. Cultural Reception in the Contact and Conversion His-
tory of the Asabano of Papua New Guinea. Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin-
Madison.
-. 2000b. “The Role of Dreams in Religious Enculturation among the Asabano
of Papua New Guinea.” Ethos 28, no. 1: 75-102.
-. 2001. “Introduced Writing and Christianity: Differential Access to Religious
Knowledge among the Asabano.” Ethnology 40, no. 2: 93-1 11.
-.2003a. “Supernatural Encounters of the Asabano in Two Traditions and Three
States of Consciousness.” In Dream Travelers: Sleep Experiences and Culture in
the Western Pacijic, edited by R. I. Lohmann. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
-. 2003b. “The Supernatural is Everywhere: Defining Qualities of Religion in
Melanesia and Beyond.” In “Perspectives on the Category ‘Supernatural.”’ An-
thropological Forum 13, no. 2 (special issue), edited by R. I. Lohmann.
Mead, Margaret. 1930. Growing up in New Guinea: A Comparative Study of Primi-
tive Education. New York: Morrow.
Nock, A. D. 1933. Conversion: The Old and the New in Religion from Alexander the
Great to Augustine of Hippo. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Otto, Rudolf. 1958 [1923]. The Idea of the Holy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Stewart, Pamela J., and Andrew Strathern, with contributions by Ien Courtens and Di-
anne van Oosterhout. 2001. Humors and Substances: Ideas of the Body in New
Guinea. Westport, Conn.: Bergin and Garvey.
Strathern, Marilyn. 1988. The Gender ofthe Gift. Berkeley: University of California
Press.
Weber, Max. 1963 [1922]. The Sociology of Religion. Boston: Beacon.
Weininger, Benjamin. 1955. The Interpersonal Factor in the Religious Experience.
Psychoanalysis 3: 2 7 4 .
10
Constraint and Freedom in Icelandic Conversions
Robert T. Anderson
Conversion as a personal and social experience, as a cultural event, is clearly

an interesting phenomenon for anthropologists to document and also to theo-
rize by applying familiar anthropological concepts having to do with power
and persuasion, agency and praxis, self and identity, and one’s sense of ulti-
mate reality in terms of the meaning of life and the inevitability of death. How-
ever, it is quite another thing to ask if conversion as a defined term, as a cate-
gory of change, can be useful for cross-cultural anthropological analysis. Does
it identify a widespread religious experience? Is it a worldwide sociocultural
process? To explore how the concept might be useful for comparative re-
search, in this chapter I draw on ethnographic fieldwork carried out in Iceland
over a five-month period in 1998,as well as during short annual follow-up vis-
its until 2001. Based on what I learned in those months, I compare and con-
trast four different conversion situations. Furthermore, I will suggest that it is
helpful to interpret these conversion processes as differing along a continuum
that varies from total constraint at one extreme to total freedom at the other.
CHRISTIAN CONSTRAINTS ON THE CONCEPT OF CONVERSION
If we take our definition of conversion from a Christian theologian, what do

we get? Lewis Rambo observes that the word “conversion” can imply many
different kinds of change, but a common thread is that a convert exchanges
one orientation or belief for another that is different. In Rambo’s words, con-
version is a “turning from and to” (Rambo 1993: 2-3). Implicit in this is an
emotional and transformative change that occurs when one becomes a Chris-
tian, although it can, of course, refer to abandoning Christianity in favor of Is-
lam or in some other way to turn “from and to.”
123
124 Robert ir: Anderson
It is not new to conceptualize conversion as a “turning from and to.” The

concept was already understood in 1933 when A. D. Nock wrote of conver-
sion as a “deliberate turning from indifference or from an earlier form of piety
to another,” which differs not a whit from Rambo’s present-day “turning from
and to” (6). David Snow and Richard Machalek discovered much the same in
their survey of sociological publications on the topic. “The one theme per-
vading the literature on conversion,” they found, “is that the experience in-
volves radical personal change. This conception,” they also note, “dates back
to the Biblical use of the term” (Snow and Machalek 1984: 169). Judging
from New Testament testimonials, to convert to Christianity is to turn “from
and to” (I Corinthians 16:15; Romans 16:5; I Timothy 3:6).
The problem with this use of the term “conversion” as a way to frame an-
thropological inquiry is that it is culture bound. It is an emic term, essentially
Eurocentric, deriving from the culture of Christianity. More broadly it is
Abramic, taking as universal the theological doctrine of exclusivity common
to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Defining the process as one of “turning
from and to” limits inquiry because it implies a prior assumption that one
must abandon one set of beliefs and practices in order to substitute another. It
is rigid in that way.
The official Christian doctrine of exclusivity -“Thou shalt have no other
gods before me”-authorizes a religion of constraint (Deuteronomy 57). You
have to give up your old religion to become a Christian. For many Christians,
constraints are rigorous and absolute, the iron cage of dogma (to parody Max
Weber). Nonetheless, there is considerable leeway in the scriptures for inter-
pretations that can free one, more or less, sometimes a lot and sometimes very
little, for mixing and matching with supernatural beliefs from other traditions.
As Robert Hefner succinctly put it, “It is misleading to assume that the for-
mal truths embedded in religious doctrines directly reflect or inform believ-
ers’ ideas or actions” (Hefner 1993: 19).
So, looking at the decisions people make (agency) and the way they live as
Christians (praxis), we often find a system of constraints, but also we find that
there can be considerable freedom with ample opportunities to bend the rules.
Analysis in terms of constraints versus opportunities can help us better to re-
alize that although the process of conversion always implies a change “to,” it
need not always require a change “from.”
CONSTRAINT AND FREEDOM: EXAMPLE 1
Hefner has also pointed out that “political mechanisms . . . need to be inte-
grated into a larger theory of conversion” (Hefner 1993: 119). A millennium
Constraint and Freedom in Icelandic Conversions 125
ago, power and persuasion led to the conversion of Iceland. It was a time
when some Vikings had already shifted allegiance from the Odin, Thor, and
the other Nordic Gods to the Christian God. Nonetheless, most Icelanders at
that time were still pagans and not at all persuaded to convert until raw power
came into play.
King Olaf Tryggvason of Norway, himself a willing convert, forced the de-
cision by threatening to kill some prominent Icelanders if Christianity were
not made their official religion. Local chieftains and free men from all over
the island gathered in the year 1000 at the annual assembly known as the Al-
thing to decide what to do (Karlsson 2000: 33). Strong voices spoke out on
both sides of the debate. At last the dispute was put to a respected arbitrator,
Thorgeir, whose name reveals his family dedication to the god Thor. Thorgeir
was probably a shaman, according to J6n Hnefill Adalsteinsson (1978). He
recommended that Iceland should convert to Christianity, and they did.
It was a conversion as much of persuasion as of raw power, however, be-
cause the king was physically remote from this far-off island and local chief-
tains were free to manipulate the exclusivist constraints that normally applied
on the continent. The assembly agreed that everyone must become a Chris-
tian, but they added that they would not forbid any individual who so wished
to continue worshipping the old gods, as long as it was done discreetly in the
privacy of one’s home. Since the island-wide settlement pattern was one of
isolated farmsteads, and given that the Althing only met for a couple of weeks
once a year at Thingvellir, in effect anyone who wished could continue to live
as a devout pagan without fear of punishment or shame, combining both
Christianity and heathenism if he so chose, salted and peppered to taste.
CONSTRAINT A N D FREEDOM: EXAMPLE 2
By a generation or two later, holdouts for the Nordic gods had died out and
everyone had become Christian in private as well as in public. However,
around the turn of the twentieth century, enthusiasts for mediumship and con-
tact with spirits of the dead reached Iceland along with the so-called New
Theology (Swatos and Gissurarson 1997). According to young, “modernist”
theologians, the Bible as a text should be evaluated the way one would eval-
uate any historical document -weeding out mistakes, identifying internal
contradictions, and acknowledging exaggerations. Freedom rather than con-
straint was the enabling trope, and it permitted spiritism to become the new
focus of conversion.
By then, the national church of Iceland was Lutheran, funded and author-
ized as an agency of the state. The Bishop of Iceland might have been
126 Robert T Anderson
expected to invoke his considerable power to resist the New Theology. Ulti-
mately it so happened, as we shall see. But for a generation, reigning church
officials minimized constraints against the conversion of Icelanders to beliefs
and practices centered on establishing direct contacts with the dead. Freedom
in the new conversion resembled that encountered by David Jordan in Tai-
wan, where spiritist beliefs and Christianity met as an example of “the addi-
tive character of conversion” (Jordan 1993: 286).
This new conversion was made possible not by confronting power but by
subverting it. It is an example of how fundamental beliefs can change, as Max
Heirich put it, “if respected leaders publicly abandon some part of past
grounding assumptions” (Heirich 1977: 675). It took place as a product of
persuasion within the power hierarchy of the national church.
The New Theology prepared the ground for a generation of young priests
who saw spiritism as a way to confirm basic truths in the scriptures. Spiritism
offered scientific evidence that people survived death. It was witnessed in the
contemporary successes of mediums who regularly put people in touch with
deceased loved ones. It authenticated the scriptures because it demonstrated
that so-called biblical miracles were in fact naturalistic verities. That Saul, a
living man, met and conversed with Samuel, who was dead, or that the apos-
tles spent time with a resurrected Jesus were not miracles at all but merely the
natural activities of spirits of the dead (Luke 24:13-31; I Samuel 28:3-17).
Two men brought these iconoclastic beliefs from Copenhagen. One was a
son of the dean of the theological seminary in Reykjavik, who eventually suc-
ceeded to his father’s post, and the other was a nephew of the Bishop of Ice-
land. Close family ties within the church hierarchy helped them override or-
thodoxy with their revisionist beliefs. One could be a spiritist and still be a
Christian because the scriptures were fallible, and spirit claims and predic-
tions could be proven by checking what was said by spirits against what was
known to be fact.
CONSTRAINT A N D FREEDOM: EXAMPLE 3
By the end of the twentieth century, the national church shifted from an atti-
tude of tolerance to one of opposition, reviving old and familiar worldwide
Judeo-Christian injunctions against meeting with mediums and conversing
with ancestors. To invoke these strict constraints they turned to Leviticus, for
example, where God says, “Do not turn yourselves to the spirit mediums and
do not consult professional foretellers of events, so as to become unclean by
them,” (19:31; see also Deuteronomy 17: 10-1 1 ) . Jesus himself compared
“those who practice spiritism” to dogs, fornicators, murderers, idolators, and

liars (Revelations 22: 15; see also Galatians 5 : 19-20).
Christian constraints are, therefore, back in place today, but the hierarchy
itself has little or no control over most parishioners, so it really doesn’t mat-
ter to most people. The church has virtually no power at all over individuals.
It is true that nearly every Icelander is baptized, confirmed, married, and
buried in the Church. But very few attend church regularly or ever consult
ministers about personal and family matters. People seem to feel free to ig-
nore theological constraint and to exercise their freedom to make decisions for
themselves. No longer a matter of power, conversion is now a matter of per-
sonal decisions and behaviors, of agency and praxis relating to self and iden-
tity, particularly as concerns the meaning of life and the inevitability of death.
In anthropology and sociology, two very different theoretical constructs
have proven useful in the analysis of conversion as a worldwide process
(Hefner 1993: 102). One embeds conversion in a universe of social relations,
of power relations, in which congregations and communities have a telling ef-
fect. We encountered the need for theorizing in that way when we examined
constraint and freedom examples 1 and 2.
For examples 3 and 4,however, we require a complementary kind of the-
ory, one usually characterized as intellectualist because it links sociocultural
influences with individual life histories. “Intellectualism,” Hefner writes,
“explains conversion as a change in religious belief, where beliefs are viewed
as instruments of explanation and control of actual time-space events”
(Hefner 1993: 102). For this kind of theorizing, I find it most helpful to bor-
row the felicitous phraseology of Heirich, who speaks of conversion as “the
process of changing a sense of root reality,” of revising one’s “core sense of
reality,” or of redefining one’s “grounding” (1977: 674).
In applying intellectualist theory to becoming a Christian in Iceland, we
find that nearly every contemporary Icelander is automatically considered a
Christian by virtue of being enrolled in the national church at birth. Icelanders
tend to think of themselves as Christians, but for the most part that implies
only a very superficial sense of identity or of self. They have been indoctri-
nated primarily by attending confirmation classes as young teenagers and by
participating in “confirmation” as a culminating ritual. They give little evi-
dence of having had a conversion experience that involves accepting the con-
straints, the authority, of the bishop or even of the Bible as such. For the most
part, they are never “born-again” in the way charismatic Christians would de-
fine as essential to personal conversion. Charismatic conversion is an avail-
able option for Icelanders to the extent that some small evangelical congre-
gations are well established, but very few have converted that way.
128 Robert I: Anderson
For the most part, being a Christian in Iceland is a matter of enculturation

and education. It is a conversion of freedom, not a “from and to” process but
a taken-for-granted state of mind that is scarcely queried by the average citi-
zen. For anyone who does give thought to his or her core sense of reality,
Lutheran eschatology is generally poorly understood, widely contested, and
eminently negotiable. Repeatedly in interviews, people told me that they
prayed to God. But when I asked who God was, I never got a description of
the biblical Jehovah, of God as judge or master. God was always a vague and
distant energy, light, goodness, love, or creativity, far more New Age than Old
Testament in character.
Insofar as conversion is a process of enculturation or socialization about
beliefs “viewed as instruments of explanation and control of actual time-
space events,” of “root reality,” it has resulted for the most part in an indif-
ference to if not an outright rejection of the biblical accounts of heaven and
hell. In this highly secular society, biblical injunctions no longer have the
power to constrain most people.
CONSTRAINT AND FREEDOM: EXAMPLE 4
The failure of the national church to indoctrinate or convert the populace to

Christianity under exclusivist constraints leaves open the opportunity to con-
sider oneself a Christian while remaining quite free to adopt spiritist beliefs
and practices, to convert in that sense. Although very few Icelanders are
churchgoers, many if not most are really quite attuned to spirits and spiritual
values. They practice a religion that is scarcely noticed. It is unnamed, mini-
mally institutionalized, and rarely articulated. Yet, although nearly invisible
in the public arena, it can be of profound importance in private lives and as a
nationwide inclination.
Of ninety University of Iceland students who returned a questionnaire
handed out in my classes on medical and biological anthropology in 1998,
47 percent (5 1 percent of the women and 29 percent of the men) said yes, they
had experienced contact with the spirit of someone who had died. In other
words, the social life of nearly half of these young people included at least
one dead person. Looked at differently, an impressive 80 percent of all stu-
dent respondents, nearly all of them, also reported that if they had not them-
selves been in touch with a dead person, they at least knew someone who be-
lieved it had happened.
My findings reflect somewhat more spirit contact than was reported by Er-
lendur Haraldsson, who has done proper systematic research to investigate
these beliefs. In a national survey reporting on a carefully selected random
Constraint and Freedom in Icelandic Conversions I29
sample of 902 Icelandic adults, he recorded in 1985 that 36 percent of the

women and 24 percent of the men answered yes to the question, “Have you
ever experienced or felt the nearness of a deceased person?’ Extrapolating
from Haraldsson’s scientific survey and my own opportunistic questionnaire,
it is evident that meetings with the dead instantiate a nationwide “sense of root
reality,” a “ground of being that orients and orders experience more gener-
ally,” even for young people (Heirich 1977: 674). Spirit contact and, what is
more important, the ideology or philosophy of life that it endorses, the ground-
ing that it inspires, is given no official recognition, but it is as much the reli-
gion of Icelanders as ancestor veneration is the underlying, anonymous reli-
gion of China, with or without Christianity, Buddhism, or the sayings of Mao.
And yet there is a constraint on conversion to spiritism that I have not yet
discussed. It is not in the Bible or in any of the available books about spiritism.
It is the pragmatic constraint of science or of logic. Apparently without ex-
ception, every spiritist at the beginning of the conversion process puts the be-
lievability of mediums to a test. Each insists on proof that a spirit is real as de-
termined by the fact that what a spirit or medium revealed was not merely a
lucky guess or an astute intuition. Every believer told me that he or she knew
of a spirit who provided detailed information that only the deceased could
have known.
That constraint, however, rests lightly on the process. It requires a type of
proof that is never completely rigorous and indisputable. Further, spiritist the-
ory, like a belief in God, is not falsifiable. Just as it is impossible to prove con-
clusively that God does not exist, one cannot disprove the reality of spirits. It
is a given that wrong information is frequently provided by reputed spirits,
but such errors are routinely dismissed as long as one knows of even one
seemingly indisputable example of otherwise inexplicable information that
was conveyed from the spirit world. Social reinforcement clearly enhances
the compelling impact of this otherwise questionable kind of proof.
The people of contemporary Iceland are fully modem and globally sophis-
ticated. They are highly educated and well informed. They are rightly char-
acterized as essentially secular rather than as religious. Consistent with that
characterization, believing in spirits is consciously thought of in Iceland as
naturalism, not supernaturalism, and as scientific, not religious (Swatos and
Gissurarson 1997). Is acting on the belief that spirits of the dead really con-
verse with the living the result of a conversion experience? Or is it merely an
adaptation akin to accepting a new scientific or medical discovery? It is, in
fact, both. After all, exclusivist and highly constrained Christians also insist
that their beliefs are naturalistic. Based on accepting scripture as divinely in-
spired, God, Jesus, and the angels are believed really to exist. Miracles are of-
fered as proof, because they demonstrate that God can do anything He wants.
130 Robert Z Anderson
CONCLUSION
As a descriptive noun, conversion has generally been understood to define a
very narrow category of change in orientation or belief insofar as it refers to
a process of replacement rather than of syncretism, a process of “turning from
and to.” So used, it is a definition of total constraint, a denial or repulsion, if
you will, of the acculturative pressures likely to be present when people make
major changes in beliefs about the afterlife. It is not wrong to use the term that
way, but it offers very limited potential as an analytical concept for compar-
ative analysis. It even fails to encompass much, probably most, of what we
refer to in the vernacular as Christian conversion.
For anthropological purposes, it is much more useful to define conversion
as a process whereby rather than inevitably substituting one belief system for
another, belief systems may differentiate or syncretize depending on how the
variable of constraint versus freedom is imposed or permitted. Thus, in ex-
ample 1, the power of the king to impose a highly constrained Christianity
was derailed by a freedom made possible by geographic isolation, a dispersed
land-settlement pattern, and the influence of a respected shaman.
Similarly, conversion in which the “from” dimension is negotiable on a
constraint versus freedom continuum provides a way to clarify three other ex-
amples from Iceland. In example 2, the biblical constraint against consulting
mediums and contacting spirits of the dead succumbed to a freedom intro-
duced by young members of the church elite, who achieved a power base al-
lowing them to justify spiritism on the basis of the New Theology. In exam-
ple 3, after the national church reverted to the older theology and branded
spiritism as un-Christian, spiritism continued to thrive because contemporary
Icelanders lived in a free and secular nation in which very few accorded final
authority to the church fathers. They achieved freedom in that sense. Finally,
in example 4,those who believe that the dead live on as spirits impose a con-
straint upon themselves based on logic and science, but they judge that con-
straint by lax standards that essentially free them from the far more rigorous
constraints of experimental science.
As so often is the case in anthropology and sociology, we find ourselves
using the language of daily life for technical and precise purposes. That prac-
tice plagues us with misunderstanding and miscommunication, but we stay
with it; to that extent, at least, we are somewhat careless in our effort to be ra-
tional. Perhaps this is wise, since neologisms often impede communication in
their own way. So I conclude by suggesting that when scholars use the term
“conversion,” we should inform our readers whether it is used as a term of
complete constraint or whether it is to be understood as implying a variable
mix of constraint and freedom, one that requires explication as we try to un-
derstand the process from a global perspective.
REFERENCES
Adalsteinsson, J6n Hnefill. Under the Cloak. Stockholm: Almquist and Wiksell, 1978.
Haraldsson, Erlendur. “Survey of Claimed Encounters with the Dead.” Omega 19,
no. 2 (1998-1999): 103-13.
Hefner, Robert W. “Of Faith and Commitment: Christian Conversion in Muslim
Java.” In Conversion to Christianity: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives
on a Great Transformation, edited by R. W. Hefner, pp. 99-125. Berkeley: Uni-
versity of California Press, 1993.
-. “World Building and the Rationality of Conversion.” In Conversion to Chris-
tianity: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives on a Great Transformation,
edited by R. W. Hefner, pp. 3-44. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.
Heirich, Max. “Change of Heart: A Test of Some Widely Held Theories about Reli-
gious Conversion.” American Journal of Sociology 83, no. 3 (1977): 653-80.
Jordan, David K. “The Glyphomancy Factor: Observations on Chinese Conversion.”
Great Transformation, edited by R. W. Hefner, pp. 285-303. Berkeley: University
of California Press, 1993.
Karlsson, Gunnar. The History of Iceland. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota
Press, 2000.
Nock, A. D. Conversion: The Old and the New in Religion from Alexander the Great
to Augustine of Hippo. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1933.
Snow, David A., and Richard Machalek. “The Sociology of Conversion.” Annual Re-
view of Sociology 10 (1984): 167-90.
Swatos, William H., Jr., and Loftur Reimar Gissurarson. Icelandic Spiritualism:
Mediumship and Modernity in Iceland. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Pub-
lishers. 1997.
I1
Mystical Experiences, American Culture,
and Conversion to Christian Spiritualism
Thomas Kingsley Brown
T h e imagery of the nineteenth-century seance is well known in the contem-

porary West. Most Americans have seen depictions of people sitting at a table
in a darkened room, summoning spirits of the dead and awaiting the appear-
ance of ghostly visages. It is not so widely known that contemporary versions
of seances are still conducted in many parts of the world by people who con-
sider themselves Christians.
The height of popularity of the sCance occurred in the mid-to-late 1800s and
roughly corresponded with the emergence of a movement called Spiritualism.
Although Spiritualism’s popularity waned dramatically during the late 1 800s,
the religion did not die out completely. This chapter is based on ethnographic
research conducted among two Spiritualist congregations in southern Califor-
nia. In the pages that follow, I will address the question of why mainstream
Christiansjoin such churches, and I will examine the meaning of “conversion”
from mainstream Christianity to a particular form of Spiritualism-namely,
that of Christian Spiritualism. I will address the proposal that the shifts in be-
lief at the heart of these conversions are often sparked long before eventual
converts come to Spiritualism; in particular, I will address possible roles of ex-
periences that are termed “anomalous,” mystical, and paranormal. I argue that
these experiences play an important role in conversion for many Spiritualists
but that pinpointing the root causes of conversion is, at best, uncertain. In ad-
dition, I will elaborate on Spiritualist conceptions of conversion by arguing
that conversion has no clear point at which it can be considered complete.
First, I will outline the historical context for this study. Generically defined,
spiritualism’ is the belief in a postcorporeal afterlife and a belief in the abil-
ity of humans to communicate directly with spirits of the dead. Such beliefs
133
134 Thomas Kingsley Brown
are widespread. In America, Spiritualism is a religious movement that began

(by most accounts) in New York State in the middle of the nineteenth century.2
Millions (and perhaps tens of millions) participated in s6ances and other Spir-
itualist gatherings during the movement’s peak in the 1850s. The movement
quickly spread to Europe and eventually to other regions of the world as well?
Although I have referred to Spiritualism as a “religious movement ,” early
Spiritualists considered the movement a science aimed at proving the reality
of the afterlife and of spirit communication (Moore 1977). Indeed, many
early Spiritualists, particularly the so-called anti-Christian Spiritualists, ex-
plicitly rejected religious affiliation. For the most part, these Spiritualists also
resisted attempts at formal organization. Another subset of the movement was
explicitly Christian in its orientation. These “Christian” Spiritualists, whose
aim was to “scientifically” prove biblical claims, did not object to formal or-
ganization and were more likely to establish official groups, churches, and
leaders. Contrasts between these two subgroups provide a rough historical ex-
planation as to why present-day Spiritualist groups (or at least the most
prominent ones) are Christian Spiritualist groups. Some of these groups have
survived since Spiritualism’s peak decades in the mid-to-late 1800s.
This chapter-based on fieldwork conducted between October 1995 and
September 1997-deals primarily with two Christian Spiritualist churches in
San Diego, California. One church was founded in 1881, the other in 1932.
There are at least a half-dozen other Spiritualist groups in the San Diego area,
as well as a Spiritualist retreat center that celebrated its centennial during the
time of my fieldwork.
Not all current Spiritualist churches in San Diego include the word “Chris-
tian’’ in their names. However, the inclusion or omission of the word “Chris-
tian” in the title is no indication of the influence of Christianity at those
churches. The two churches discussed here-First Spiritualist Church of San
Diego and Brotherhood Spiritualist Church-are as Christian as any Spiritu-
alist churches in the San Diego area. Evidence of Christian influences is read-
ily discernable at both First Spiritualist Church and Brotherhood Spiritualist
Church. These churches are fairly typical of others in the area. First, it should
be noted that over 90 percent of the participants in these two organizations
were raised within mainstream Christians families. Interest in Christian ele-
ments varies considerably from one member to another, but almost all of the
members value the Christian aspects to some extent. For many members,
Christian elements are essential elements of belief and participation.
What are these Christian elements? They include aspects of belief, sym-
bolism, and practice. A churchgoing Christian would recognize many of them
after attending a weekly service. Like mainstream Christian services, SPifitU-
alist worship services take place on Sunday mornings. Services open with a
Mystical Experiences, American Culture, and Conversion 135
Christian hymn, often with an accompanying pianist or organist. At First

Spiritualist, a portrait of Jesus hangs on the wall. During services, the Lord’s
prayer and the Gloria Patri are recited, and a sermon-typically, but not al-
ways, mentioning God and Jesus-is delivered by a pastor.
The service also includes elements that would be unfamiliar to most Chris-
tians: for example, a ten-minute meditation accompanied by New Age music,
the occasional discussion of chakras and auras, and the “spirit readings” near
the end of the service. Spirit readings are divinatory “messages” delivered by
specially trained members of the congregation who stand near the lectern and
see, hear, or sense the presence of “spirits,” “guides,” or “angels” surround-
ing those who are seated in the hall.
Outside of worship services, there are other seemingly non-Christian prac-
tices. Prior to every service, a “healing service” is held wherein healers direct
“healing energies” (through their hands) toward people sitting on stools. On
some evenings and weekends, there are “psychic fairs” featuring Tarot card
readings, Burmese astrology, aura photography,and the aforementioned spirit
readings. Two to four times a month, there are workshops on topics such
as numerology, past-life regression, and shamanic soul-travel. In addition,
classes on theories and practices related to Spiritualist belief are held regu-
larly. Moreover, there is an emotionally evocative “circle,” the modern-day
variant of the sCance.4 People sit in a circle, chant, sing to invite spirits, and
use practiced perceptual abilities to observe and communicate with visiting
spirits.
Spiritualism and Christianity are an odd blend, especially considering
that of all of Spiritualism’s opponents in the nineteenth century, Christians
were the most vociferous. Many Christians believed that direct communi-
cation with spirits was dangerous, as it purportedly courted relations with
both good spirits and evil ones. In their eyes, direct communication with
spirits was not the individual’s prerogative in any case. Even today, Chris-
tian Spiritualists claim that other Christians condemn Spiritualism as
“devil worship.”
Early in my fieldwork, I noted that most members at the First Christian
Spiritualist Church had previously been members of Christian churches, and
I wondered what had brought them to Spiritualism. Knowing of the antipathy
that has existed historically between mainstream Christianity and Spiritual-
ism (and already having heard stories indicating a continuation of that an-
tipathy), I began to wonder why these people had converted to a religion that
is shunned by their childhood churches and that espouses beliefs and prac-
tices often at odds with mainstream Christianity.
The question of what sparks conversions from mainstream Christianity
to Spiritualism became a central focus of my research. My starting point for
an examination of conversion was the definition of conversion used by many

scholars of religion: Conversion is a change in one’s system of beliefs. I
initially postulated that the shift in beliefs at the heart of this conversion oc-
curred long before the Spiritualist convert-to-be ever encountered a Spiritual-
ist church. Specifically, I suggested that anomalous experiences (mystical ex-
periences, the “paranormal,” and so on) might have sparked conversion of
many Spiritualists. The idea, in other words, was that Lofland and Skonovd’s
(198 1) “mystical” type of conversion would fit the typical conversion motif
for Christian Spiritualists. If I were correct, or so I thought, I would hear
many stories concerning Christians who had undergone sudden, inexplicable,
mystical experiences that motivated them to explore such experiences di-
rectly. Christians undergoing emotionally intense mystical experiences, I hy-
pothesized, might turn to alternative religions-particularly those better at-
tuned to experiential exploration-as a vehicle for making some sense of
experiences for which their Christian backgrounds may not have prepared
them.
However, I soon realized that my proposal was far too simplistic to account
for emerging patterns, and I began to closely examine the nature of religious
conversion. The problem was not only that there were additional influences
(apart from anomalous experiences) at play in conversion. There were other
influences as well, and many seemed easy enough to trace. A central problem
was that in cases of conversion, it was difficult to pinpoint a set of root
“causes” and equally difficult to pinpoint exactly when the supposed shift in
beliefs had taken place. To make matters more complex, in many of these
cases of conversion, it was unclear that the shift in beliefs had ever been com-
plete. That is, even though the “converts” seemed to have undergone a shift
in beliefs, it seemed that this change was often ephemeral, and doubt about
Spiritualist beliefs could return again and again. Adherents, it appeared, were
coming back to Spiritualist churches because they doubted Spiritualist beliefs.
Some questions arise: Can we meaningfully speak of conversion as a shift
in beliefs? If so, at what point in the convert’s “ ~ a r e e r ”can
~ conversion be
said to have begun? At what point can conversion be considered complete?
Does it make sense to try to retrospectively determine the “causes” of reli-
gious conversion?
REVEREND THELMA’S THEORY OF CONVERSION
Early in my fieldwork, I recognized that I wasn’t the only one who specu-
lated about conversion to Spiritualism. A Spiritualist reverend shared her
thoughts with me during a Friday-night psychic fair at the First Spiritual-
ist Church of San Diego. My conversation with Reverend Thelma was less
interesting for the spirit reading she provided than for the discussion that
later ensued. After Thelma learned that I was studying Spiritualism from
an academic standpoint, she offered her own explanation as to why people
come to Spiritualist churches. She postulated that people come to Spiritu-
alist churches because they want to find proof of the existence of spirits
and the afterlife. “They want to see spirits materialize before their eyes ,”
she told me. “They want to see hard evidence, but usually what they get
are spirit readings. This satisfies them to a point, but they keep coming
back because they still aren’t sure.”
In the course of my fieldwork, I encountered further evidence that Thelma
had hit upon one reason why people return again and again to Spiritualist
churches. Evidence took the form of other Spiritualists saying, in a variety of
ways, that many Spiritualists never fully convert. For example, Tim (of First
Spiritualist Church) told me that his belief “waxes and wanes” and that he
comes back in hopes of having “mind-blowing” experiences that bolster his
beliefs. Reverend Ida, of Brotherhood Spiritualist Church, openly discussed
the fact that most Spiritualists are uncertain about Spiritualist beliefs and that
they seek proof that will spark their shift from merely “believing” in the spirit
world to “knowing” for certain that it exists.
Clearly, the quest for certainty cannot be the sole attraction of Spiritualist
churches. Such proof isn’t a major draw for people such as Reverends Thelma
and Ida (as well as numerous other members of the congregation) who are al-
ready certain of the reality of the spirit world. Even if the desire for such
proof is a draw (and I believe that it is), there have to be other attractions as
well. In addition, reasons why people return to Spiritualist churches may be
quite different from reasons people visit them for the first time. Spiritualists,
I found, do seek proof of the afterlife. But what makes them curious about
Spiritualism in the first place?
Reverend Thelma’s case provides a possible answer to this question. Her
father was a Spiritualist reverend in England (where, interestingly enough, his
houseguests included famous Spiritualists such as Aleister Crowley and
Arthur Conan Doyle). Thelma’s father passed his interests and beliefs in Spir-
itualism on to his daughter. But Thelma is unusual among Spiritualists in hav-
ing been raised as a Spiritualist. Explanations as to why the other 95 percent
chose Spiritualism are harder to come by.
An overview of all cases from my interview material reveals a general
four-stage pattern. Each stage occurs for nearly everyone, regardless of what
caused their initial shifts in belief. In the first stage, the eventual convert de-
velops a sense of discontent toward the mainstream worldviews of Christian-
ity and scientism. In this stage, uncertainties about the nature of God and re-
ality become prominent. In the next stage, in order to make some sort of sense
of it all, the person embarks on a “religious quest,” becoming a “religious
seeker” (many people used these very words to describe themselves and their
lives). At some later point, the third stage, he or she discovers a Spiritualist
church, which becomes a spiritual “home.” It is among the Spiritualist “fam-
ily” where these people feel comfortable exploring questions about spirits,
the paranormal, and the afterlife, and where they find satisfying answers in a
community of like-minded seekers. The fourth stage is characterized by a
fluctuating belief in Spiritualism in which convincing experiences are sought
in order to solidify beliefs.
In many cases, the initial discontent with Christianity derived from an
anomalous experience. Such experiences have been categorized as belonging
to two similar types. The first type is the sudden, profound, religious experi-
ence often referred to as a “mystical experience,” and the second involves so-
called paranormal experiences that appear to defy scientific explanation.
William James examined the capacity of mystical experiences to cause signif-
icant shifts in beliefs (1961 [ 19021).But he did not examine the impact of para-
normal experiences as thoroughly. Paranormal experiences, like mystical ex-
periences, have the potential to impart apparent “knowledge” about the nature
of reality -knowledge that often conflicts with previously held beliefs and that
could lead one to question those beliefs. In James’s terms, this subjectively ap-
parent reception of knowledge is the “noetic” quality of mystical experiences.
William James portrayed mystical experiences as brief, overwhelming
phenomena that impart new, indescribable understandings. A classic ex-
ample is that of a person sitting and quietly reading at home one night, and
then suddenly sensing the seemingly undeniable presence of a deceased
friend or relative. Paranormal experiences, according to James McClenon,
are those that seem (at least to those who experience them) to defy expla-
nation according to scientific understandings as construed by the general
public (McClenon 1994). There is significant overlap between the cate-
gories of mystical and paranormal experience. Often, experiences that are
called “mystical” are those that are labeled religious, whereas paranormal
experiences are not.
My interviews with Spiritualists elicited examples of both types of experi-
ence. Reverend Paul (of First Spiritualist) recalled an experience that oc-
curred when he was only 7 or 8 years old. One night while lying in bed, he
observed a “very bright light in the comer of the room.’’ He “knew” it was the
spirit of Jesus, even though, as he points out, he did not then understand the
concept of “spirit” as he does now.
Cynthia, a member of First Christian Spiritualist Church, experienced what
she refers to as a “premonition” that occurred years before she knew what
Spiritualism was. She was at home, standing in front of the bathroom sink and
brushing her teeth, when, as she relates:
This thought intruded into my mind. I thought about how I hadn’t heard of an
airplane crash for a while-then I caught myself, saying “no, I hear about small
plane crashes a lot; I just haven’t heard of any big commercial planes crashing.”
Before she walked away from the sink, Cynthia felt the house shaken by a
loud explosion. Nearby, a commercial airliner had been torn apart by its vio-
lent impact with the ground. “Stunned” by these events, she called her mother
to tell her about the “premonition.” This experience occurred more than ten
years before she went to a medium for a reading, and longer still before she
visited a Spiritualist church. However, Cynthia points to this event as one of
those that led her to question her former views of reality and that eventually
made more sense from the perspective of Spiritualist understandings.
Carla, of Brotherhood Spiritualist Church, offered an experience she later
interpreted as a vision of herself in a past life. When Carla was about 15 years
old, she and a friend, Mark, were riding Mark’s motorcycle to a party. In re-
lating the story, Carla noted that neither of them had been drinking nor were
either of them under the influence of any drugs. As they rode, they passed by
a large mansion and estate with an arched entry to the walkway, where they
noticed two figures who looked, Carla recalls, “as physically real as ordinary
people”:
Me and this guy Mark . . . looked over to our left, and there were these two peo-
ple standing in this archway. And they were dressed up like-well, I kind of
thought she looked like Scarlet O’Hara, you know, with the little bitty waist and
the poofy skirt out to the floor, you know what I mean? And she was wearing
white, and the man was wearing a black tuxedo and a top hat. And I looked over,
and I looked at the woman’s face, and it was almost like a zoom lens on a cam-
era, [my vision] zoomed into the face, and it was my face! And it was really
shocking! And we said to each other, “did you see that?’ “Oh, yeah!” And we
looked back and they were gone.
Mark had seen much the same thing, although he had “zoomed” into the
man’s face, and, like Carla, saw an image of himself there.
When the two arrived at the party, their tale had little impact on others pres-
ent, who accused Carla and Mark of fabrication. By contrast, the experience
affected Carla profoundly:
It was from that moment on-and I knew that there was more than what the
Catholic church was telling me. I think I knew that anyway, you know. I never
really-I loved the spirituality in the Catholic church, but there were many
things I didn’t agree with, even when I was a child. So I knew that there was
something more out there for me. . . . [The experience]proved to me that some-
thing like that existed--I saw it with my own eyes.
Whether the experiences of Paul, Cynthia, and Carla should be classified as

mystical experiences or as paranormal phenomena is debatable. The main
point, however, is that such experiences are viewed by the converts as events
that shaped their religious careers.
Both “mystical” and “paranormal” experiences have the capacity to spark
a shift in beliefs. People who claim to have had such experiences believe that
these experiences provide evidence of phenomena that defy or overturn sci-
entific or Christian understandings about the nature of reality. Cynthia, for ex-
ample, said of her experience that these are “things that can’t be explained
scientifically.” Another Spiritualist told me that such experiences prove that
“the Christians got it all wrong” when they told him that “miracles no longer
happen .”
Whether or not Spiritualists are correct in asserting that such experiences
overturn scientific or Christian understandings is irrelevant. The fact is that
they believe that the experiences provide such proof. Some informants told
me that anomalous experiences were important turning points in their reli-
gious careers. In a number of cases, the experiences prompted them to ques-
tion Christian or “scientific” understandings, whereas in other cases the ex-
periences seemed to strengthen doubts they already had. For some, anomalous
experiences had affected their beliefs prior to their becoming Spiritualists and
had entered into their conversions to Spiritualism.
Anomalous experiences are not, however, the only route to Spiritualist
conversion. Indeed, people who had such experiences comprise less than half
of those I interviewed. Another quarter of the cases could be considered “in-
tellectual” conversions (Lofland and Skonovd 1981), that is, people who
studied spiritualist literature and came to be interested in Spiritualist ideas.
For example, Tim read books on sorcery and magic (by Carlos Castaneda and
Hans Holzer) and claims that his study of this literature prompted him to
question Christian and scientific understandings of God and of reality. One
reverend at First Spiritualist stated that the movie The Trouble with Angels
profoundly affected her at the age of 12. Together, the combination of “mys-
tical’’ and “intellectual” conversions accounts for almost three-quarters of the
cases in my study.
Why did the remaining people in my study become Spiritualists? Answers
varied, and in many cases there were no specific events, whether “mystical”
or “intellectual,” that prompted their conversions. Answers may come from
the general American culture of the post-World War I1 period in which my in-
formants grew to adulthood. Particularly in the “baby boomer” years of 1946
to 1964 and following, Americans witnessed dramatic changes that threat-

ened the stability of mainstream views (at least for some people). These in-
cluded (1) an increasing availability of occult literature (and materials on
Eastern mysticism), (2) an increasing acceptance of the exploration of altered
states of consciousness, (3) the rise of television, and (4) an increasing cul-
tural pluralism and rising neolocality.6 It would be erroneous to suggest that
these influences affected everyone the same or that they caused everyone to
question mainstream values. The mainstream is still the mainstream. How-
ever, I agree with Robert Wuthnow, who notes that such cultural changes con-
tributed to an increasing acceptance of social experimentation: political ac-
tivism, explorations of alternative sexual practices, and (most importantly for
the topic at hand) participation in alternative religions (Wuthnow 1976).The
changing social milieu did not result in everyone becoming a religious seeker,
but the “occult revival” of the 1960s (and its descendents, the “new religious
movements” and the New Age movement) reflected a growing proportion of
religious seekers.
In summary, there are many possible influences on the shifts in belief that
take place during the process of conversion to Spiritualism. Anomalous ex-
periences are important events in the religious careers of many, but there are
other experiences that can similarly lead a person to question his or her be-
liefs. Indeed, it may be that even the role of anomalous experiences is more
ambiguous than converts tend to believe. It is generally not possible to deter-
mine which influences are the most important for any convert, nor is it easy
to determine a point in time at which conversion can be said to have taken
place. For example, unlike the dramatic conversion of the apostle Paul, Paul
the Spiritualist experienced a number of mystical events over a long period of
time. Can it be said that one of these events was the overriding influence in
his conversion? If not, when did the major shift in belief occur? Another com-
plication is that Paul’s interpretation of the bright light in his bedroom may
(or may not) indicate an unusual predisposition toward such views. How can
we ascertain the point at which a shift in belief occurs or starts to occur?
Similar problems arise for other converts. Cynthia, for example, says
that events such as her “premonition” had a profound impact upon her be-
liefs. However, she first encountered Spiritualism thirteen years later in a
meeting with a medium she’d visited on the basis of a friend’s recommen-
dation. She says that the interactions with the medium “helped explain
things to me in ways consistent with my gut feelings” in ways that the
“Christian spiel” never had. She was so impressed with the medium that
the following year she decided to attend a Spiritualist church where the
medium was a reverend. Can we determine when conversion actually oc-
curred for Cynthia? She cites both the “premonition” and her relationship
with the medium as prominent influences in her religious career. Had she
never met the medium, would she be Spiritualist? Had she never experi-
enced seemingly “paranormal” events, would she have met the medium?
(Of course, in any conversion, there must be some initial motivation for the
convert to interact with the religious group.)
Carla’s case is not so simple either. Long before her mind-altering motor-
cycle ride, Carla had already developed misgivings about the Catholic
Church, largely because of her impression that it “teaches too much fear and
guilt.” Indeed, most other Spiritualists I interviewed exhibited an early inter-
est in spiritual matters, as well as a precocious readiness to question religious
doctrine.
If the starting point of conversion is hard to pin down, so too is the ending
point. It is very difficult to determine exactly when conversion to Spiritual-
ism is complete. People come to Spiritualist churches to witness and observe
proof of an afterlife. Interestingly, this stance implies that many members are
not entirely convinced that the spirit realm does exist-or, at least, that once
they become certain, they may not remain so indefinitely. Reverend Ida points
out that dramatic experiences (referred to as “miracles” or “God-stories’’ by
those at Brotherhood Spiritualist) are often critical in the shift from “believ-
ing” in the “spirit realm” to “knowing” that it exists. Spiritualists acknowl-
edge that the desire for certainty is one reason they seek such experiences.
The fact that belief waxes and wanes, even for longtime members, throws
doubt on the completeness of the shift in beliefs that is assumed by Heirich
(1977), among others, to underlie conversion. The exchange of “one ordered
view of the world for another” (Heirich 1977) may not be as neat as the def-
inition suggests. If members had already converted, then why were these ex-
periences necessary to solidify their beliefs?
CONVERSIONTO SPIRITUALISM: TRUE CONVERSION?
It could be stated that if we cannot determine when a shift in belief occurred,

then perhaps there never was a shift in belief. Travisano’s distinction between
conversion and “alternation” provides an avenue along which to pursue this
issue (1970). Travisano’s distinction hinges on the extent to which an indi-
vidual’s identity and life are rearranged: “Complete disruption signals con-
version while anything less signals alternation” (1970: 598). His own data
from his fieldwork with Hebrew Christians and Jewish Unitarians provide the
illustrative example of this difference (1970). Jews who become Christians,
he explains, must be considered converts because they have abandoned their
Jewish identity and have developed entirely new lifestyles as a part of their
change. Jewish Unitarians, on the other hand, still (as the name implies) con-
sider themselves Jewish and have not reorganized their lives in becoming in-
volved with the Unitarian Church.
If we accept Travisano’s stipulation that “conversion rests upon the adop-
tion of a pervasive identity” (1970: 600), then the vast majority of estab-
lished Spiritualist churchgoers should be considered converts. The pivotal
points here are that they consider themselves Spiritualists and that this fact
is a major influence in the ways in which they organize their lives. In addi-
tion, this new identity is antithetical to their former religious identities, as the
belief in (and practice of) spirit channeling is considered heretical in some
branches of mainstream Christianity. Travisano notes that “the ideal typical
conversion can be thought of as the embracing of a negative identity. The
person becomes something which was specifically prohibited” (1970: 601).
Aside from the Spiritualists who were raised as Spiritualists, the vast major-
ity of Spiritualists have “embraced a negative identity” and therefore can be
considered converts.
The concept of conversion as a “shift in one’s system of beliefs” is prob-
lematic. In closing, I will suggest ways to address this issue. One strategy is
to consider conversion a shift in behavior as well as a shift in beliefs.‘ One
can imagine that the determination of causes and timing of these shifts
would run into complications such as those discussed above. Perhaps the
best way to avoid such difficulties may be to relinquish the quest for definite
causes and timing. Conversion to Spiritualism can be seen as a series of
stages. I have come to appreciate Richardson’s (1985) perspective, in which
conversion is viewed as a complex, long-term process that involves behav-
ioral changes as well as cognitive ones? The quest for a strict definition of
conversion is thereby abandoned, but the payoff in terms of realism is well
worth the sacrifice.
NOTES
1. Lowercase lettering will be herein used for the generic meaning of spiritualism,
whereas references to the movement of Spiritualism (including present-day manifes-
tations) will be capitalized.
2. See Moore (1977) and Carroll (1997) for excellent historical treatments of
American Spiritualism. Nelson (1969) provides a perspective on the British Spiritu-
alist movement that followed on its heels.
3. In addition to the continents of North America and Europe, Spiritualism has also
found its way to Australia and New Zealand and probably elsewhere as well.
4. I have heard of no explanation for the switch in terminology from “skance” to
“circle,” but I strongly suspect that Spiritualists of the twentieth century gradually di-
minished the use of the word sCance in order to distance themselves and their prac-
tices from the scandals and derision with which Spiritualism had become associated.
SCances were targets of skeptics from the beginning, and many cases of outright fraud
were discovered by investigators or admitted by insiders. One consequence, I believe,
is that modem-day participants in circles do not claim to witness (nor attempt to gen-
erate) the physically palpable spirit incarnations sought in the nineteenth century. In-
stead, participants learn to hone their senses in order to see, smell, hear, or feel the
presence of spirits purportedly unnoticeable to untrained senses (T. K. Brown 2000).
5. Here I borrow Richardson’s (1985) wording in refemng to the “career” of the
religious convert.
6. For further discussion of these trends, see especially Wuthnow (1976), S. L.
Brown (1992), Roof (1993), and T. K. Brown (2000).
7. This strategy is implied in Lofland and Skonovd’s (1981) discussion of the tim-
ing of the shift in beliefs versus the change in behavior.
8. Richardson (1985) also emphasizes the active (as opposed to passive) role of
the convert in his or her own conversion. This is an important point that we will not
explore further here; I have discussed this point at greater length elsewhere (T. K.
Brown 2000).
REFERENCES
Brown, Susan Love. “Baby Boomers,American Character, and the New Age: A Syn-
thesis.” In Perspectives on the New Age, edited by James R. Lewis and R. Gordon
Melton, 87-96. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994.
Brown, Thomas K. Religious Seekers and “Finding a Spiritual Home”: An Ethno-
graphic Study of Conversion to Christian Spiritualist Churches in Southern Cali-
fornia. Ph.D. diss., University of California, San Diego, 2000.
Carroll, Bret E. Spiritualism in Antebellum America. Bloomington: Indiana Univer-
sity Press, 1997.
Heirich, Max. “Change of Heart: A Test of Some Widely Held Theories about Reli-
gious Conversion.” American Journal of Sociology 83, no. 3 (1977): 653-80.
James, William. The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in Human Nature.
Reprinted. New York: Collier Books, 1961 [1902].
Lofland, John, and Norman Skonovd. “Conversion Motifs.” Journal for the Scientzjk
Study of Religion 20, no. 4 (1981): 373-85.
McClenon, James. Wondrous Events: Foundations of Religious Belie$ Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press, 1994.
Moore, R. Laurence. In Search of White Crows: Spiritualism, Parapsychology, and
American Culture. New York: Oxford University Press, 1977.
Nelson, Geoffrey K . Spiritualism and Socieo. New York: Schocken Books, 1969.
Richardson, James T. “The Active vs. Passive Convert: Paradigm Conflict in Con-
version/Recruitment Research.” Journal for the Scientijk Study of Religion 24, no.
2 (1985): 163-79.
Roof, Wade Clark. A Generation of Seekers: The Spiritual Journeys of the Baby Boom
Generation. San Francisco: Harper San Francisco, 1993.
Travisano, Richard V. “Alternation and Conversion as Qualitatively Different Trans-

formations.” In Social Psychology through Symbolic Interaction, edited by G . P.
Stone and H. A. Faberman, 594-606. Waltham, Mass.: Xerox College Publishing,
1970.
Wuthnow, Robert. The Consciousness Reformation. Berkeley: University of Califor-
nia Press, 1976.
CONVERSION AND INDIVIDUAL EXPERIENCE
12
Limin’ wid J ah”:
“
Spiritual Baptists Who Become Rastafarians

and Then Become Spiritual Baptists Again’
Stephen D. Glazier
Every person has two parts: the body and the spirit. You cannot escape the
spiritual side. Truly, all men and women of Trinidad are Spiritual Baptists
already. Our goal is to make them aware of their convictions.
-Archbishop Muhrain addressing the Spiritual Baptist Council of
Elders, Maraval, Trinidad, July 1999
The Rastaman speaks to the world of the Righteous who have suffered at
the hands of the Unrighteousness. The Rastaman cries out for Justice be-
cause He knows that all have suffered. You may not know it in your head,
but in his heart every man is a Rasta.
-Derek “Ziggy” Manville, Port of Spain, Trinidad, July 1999
As contributors to this volume have pointed out, typical notions of “conver-

sion” are derived from Hebrew, Greek, and Latin terms meaning to turn, to
return, and to turn again (as well as turning, returning, and turning about) (see
Paloutzian et al. 1999: 1051). Within the Western tradition, conversion is of-
ten understood as a dramatic and solitary process like St. Paul’s experience
on the road to Damascus. Some Rastafarians and Spiritual Baptists also ac-
cept this ideal of conversion, and there is even a Baptist church near Pt. Fortin
named Damascus Road Spiritual Baptist Church. On two separate occasions,
I encountered Rastafarians who described their conversion as “leaps of faith .”
For other Spiritual Baptists and Rastafarians, conversion is seen not so
much as a leap of faith as a series of baby steps (see Austin-Broos, chapter 1;
Rambo 1993). Their accounts of conversion are considerably less dramatic
and more social than the conversion of St. Paul and could be described as
gradual, incremental, and, oftentimes, more linear than circular. As is apparent
149
150 Stephen D.Glazier
from the above quotations by Archbishop Muhrain and Derek Manville, many
Spiritual Baptists and Rastafarians understand conversion not so much as a
dramatic shift or turning than as a “reawakening” of preexisting religious be-
liefs and sentiments.
I should qualify at the outset that conversion from the Spiritual Baptist
faith to Rastafarianism and vice versa is not a common occurrence. Members
of both faiths-like believers throughout the world-tend to remain loyal to
their respective religions. Given the vast number of religious alternatives and
the rapid social, economic, and political change that characterizes Trinidadian
life, memberships within both groups are astonishingly stable.
Moreover, the religious lives of Caribbean peoples -like the religious lives
of people throughout the world -are punctuated by periods of intense reli-
gious involvement followed by stretches of relative inactivity sometimes in-
terpreted as a “falling away” from faith. Spiritual Baptists and Rastafarians
who are inactive still identify themselves as Spiritual Baptists or Rastafarians,
respectively. Adherents do not feel that they must break all ties with former
religions prior to becoming involved with a new religious group. For many,
it is possible to belong simultaneously to multiple religious organizations.
As Austin’s (1981) aptly titled essay “Born Again and Again and Again . . .”
indicates, Caribbean peoples “try on” various religious identities, and partic-
ipants in Caribbean religious groups do not feel that affiliation necessarily
implies a total acceptance of that organization’s belief system. For many, con-
version is understood primarily as a behavioral process. Persons who find
themselves spending large amounts of time with adherents of a particular re-
ligious group are seen as converts (at least temporarily) to that group. Thus,
Caribbean notions of conversion do not assume the same degree of exclusiv-
ity that is common in parts of Europe and North America. Of course, religious
organizations in Europe and North America are also becoming more pluralis-
tic (see Buckser 1995).
Spiritual Baptists and Rastafarians represent two competing religions bat-
tling for potential converts on the Caribbean island of Trinidad. As Protestant
fundamentalists, the Spiritual Baptists devote a great deal of time, energy, and
money to proselytizing and to extensive missionary activity (Glazier 1983).
On the other hand, Rastafarians seemingly expend little effort trying to attract
new converts and occasionally chase away prospective members from their
compounds. Despite their lack of effort, Rastafarians have been spectacularly
successful in attracting new adherents, whereas Spiritual Baptists have been
considerably less successful. In some cases, Baptists have barely managed to
hold their own.
This is a matter of great concern for the Baptists. Being converted and con-
verting others is a central focus of their religion (see Glazier, 2001; Zane
“Limin’ wid Juh ” 151
1999). Baptists expend a lot of time and money proselytizing, and even more
energy trying to keep recent converts committed. Nevertheless, in terms of
membership, the most spectacular Spiritual Baptist growth has been outside
the Caribbean-notably in the United States, Canada, South Africa, and Eu-
rope. In some respects, the most rapid growth for Rastafarianism has been
outside the Caribbean as well.
This paper discusses processes of conversion, disengagement, and recon-
version to the Rastafarian and Spiritual Baptist faiths in Trinidad with respect
to their differing worldviews, differing notions of the self, differing notions
of what constitutes “conversion,” and differing treatment of new converts.
My initial impression was that conversion from the Spiritual Baptist faith to
Rastafarianism and back again would be highly unlikely because the religions
differ so much from one another and because the Baptists are considerably
less successful in winning converts than are the Rastafarians. But on closer
examination, it is apparent that Rastafarians and Spiritual Baptists share com-
mon values, beliefs, and aspirations. Organizationally, both groups are on
their way to becoming world religions. Both groups were born out of oppres-
sive conditions in the Caribbean in the early years of the twentieth century;
both groups are religions that emphasize “the Word,” are essentially Protes-
tant in outlook (see h l i s 1999), and are what Max Weber (1963) would have
classified as “this-worldly’’ in orientation. Both groups have had their great-
est appeal among lower classes but are making inroads among the middle
classes, and both groups have experienced considerable economic and politi-
cal success over the past twenty-five years.
With respect to cosmology, neither group focuses on the afterlife.
“Heaven,” “hell,” and “salvation” do not play central roles in Spiritual Bap-
tist or Rastafarian theology. Some Baptist leaders insist that only those who
affirm the basic tenets of Christianity (e.g., belief in salvation through Je-
sus Christ) should participate in major church rituals like baptism and
mourning, but Baptist leaders seldom exclude participants on the basis of
belief. Like the Spiritual Baptists, Rastafarians also tend to be inclusive
rather than exclusive. They debate whether or not theirs is truly a religion
at all, claiming that Rastafarianism is first and foremost a way of life. There
are few fixed beliefs, and all beliefs are in the process of being worked out.
Rastafarians acknowledge that other Rastas may have different ideas -but
different ideas do not usually result in exclusion from the group. They take
great care to distinguish between beliefs and the believer, and they contend
that adherents who hold other viewpoints are accepted even when their
ideas are not. Nevertheless, individuals frequently leave Rasta compounds
when they feel others are not receptive to their ideas. Baptists seldom
change churches on theological grounds.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL STUDIES OF CONVERSION
As noted, studies of religious conversion reflect strong Western biases and are
often predicated on an assumed Euro-Christian monopoly on Truth. For ex-
ample, the most cited studies of religious conversion in the twentieth century
are those of William James (1929) and A. D. Nock (1933). According to
James (1929: 89), conversion is “the process by which a self, hitherto divided,
and consciously wrong, inferior and unhappy, becomes unified and con-
sciously right, superior, and happy, in consequence of its firmer hold upon re-
ligious realities.” James’s focus-like St. Paul’s on the road to Damascus-
is on the conversion of a solitary individual. In many respects, Rastafarians
subscribe to James’s ideas about conversion. They, too, profess that their faith
offers those who are divided and consciously wrong in their beliefs an op-
portunity to become “unified and consciously right, superior, and happy” as
a result of a firmer hold on religious realities.
Robert W. Hefner (1993) aptly noted that in the nineteenth century, con-
version to a world religion (especially Christianity) was seen as part of a nat-
ural, inevitable progression, what scholars of the day referred to as “the civi-
lizing process” (see also Tippet 1992; Van der Veer 1999).The usual direction
of conversion was thought to be expansive from local traditions to more uni-
versal, worldwide religions-from little traditions to the Great Traditions. It
was assumed that these world religions are generally supportive of the state
systems that gave birth to them, although there is some evidence to the con-
trary (e.g., Kee 1982). Less attention has been paid to conversion from uni-
versal religions back to local beliefs and practices or to conversions from one
local tradition to another local tradition. In “African Conversion,” Robin Hor-
ton (197 1) successfully challenged this point of view by asserting that African
tribal religions should be seen as every bit as sophisticated and/or “rational”
as their Western counterparts. Tribal religions, Horton contended, differ from
world religions only because they are narrower in focus (see Landau 1999).
Tribal religions deal primarily with local events and personalities.
As A. D. Nock (1933: 5 ) astutely observed, “There is a middle country-
that of the changes in belief and worship due to political development or cul-
tural interplay.” Nineteenth-century scholars paid little attention to these reli-
gions of the middle range, what Richard P. Werbner (1977) has identified as
“regional cults.” Religions like the Spiritual Baptists and Rastafarianism-
which are somewhere on the road between local religions and full-blown
world religions- serve as prime examples of regional cults.
Hefner (1993: 4) also correctly emphasized that “only a very few religions
have shown great success in propagating themselves over time and space.”
Both the Spiritual Baptists and Rastafarians are among those rare religions
“Limin’widJuh” 153
that have successfully propagated themselves. Since these are young reli-
gions, their temporal success has yet to be proven, but their spatial success is
indisputable. Spiritual Baptist churches can be found throughout Europe and
the Americas, and Rastafarianism has spread from the Caribbean to all conti-
nents. It is even known among tribal peoples like the Maori, the Hopi, and
Australian aborigines, and it has become a religious movement of immense
importance and influence in North America, South America, Europe, Asia,
and Africa.
There is a need to look at the Spiritual Baptists and Rastafarian as products
of individual, social, and historical processes (see Berkhofer 1963). As James
W. Fernandez (1982: 283) suggested, one of the greatest problems faced by
European missionaries in Africa was their “tendency to concentrate religious
experience on [the] individual rather than the group.” This contrasts with the
nineteenth-century view that religious conversion is primarily a group phe-
nomenon (e.g., The Great Awakening in the United States). Revivalist con-
versions entail intense social pressures and are of fairly short duration. Nev-
ertheless, Tom Robbins (1988: 69) insists that “scholarly rationalism must not
be allowed to obscure the fact that crowds can be brought to ecstatic arousals
that have a critically transforming effect on people.”
Contemporary Rastafarians and Spiritual Baptists understand conversion
in mainly individualistic terms. This is ironic because-like many Caribbean
religions-both groups trace their origins to great Protestant revivals of the
nineteenth century. The Spiritual Baptists, for example, claim to be an out-
growth of a great revival on St. Vincent, where, they claim, evangelist Charles
Wesley preached (Henney 1974: 18). As is evident from other essays in this
volume, the relationships between colonialism and revivalist movements are
both varied and complex. A central question becomes “Is conversion simply
the colonization of consciousness?’
Studies of conversion focus not only on engagement but on disengagement
as well. Both the Spiritual Baptists and Rastafarians have developed strong
commitment mechanisms. Their rituals serve to promote loyalty and attach-
ment, and entrances and exits take place over years rather than months or
weeks. Since neither the Spiritual Baptists nor the Rastafarians trace their re-
ligion to a single founder, both groups display very different patterns of de-
fection than has been predicted by social scientists. Janet Jacobs (1987:
294-308), for example, concluded that leaving religious groups is a two-stage
process: (1) first defectors loosen bonds with other group members, and
(2) then they become disengaged from group leaders. Jacobs’s model-
developed to account for disaffection in New Religious Movements-is not
applicable to either the Spiritual Baptist or Rastafarian situation. Leadership
is not as central to either group as it is in new religions like the Unification
Church or Hare Krishna, and members of both religions move freely from
congregation to congregation. Spiritual Baptists, for example, seldom attend
services in their own neighborhoods. Moreover, they rarely attend the same
Spiritual Baptist church twice in a row. Becoming disengaged from other
group members seems to be more pivotal than disenchantment with a partic-
ular leader. I have observed that individuals continue to attend a particular
congregation even when they do not get along with that church’s leader.
DEFINITIONS OF SELF
Conversion to the Spiritual Baptist faith or to Rastafarianism is best seen as

a process of identity development, reference group formation, and/or social
drift. Although psychological studies stress a supposed unitary nature of self-
identification, Trinidadians’ reference group orientations may also be plural-
istic or contradictory. As Tom Robbins (1988: 75) suggests, “People become
converts gradually through the influence of social relationships; especially
during times of personal strain. Conversion is viewed as precarious and open
to change in response to shifting patterns of association” (see also Long and
Hadden 1983: 1).
In their survey of sociological studies of conversion, Snow and Machalek
(1984) concluded that conversion entails changes in the values, beliefs, iden-
tities, and, most important, universes of discourse of individuals. Although
Snow and Machalek tend to focus on internal change, they also give special
attention to changes in speech and changes in reasoning styles as major com-
ponents of religious conversion. Conversion to Rastafarianism underscores
the importance of looking at conversion as changes in speech and changes in
reasoning since a major focus of the religion is on word play. Adherents are
expected to contribute to an ever-expanding discourse on justice and the na-
ture of the universe. Snow and Machalek have argued convincingly that indi-
viduals who actively participate in rituals but do not change their worldviews
cannot truly be considered converts.
A. D. Nock (1933) made a similar observation in distinguishing between
“adhesion” and “conversion.” Nock contended that in the Roman Empire,
Christianity and Judaism were the only “exclusive” religions, which meant
that converts to these religions were cut off from past lifestyles and identities
as well as from other religious groups. By contrast, devotees to the compet-
ing cults of Isis, Orpheus, and Mythra were merely “adherents” to these
groups. A major difficulty with Nock’s argument, however, is that belief and
practice are difficult to separate, and practice can be a major influence during
the early stages of the conversion process. Ritual behavior is learned behav-
“Limin’widJah” 155
ior, and one must first be an observer of ritual before becoming a participant.
Both Rastafarians and Spiritual Baptists report exposure to their religions at
a very early age. Robbins (1988: 66) offers a partial resolution to this prob-
lem by suggesting that no single definition of conversion is either desirable
or possible. Robbins asserts that religious conversion is a complex process
and must allow for at least two perspectives: (1) the perspective of the con-
vert and (2) the perspectives of existing adherents.
RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATION AND RELIGIOUS CONVERSION
Rastafarianism is a social, political, and religious movement that began on the

Caribbean island of Jamaica in the late 1920s. Followers of the movement,
sometimes called Rastas or Dreads, are best known as the originators of the
popular musical style reggae, for their extensive ritual use of ganja (mari-
juana), and for wearing their hair in long, rope-like braids called dreadlocks.
The name “Rastafarianism” is borrowed from Ras Tafari, a name given to
former Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia, who reigned from 19 16 to 1974.
Although a number of the founders of Rastafarianism (notably Leonard How-
ell and Archibald Dunckley) preached that Haile Selassie was the Living God,
Emperor Selassie himself remained a devout leader within the Ethiopian Or-
thodox Christian Church. When Selassie visited Jamaica in 1966, he was
greatly puzzled by Rastafarians who seemed to be worshipping him.
Although there are many variations within Rastafarianism, and few Rasta-
farians would agree with all that follows, a 1983 Rastafari Theocratic As-
sembly passed a resolution declaring a single variant-that associated with
the House of Nyahbinghi-as the only orthodox faith. The House of Nyah-
binghi Creed proclaimed that Haile Selassie was the Living God, that all
African peoples are one, and that the descendants of those who were taken
from Africa to be slaves in Babylon will be repatriated. It stated that all
African people are descendants of the ancient Hebrews and that the reason
Africans now live outside Africa is because their descendants disobeyed
“Jah” (short for Jehovah, the god of the Hebrews), who punished them by
making them slaves to whites. Haile Selassie I was expected to arrange for
the return of all people of African descent to Africa, but following the death
of Selassie in 1974, there has been less emphasis on a physical return to
Africa and greater emphasis on a “spiritual” return.
The Spiritual Baptists are a rapidly expanding international religious move-
ment with congregations in St. Vincent, Trinidad and Tobago, Grenada,
Guyana, Venezuela, London, Amsterdam, Toronto, Los Angeles, and New
York City. Like other religions of Caribbean origin, the Spiritual Baptists
seem to have started out as a “religion of the oppressed.” In recent years, how-
ever, congregations in Trinidad have attracted membership among wealthy
East Indians, Chinese, and Europeans. Nevertheless, the religion is still over-
whelmingly black, with Asians and whites comprising less than 5 percent of
the total membership. A central Spiritual Baptist ritual is called “mourning.”
Spiritual Baptists participate in mourning ceremonies for a variety of reasons:
to cure cancer, to see the future, or to communicate with the deceased. For
most participants, however, the major reason for participating in the rite is to
discover one’s “true” rank within an elaborate twenty-three-step church hier-
archy. Every Baptist is expected to mourn as often as possible, and it is ex-
pected that all Baptists seek to advance within the church hierarchy.
The 1990s ushered in a period of increasing respectability and visibility for
the faith. In 1996, a general conference of Spiritual Baptist bishops was held
at the Central Bank Auditorium in Port of Spain, Trinidad. Archbishop Muh-
rain’s address to the conference called for: (1) building a new cathedral, which
would include a library for researchers who want to “make a history” of the
Spiritual Baptist faith; (2) the establishment of a trade school; and (3) the con-
struction of a “Spiritual Baptist Park” that will serve as a pilgrimage site for
Spiritual Baptists from the Caribbean and throughout the world. A seminary-
the Southland School of Theology- was established, and a comprehensive
Spiritual Baptist Minister’s Manual was published in 1993. In addition, the
day of the repeal of the Shouter Prohibition Ordinance in 1951 is now cele-
brated as a national holiday in Trinidad and Tobago. Between 1917 and 1951,
Spiritual Baptists were forbidden to practice certain rituals, including bind-
ing the head with a white cloth, holding a lighted candle in the hands, ringing
bells, violent shaking of the body and limbs, shouting and grunting, holding
flowers, and making chalk marks on the floor (Herskovits and Herskovits
1964: 344-45). The Prohibition Ordinance was not uniformly enforced.
It is difficult to gauge the impact of these changes on rank-and-file believ-
ers. Thus far, the impact has been minuscule. Southland School of Theology
has no full-time students, the Spiritual Baptist Ministers’ Manual is rarely
consulted, and construction has yet to begin on the park, the trade school, and
the cathedral. The majority of Spiritual Baptist churches in the Caribbean re-
main small and lack a solid financial base. For the average Caribbean church
member, things continue “pretty much as before.” There has, however, been
tremendous church growth outside the Caribbean. Again, I emphasize that the
largest and most prosperous Spiritual Baptist churches are located in Great
Britain, Canada, and the United States.
Spiritual Baptists are pluralists. They acknowledge that some of their mem-
bers might simultaneously consider themselves part of another, competing
faith. This point of view is reflected in basic principles of Spiritual Baptist or-
“Limin’wid Jah” 157
ganization. Their church buildings serve as a nexus for Orisha and Kabala
work (Glazier 1991; Houk 1997; Lum 1999), and many of their longer cere-
monies formally begin as Catholic and/or Protestant services. Baptists also
admit that some of their members drift away only to return years later. This
is not seen as desirable, but it is considered normal.
Rastafarians, to the contrary, are not as pluralistic. They expect the brethren
and sistren to maintain a degree of exclusivity. They are not concerned with
orthodoxy per se, but they are concerned that religious discourse be carried
out within the parameters of Rastafarianism. Every “i’teration” gets a Rasta
slant. Switching from one Rastafarian compound to another is not viewed as
a problem, but switching from Rastafarianism to another religion is seen as
“most vexing.” That some Spiritual Baptists should become Rastafarians is
OK, but that some Rastafarians should become Baptists is considered highly
unlikely by the Baptists and unthinkable by Rastafarians. It is a disconcerting
event that gives rise to intense speculation and heated debate.
There is considerable internal movement among Trinidad Rastafarians.
Rastas who find that they are not in accord with other Rastas in their com-
pound often move to another, distant compound (e.g., from Maraval to
Curepe or from Tacarigua to Sangre Grande). Rastafarians do not interpret
such movements as “backsliding.” It should be emphasized that although a
large number of Rastafarians in Trinidad live in communities with other
Rastafarians, Rastafarianism is by no means a communal movement. There
are perhaps as many hermit Rastafarians as there are Rastafarians who reside
in compounds. A majority of Rastafarians in Trinidad live in religiously
mixed neighborhoods. As long as one continues to support the basic tenets of
Rastafarianism (in the words of Nazma Muller, “Eat no meat, smoke plenty
’erb, and try to live Righteously”), one sees oneself and will be seen by oth-
ers as a Rastafarian.
At times, Rastafarians seem more concerned than the Spiritual Baptists
about the comings and goings of members. This may be because Rasta com-
pounds are believed to be centers for marijuana trafficking and receive con-
stant attention from law enforcement. Ganja is illegal in Trinidad, Jamaica,
and elsewhere in the Caribbean, but it is central to Rastafarian belief and
practice. Contrary to outsiders’ expectations, ganja use is not universal among
Rastas. I am struck by the number of Trinidadian Rastas who claim not to use
ganja at all. Nevertheless, both users and abstainers profess that ganja should
be legal and made available to those who want it.
Organizationally and ideologically, Spiritual Baptists and Rastafarians
bring a great deal to each another. To Rastafarians, Spiritual Baptists bring
(1) Kabala (which entails a reading and interpretation of scripture similar to
that utilized by Rastafarians-see Lum 1999) and (2) a source of African
pride contained within the myths and worldviews of the Orisha and Rada tra-
ditions (Glazier 1991; Houk 1997). Although many Rastafarians do not ac-
cept Orisha or subscribe to theories of spirit possession, they respect the high
civilization (the Kingdom of Dahomey) that the Orisha represent. To Spiritual
Baptists, Rasta brings (1) a heightened political consciousness-a new per-
spective on the place of Africa and Africans in world history, (2) an entrepre-
neurial spirit that complements and supplements Spiritual Baptist business
ventures, and (3) an organizational nexus. Just as they have served Orisha and
Kabala devotees in the past (Lum 1999), some Spiritual Baptist churches are
fast becoming gathering places for former Rastafarians who now utilize Spir-
itual Baptist buildings as meeting places.
CASE STUDIES: INCREMENTAL (SYNCRETIC)

VERSUS RADICAL (DISJUNCTIVE) CONVERSIONS
Social psychologists (Gallagher 1990; Lamb and Bryant 1999; Loewenthal

2000; Paloutzian et al. 1999) emphasize that there are degrees of personal trans-
formation and religious change. The five cases presented here represent incre-
mental rather than radical transformations. The issue is complex: How differ-
ent are new meaning systems from former ones? This is often difficult to
ascertain because although the conversion process itself may be gradual, it ap-
pears sudden and dramatic because of the way it is symbolized. Moreover, con-
version is not an all-or-nothing proposition. Elements of the old are preserved
alongside the new. As James W. Fernandez (1982: 568) noted in his study of re-
ligious conversion among the Fang, “One cannot argue that something entirely
new has been created, but it is not just something old either.” A. D. Nock (1933:
7) expresses it thusly: “The bottles are old but the wine is new.”
The sample in this study is limited both by my experiences with members
of these religions and by the comparatively small number of individuals who
actually convert from one religion to the other and back again. Like all field
workers, I can only report on those cases that have come to my attention. Nei-
ther Spiritual Baptists nor Rastafarians publicly proclaim their past religious
affiliations. But since I have been conducting fieldwork on Trinidadian reli-
gions for over twenty years, I have dealt with a number of the same inform-
ants in various religious incarnations. My sample consists of four males and
one female. All names and places have been changed to disguise identities,
but informants insist that fellow religionists will recognize them instantly-
“before they read the second line.” Two informants requested that I use their
real names in this paper, but I was unable to comply because to honor their
requests would violate the Code of Ethics adopted by the American Anthro-
pological Association.
“Limin’wid Juh” 159
I am struck by both the similarities and differences in my sample. Because

Spiritual Baptists and Rastafarians differ in so many ways, it is significant
whenever any convert reports similar experiences of conversion;defection,
and reconversion. Although my sample is by no means representative, I was
surprised that so many Spiritual Baptists who later convert to Rastafarianism
are over forty and that there is a considerable lag between initial exposure to
Rastafarianism and affiliating and identifying with the religion.
Paloutzian et al. (1999) attempted to relate psychological research on per-
sonality change and research on conversion. Does religious conversion foster
fundamental changes in personality? What is meant by personality? Research
suggests that joining a religious group is largely a matter of self-selection and
that basic personality structure remains very much the same over time. Peo-
ple with certain personality traits seek those groups that attract and reinforce
those basic traits. The question is “DO core traits change at all?” Paloutzian
et al. argue that much evidence supports William James’s (1929) assessment
that by the age of thirty, the human character is “set like plaster.” Why, then,
do Spiritual Baptists and Rasta conversions and reconversions happen rela-
tively late in life?
Younger converts report that they were initially attracted to Rastafarianism
primarily by the music, but they did not act on this attraction immediately.
One of the largest Rastafarian sects in Trinidad, Twelve Tribes, operates a
highly successful nightclub in Curepe (near the University of the West In-
dies). The club features ska and reggae and offers a venue for local talent and
musicians from other Caribbean islands. Of course, only a very small number
of those who frequent the club ultimately identify with Rastafarianism. Bob0
Walton is one such individual.
Bob0 “Destiny” Walton

Bob0 “Destiny” Walton is now a regular performer at the Curepe club. He ad-
mits that his Rastafarian connections have helped his professional career.
Walton, who was raised a Spiritual Baptist but converted to Rastafarianism at
the age of forty-one, sees himself as following in the footsteps of other promi-
nent Trinidad performers turned reggae masters like Karega Mandela, Black
Stalin, and Roy Cape. He points out that prior to adopting reggae, Black Stalin
was a legendary calypsonian and Roy Cape was the leader of Trinidad’s most
respected brass band.
Walton states
There was always a spiritual and musical culture in my house. I come from a line
of Spiritual Baptists. My mother did a lot of singing and my father taught danc-
ing. I was baptized and my mother and I went to church and did confirmation
160 Stephen D. Glazier
and read the Bible from a very early age. . . . I came from a rural background
and supported the rights of the poor whenever I could. I wanted to join the
marches at the time of the Black Power Movement in Trinidad, but my mother
wouldn’t let me because I was a “little guy.” I began reading books on Rastafari
and His Majesty Haile Selassie I, listening to Bob Marley and what he was say-
ing, and I learned to play the guitar. Later, when Bob was sick, I remember
sleeping with a book on my bed, and a pen, writing, writing, always writing.
Rastafari brought me to understand myself a little more. To know my direction.
To know exactly where I was going. Now I know where I come from, it changed
me and changed people around me in some way, too. Rastafari is not just the
hairstyle (he grins shaking his dreads for effect). It’s the way a man thinks. Peo-
ple are taught to judge by appearances, but it’s what’s inside the clothes that
counts. Rasta is in the heart. If I reject you, I restrict myself. If you come to me
with love, then I will have to deal with you with love. No one wants to be has-
sled. A man’s culture should be respected. Who is man to come criticize us? Jah
made the herbs on this planet. Who is man to come and eliminate it? I build
higher heights of “l-lration,”2and I smoke Jah-herb for higher dedication. This
is the reason. I would like to say that I give thanks and praise unto the Most High
God. Jah Rastafari Selassie I the First. I want to see the people accepting Rasta-
fari. I want to know people are listening to my music. Yes, I would love to go to
Africa. Any day. Any time. Right now!
Bertie Johns
There is no typical Spiritual Baptist or Rastafarian conversion narrative, and
a great deal of personal style goes into each performance. Bertie Johns’s story
of his conversion differs from most because he delivers it in an understated
monotone:
I was born a Spiritual Baptist, but I found that Rastafari is the religion for the
Black Man. Orisha is not for me. My mother was a follower of the Orisha. It was
hard for me and my brother. I liked the Baptist music. I went to Baptist service
with my mother; I baptized; mourned; mourned three times. It’s good for some.
Not the way for me and my brother who became a Pentecostal. Rastafari people
understand the world. They don’t hold back. Any Rasta can say what he feel.
Better for me than the Baptists cause I always say what I feels.
Bertie Johns is forty-seven years old. He was born in Grenada and baptized
in the Church of England. His family moved to Trinidad when he was six, and
his mother became a Spiritual Baptist. Johns grew up in the Baptist church.
He was baptized at the age of twelve and mourned three times.
Eventually, he found himself “spending more time with the Rastas.” He
lived briefly in a Curepe compound (next to the Twelve Tribes nightclub) but
“Limin’ wid Jah ” 161
found that he liked “his own space.” Later, he moved to a deserted plot of
land along the road to Maracas Beach, where he sold sweet drinks and snacks
to beachgoers. When he was forty-two, the Orisha Ogun began calling him.
Much to his surprise, he found that many Rastafarians were not supportive of
Orisha work. Bertie says he had to go back to the Baptist church because Bap-
tists are “more supporting of those who serve the Orisha.” He emphasizes that
he himself would like to have remained a Rasta, but many Rastafarians are
intolerant of African spirits. They mocked him publicly. “I could live with it,
he states, but Ogun could not. Ogun is too proud.”
Fitzroy Gibbons
Fitzroy Gibbons was born in Trinidad. He says that he has always been a Ras-
taman at heart. He moved to London when he was sixteen. There, he “limed”
with Jamaican-born Rastas and “smoked plenty weed.” He never identified
himself as a convert to the Rasta faith but admits that he had little contact with
non-Rastafarians. After a brief stay in Brooklyn, he returned to Trinidad at the
age of twenty-five. At that point, his biological mother-who had converted
to the Baptist faith while Fitzroy had been abroad-encouraged him to go to
a Spiritual Baptist mourning chamber to “take an inventory” of his life. He
ended up going to the mourning room three times and advancing to the rank
of captain (a rank that is near the middle of the Spiritual Baptist leadership hi-
erarchy for males). At that time, he also became involved in Kabala work and
hosted several banquets each year? He continued to use ganja recreationally
but not for religious purposes. His suppliers, however, were committed Rasta-
farians who were friends of friends he had met in London. They were wary
of providing ganja to a non-Rastafarian and threatened to cut him off. He be-
gan to spend more time with Rasta friends and suppliers in Daberdie. His lo-
cal Spiritual Baptist leader denounced him from the pulpit for using drugs. He
was repentant and decided to recommit himself exclusively to the Baptist
faith. He again mourned and was given the rank of Pointer (the second high-
est rank a Spiritual Baptist male can attain). After becoming a Baptist Pointer,
Gibbons found that he was no longer welcome at the Daberdie compound. At
the age of fifty-one, he is one of the better-known Spiritual Baptist leaders in
Eastern Trinidad. Frequently, he preaches against Rastafarians and condemns
their use of drugs. He also continues to use ganja, which he now obtains from
non-Rastafarian sources.
Fitzroy Gibbons’s movement between faiths is not typical. It is rapid,
and-unlike other informants-he does not attempt to account for his con-
versions in exclusively religious terms. This raises issues of durability and re-
versibility. Why do some conversions last whereas others do not? In their
“elaborated likelihood model” (ELM), Hill and Bassett ( 1992) predicted that
a “well thought out” conversion is more likely to be durable. In Trinidad, the
majority of conversion narratives are exceptionally “well thought out .” When
religious switching occurs later in life and within a cultural tradition that val-
ues verbal performance, conversion accounts tend to be highly elaborated and
detailed, and they attempt to provide a religious and/or philosophical ration-
ale for changing faiths. Baptists and Rastafarians speak of conversions that
have taken place over many years, and converts usually indicate what they
perceive as multiple benefits from their current religious affiliation as well as
shortcomings of their former religion. To the contrary, Fitzroy Gibbons offers
little justification. His narrative is not as practiced, coherent, or elaborate as
those given by other informants.
Ganja is a factor in all five of these conversion accounts, but not in the way
I had anticipated (see Hamid 2002). For most Spiritual Baptists, ganja use is
seen as a push rather than a pull factor. It makes the religion appear less at-
tractive to some. Spiritual Baptists tend to be socially and politically conser-
vative. An overwhelming majority strives for middle-class respectability
(Glazier 1991). They seek to avoid contact with the law and scrupulously
avoid any appearance of impropriety. Ganja use is perceived as a source of
potential trouble. For Baptists who become Rastafarians, Rasta teachings
concerning ganja are almost always the basis for an ongoing and vexing
struggle. Gibbons, of course, is an exception to this pattern.
Julia De Cibbs
The only female convert in my sample, Julia De Gibbs, began her religious
career in Grenada as a Spiritual Baptist. Julia mourned seven times and by the
age of thirty-two had advanced to the rank of Spiritual Baptist mother. She
separated from her husband (who was not a Spiritual Baptist) and moved with
her children to Maraval, Trinidad, in the 1980s. She was attracted to Rastafari
and especially to Rastaman Desmond K. She became his Queen (consort) for
four years, after which they separated. During her first years at the compound,
she did not feel accepted. She complains that “it usually takes two or three
years to be accepted.” Even after Desmond K. moved to another compound,
Gibbs remained in Maraval for several more years. Julia was outspoken about
what she saw as unfair treatment of women in the Maraval compound, espe-
cially sexual taboos and restrictions on clothing (see Collins 2000).
When Julia reached the age of forty-seven, Oshun (the female consort of
Ogun) began to call her. She was restless, she experienced difficulty sleeping,
and things in her life “did not seem right.” Her patience was exhausted. She
lacked discipline and found herself becoming agitated at the least thing.
“Limin’ wid Juh ” 163
Eventually, she went to Grenada and consulted with her former Spiritual Bap-
tist leader, who recommended that she visit the mourning room. Her trip to
the mourning room was a limited success. Initially, she felt better and expe-
rienced less trouble sleeping, but within six months reverted to her former
restlessness. She continued to dream of Oshun. The following spring, she
went to a feast for Oshun sponsored by a member of a Spiritual Baptist church
in Maraval. She was possessed by Oshun and began preparations to sponsor
her own feast. The opening prayers for her feast were held at the Maraval
Spiritual Baptist Church, where she had earlier become an active member.
The Rasta compound and the Spiritual Baptist church are less than half a mile
from each other. Julia still sees friends at the compound but now sees her ma-
jor religious affiliation as being Spiritual Baptist.
Treatment of women in Rastafarianism is a complex and controversial is-
sue (see Collins 2000; Murrell, Spencer, and McFarlane 1998).Some Rastas
claim that there is total equality between brethren and sistren: “Jah say we
treats all the same.” Other Rastas complain that although sexual equality is an
ideal, it is seldom practiced. Treatment of women is also complex and con-
troversial among Spiritual Baptists. Although females constitute the majority
of Spiritual Baptists, there is no assumption of sexual equality. A number of
congregations still practice separate seating for males and females (men on
the right, women on the left), and women are never permitted to preach from
the front of the church. They must speak either from the back or while kneel-
ing at the center pole. But in Trinidad, many women actually own and oper-
ate churches. Male leaders are invited guests who are paid to conduct ser-
vices, and males who do not act in accordance with the desires of church
owners are not invited back. Thus, women exercise considerable authority
over daily church affairs. Although sexual inequality is central to the Baptist
belief system, it is not always practiced.
Rawley Coombs
Rawley Coombs is one of the best-known Orisha leaders in Trinidad. Coombs
lectures at the University of the West Indies, was a principle organizer for the
1999 World Orisha Conference held in Port of Spain, has written several
books on Orisha (one a self-published guidebook for conducting Orisha cere-
monies), and regularly conducts Orisha ceremonies in Africa and in the United
States. He emphasizes that he has remained steadfast to the Orisha throughout
his life and has been a follower of Ogun since he was eighteen years old.
In Africa’s Ogun: Old and New, Sandra T. Barnes (1997) points out that on
the African continent Ogun is often associated with potentially dangerous
technology (e.g., weapons, motor vehicles, trains, and electricity) and with
dangerous male professions (e.g., iron-making, hunting, warfare, construc-

tion, and engineering). An ambiguous figure, Ogun exhibits distinctive per-
sonality traits. He is known to be fierce, angry, vengeful, and linked to de-
structive forces. But at the same time, Ogun is closely associated with
innovation and acts of discovery. Ogun is pragmatic. He is “this worldly” and
measures success in military and economic terms. In both Africa and the
Caribbean, women may not serve as priestesses in the Ogun cult.
In Trinidad, by contrast, many of Ogun’s associations with technology and
innovation have been minimized and his role as a military leader is stressed.
Followers of Ogun, Coombs asserts, must live lives of strict military disci-
pline. Devotees rise early, make offerings, follow a strict dietary code (no
pork, no salt, few spices-a considerable sacrifice on an island where most
food is highly spiced), consume no recreational alcohol (although Ogun likes
rum and his devotees are encouraged to drink rum at feasts), and use no drugs.
A major complaint is that Ogun’s devotees are required to maintain the same
strict discipline even when they are on holiday or out of work. Ogun is said
to deal harshly with those who do not follow his strict codes of conduct, and,
according to Coombs, “Once Ogun chooses you, you must follow his way or
he will make your life very hard.” Rawley Coombs and Bertie Johns cite mul-
tiple cases in which Ogun has killed followers for disobedience.
Although Coombs’s loyalty to Ogun remains constant, his major religious af-
filiations fluctuate. During his early years, he considered himself a Spiritual
Baptist. Unlike most Baptists, he claims to have attended the same church (in
Belmont) for most of his adult life. From the age of forty-three to forty-eight,
he became inactive at the Belmont church and affiliated mostly with Rastafar-
ians. Coombs lived for six months on a Rastafarian compound near Sangre
Grande but says he didn’t like it very much. He was attracted to Rasta because
Rasta, like Orisha, is “a black man’s religion.” He speaks positively about
Rastafarian concerns for social justice and their focus on taking care of one an-
other and bettering themselves economically. Coombs believes that blacks
would be better off if “we all could return to Africa.” He does not smoke ganja.
Still, he agrees with Rasta theology and admires Rastafarians for their ability to
put their beliefs into practice: “Rastas take care of each other. Baptists are self-
ish. They mainly take care of themselves first.” At the Sangre Grande com-
pound, Rawley began to realize that Rastafarians did not respect the Orisha.
Some members criticized him for holding a feast to Ogun, calling Orisha work
“obeah,” “mumbo jumbo,” and “magic” that doesn’t really help anyone.
There is-as Coombs contends-a major difference between the way in
which followers of the Orisha see the world and the way in which Rastafari-
ans see the world. Orisha devotees recognize three separate levels of reality:
the material, the mental (the inner self), and the Orisha (the spirits). Orisha,
“Limin’wid Juh” 165
he points out, are not merely in your head nor are they wholly material. Rasta-
farians, by contrast, posit only two levels of reality: (1) the material world and
(2) the inner, mental world. According to Coombs, Rastas do not use ganja to
escape to another level of reality. Coombs believes that ganja is “Jah-given.
It puts you in touch with your inner self (the ‘I-and-1’) so you see the mate-
rial world more clearly. For a true Rastaman, there can be no spirits.”
Rawley has lived with the spirits all of his life. He has never doubted their
existence. His mother was a follower of Oshun, and he was raised by the Or-
isha as much as by his own mother. Orisha were always present in his house-
hold. As a young child they talked to him, they played with him, they praised
him, they punished him, he attended their ceremonies, and he sponsored his
first Orisha feast at the age of eighteen. As noted, Ogun is a demanding Or-
isha (see Barnes 1997) and compels his followers to live a life of exacting
military precision. As Rawley emphasizes, “There are no ‘part time’ follow-
ers of Ogun. Ogun never lets go.” Spiritual Baptists may condemn the Orisha
by claiming that only God the Father should be worshipped, but at least they
recognize their existence.
Rastas interpret their dealings with Coombs differently.They point out that
there are other followers of Orisha who live on the compound and that it is
Coombs who was being intolerant. Rawley, they complain, was unwilling to
allow his beliefs in Ogun to be scrutinized by others. All members of a Rasta
compound should expect to be criticized by other Rastas. In the words of one
leader, “Rastas should never vex over scrutiny.”
CONVERSIONAND COMPORTMENT
Psychologists of religion have been criticized for failing to address the full
context of religious conversion. Rambo (1993: 164) contends that psycholo-
gists’ emphasis on the individual caused them to focus on issues that ignored
or downplayed significant cultural and social variables. Rambo cites Pierre
Bourdieu (1992), who suggested that the actual body is molded to carry
within its very tissues and muscles the story of a given ideology.
In many cultures, religion is not seen as just a specific practice, but-as Ja-
cob Belzen (1999: 246) argues-it is transmitted through practice (see Norris,
chapter 13). Religion, Belzen contends, is best understood as an all-pervading
style-a life form in which “the believers’ body reveals his or her religious
experiences” (246). As Meredith McGuire (1990: 283-96) correctly notes, the
human body is central to religious experience: (1) in self-experience and the
experience of others, (2) in the production and reflection of social meanings,
and (3) as the subject and object of power relations.
Both Rastafarians and Spiritual Baptists transmit their religions through

practice. These are embodied faiths. Rastafarians would wholeheartedly con-
cur with the observations of Rambo, Bourdieu, Belzen, and McGuire. Spiri-
tual Baptists would also agree, but reluctantly. Rastafarianism is more than a
belief system. To be a Rasta is to participate in a way of life that is encapsu-
lated in the body. The Rastafarian focus on the body goes beyond a concern
with exits and entrances (Douglas 1970).What goes into and out of the body
is a concern (e.g., observing a strict diet that proscribes meat, salt, alcohol,
coffee, and other items commonly consumed in the Caribbean), but Rastafar-
ian concerns are not just about dietary prohibitions. The holy act of smoking
ganja is in itself both an exit and an entrance. It is a bodily sensation, calling
into play all of the senses: watching the smoke as it is exhaled (sight), taste,
smell, and hearing yourself breathe. But it is more. Clothing (yellow, green,
and black) and hairstyle (dreadlocks) make a strong bodily statement. But it
is even more than that. More than any outward manifestation, it is a concern
with how one carries his or her body. Rastas stand erect and proud. They do
not stoop; they do not curtsey. Rastas bow to no one. All Rastafarians are con-
sidered equal. They acknowledge none as their betters, nor do they expect
obeisance from others.
This is in marked contrast to SpiritualBaptists,especially those Baptists who
are followers of the Orisha. Like Rastafarians,many Spiritual Baptists observe
dietary restrictions. Many do not smoke, eat no pork, and seldom consume al-
cohol (except when possessed by the Orisha). High-ranking Baptist leaders are
easily identified by their dark-colored (navy blue or black), immaculately
pressed suits, black umbrellas, and briefcases. Their clothing is the embodi-
ment of a nineteenth-century British colonial officer. But more important, Bap-
tist bodily comportment is that of obeisance.They stoop, they curtsey, and they
bow. In their Christian services, they bow to the Holy Spirit. In their African
services, they bow to Orisha. Their bodies transmit a very different message
about the subject and object of power relations than does the Rastaman’s.
How, then, can a Spiritual Baptist become a Rasta and a Rasta become a
Spiritual Baptist? There is only one member of the Orisha pantheon whose
comportment is similar to that of a Rastaman: Ogun, the god of iron. As
noted. Ogun is a military leader, and those who follow Ogun must be disci-
plined. Ogun stands proud and erect. He never stoops; he never curtseys.
Ogun bows to no one. Because Ogun is so demanding, he attracts few fol-
lowers. But among Rastas who become Baptists and Baptists who become
Rastas, Ogun is disproportionately represented. In addition, the female mem-
ber of my sample is a follower of Oshun (the consort of Ogun). Like Ogun,
Oshun stands erect: she never bows; she, too, never curtseys.
“Limin ’ wid Juh ” 167
CONCLUSION
In my limited sample, Spiritual Baptists who became Rastas did so in their

late thirties and early forties. Music seems to have been a major attraction.
Ganja is sometimes a negative one. Some Baptists retain loyalty to Rastafar-
ianism for ten or more years. By contrast, I have also interviewed Rastafari-
ans who converted to the Spiritual Baptist faith in their late forties and mid-
fifties. Usually, they are “called” by the Orisha. An inducement is that Orisha
spirits are rejected by Rastafarians but are tolerated by Spiritual Baptists. As
noted, the Baptists provide a meeting ground for followers of Orisha, Kab-
bala, and many other faiths (Glazier 1991,2001; Houk 1997; Lum 1999).
All conversion narratives in my sample emphasized travel. References to
physical travel are also metaphors for spiritual journeys. Informants reported
that their religious conversions were often accompanied by physical move-
ment from one congregation to another or from one place to another. Contrary
to expectations, their conversion narratives are never circular. Both Spiritual
Baptists and Rastafarians understand spiritual journeys as lineal.
All cases support a social interactionist view of conversion. If one spends
more time with one group than another, one is seen as a “convert” to that
faith. Following Robert Wuthnow’s (1998) typology of religions, both Rasta-
farianism and the Spiritual Baptists would not be classified as mass religions
but as “boutique religions.” Both faiths are designed to attract a limited num-
ber of converts. Neither religion sees mass conversion as either possible or
desirable. Both religions seek converts gradually-one at a time. A major dif-
ference is that Baptists see religious drifting as inevitable, while Rastas inter-
pret defection as a moral, social, and ethical problem. But as Belzen (1999)
has pointed out, “Religion is not always, everywhere, and for everyone, the
same thing. Every religion produces experiences and behavioral dispositions
of its own” (237).
NOTES
1 . To “lim” is to hang out, laugh, talk, and drink with a group of friends in a pub-
lic place. Trinidadians differentiate between “limin’,” which is essentially aimless be-
havior, and productive behavior, which is characterizedas “work.”One of the best de-
scriptions of Trinidadian limin’ behaviors is provided by Michael Lieber (1981).
2. “I-Iration” is an example of Rasta wordplay. In this case, it literally means an
oration about the inner self (the “I-and I”).
3. Banquets are literally feasts to honor and consult with spirits associated with the
Kabala; see Lum (2000), 279-80. Banquets are sometimes referred to as “suit and
waistcoat” ceremonies because sponsors are required to wear formal attire. Unlike
feasts sponsored for the Orishas, spirits consulted at banquets are predominantly of
European origin.
REFERENCES
Austin, Diane J. 1981. “Born Again and Again and Again. . . : Communitas and So-
cial Change among Jamaican Pentecostalists.” Journal of Anthropological Re-
search 37: 22646.
Austin-Broos, Diane. 1997. Jamaica Genesis: Religion and the Politics of Moral Or-
dei: Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Barnes, Sandra T., ed. 1997. Africa’s Ogun: Old and New. Bloomington: Indiana Uni-
versity Press.
Belzen, Jacob A. 1999. “Religion as Embodiment: Cultural-Psychological Concepts
and Methods in the Study of Conversion among ‘Bevindelijken.”’ Journal for the
Scientcjk Study of Religion 38, no. 2: 236-54.
Berkhofer, Robert F. 1963. “Protestants, Pagans, Conversion and Sequences among
the North American Indians, 1760-1860” Ethnohistory 10, no. 3: 201-32.
Bourdieu, Pierre, and L. J. D. Wacquant. 1992. An Introduction to Reflexive Sociol-
ogy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Buckser, Andrew S . 1995. Communities of Faith: Sectarianism, Identity and Social
Change on a Danish Island. Oxford: Berghahn Books.
Collins, Loretta. 2000. “Daughters of Jah: The Impact of Rastafarian Womanhood in
the Caribbean, the United States, Britain, and Canada.” In Religion, Culture and
Tradition in the Caribbean, edited by Hemchand Gossai and Nathaniel Samuel
Murrell, pp. 227-55. New York: St Martin’s Press.
Douglas, Mary. 1970. Natural Symbols. New York: Routledge.
Fernandez, James W. 1962. Bwiti: An Ethnography of the Religious Imagination in
Africa. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
Gallagher, Eugene V. 1990. Expectations and Experience: Explaining Religious Con-
version. Atlanta, Ga.: Scholar’s Press.
-. 1994. “A Religion without Converts? Becoming a Neo-Pagan.” Journal of the
American Academy of Religion 62, no. 3: 851-96.
Glazier, Stephen D. 1983. “Spiritual Baptist Outreach from Trinidad.” Cultural Sur-
vival Quarterly 7: 69-73.
-. 1991. Marchin’the Pilgrims Home. Salem, Wisc.: Sheffield.
-. 2001. “Adumbrations of Dread: Spiritual Baptists at the Dawn of the Millen-
nium.” Journal of Ritual Studies 15, no. 1: 17-26.
Hamid, Ansley. 2002. The Ganja Complex: Rastafari and Marijuana. Lanham, Md.:
Lexington Books.
Hefner, Robert W., ed. 1993. Conversion to Christianity: Historical and Anthropo-
logical Perspectives on a Great Transformation. Berkeley: University of California
Press.
“Limin’ wid Jah ’’ 169
Henney, Jeannette H. 1974. “Spirit Possession Beliefs and Trance Behavior in Two
Fundamentalist Groups in St. Vincent.” In Trance, Healing and Hallucination, ed-
ited by Felicitas D. Goodman, J. H. Henney, and Esther Pressel, pp. 6-1 1 1 . New
York: John Wiley.
Herskovits, Melville J., and Frances S. Herskovits. 1964 [ 19471. Trinidad Village.
Reprint. New York: Octagon Books.
Hill, P. C., and R. L. Bassett. 1992. “Getting to the Heart of the Matter: What the So-
cial-Psychological Study of Attitudes Has to Offer Psychology of Religion.” In Re-
search in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, edited by M. Lynn and D. Moberg,
pp. 159-82. Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press.
Horton, Robin. 1971. “African Conversion.” Africa 41: 85-108.
Houk, James T. 1992. The Orisha Religion in Trinidad. Philadelphia: Temple Univer-
sity Press.
James, William. 1929. The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in Human Na-
ture. New York: Penguin Books.
Jacobs, Janet. 1987. “Deconversion from Religious Movements: An Analysis of
Charismatic Bonding and Spiritual Commitment.” Journal for the Scientijic Study
of Religion, 26: 294-308.
Kee, Alistair. 1982. Constantine versus Christ. London: SCM Press.
Lamb, Christopher, and M. Darrel Bryant, eds. 1999. Religious Conversion: Contem-
porary Practice and Controversies. New York: Cassell.
Landau, Paul. 1999. “Religion” and Christian Conversion in African History: A New
Model.” The Journal of Religious History 23, no. 1 (February): 8-30.
Lieber, Michael. 198 1. Street Scenes: Afro-American Culture in Urban Trinidad.
Cambridge, Mass.: Schenkman.
Long, Theodore E., and Jeffrey K. Hadden. 1983. “Religious Conversion and the Con-
cept of Socialization.” Journal for the Scientijic Study of Religion 22, no. 1: 1-14.
Loewenthal, Kate M. 2000. The Psychology of Religion: A Short Introduction. New
York: Oneworld.
Lum, Kenneth A. 2000. Praising His Name in the Dance: Spirit Possession in the
Spiritual Baptist Faith and Orisha Work in Trinidad, West Indies. Amsterdam:
Harwood.
McGuire, Meredith. 1990. “Religion and the Body: Rematerializing the Human Body
in the Social Sciences of Religion.” Journal for the ScientiJic Study of Religion 29:
283-96.
Murrell, Nathaniel S., William D. Spencer, and Adrian McFarlane, eds. 1998. Chant-
ing down Babylon: The Rastafari Reader: Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Nock, Arthur Darby. 1933. Conversion: The Old and the New in Religion from
Alexander the Great to Augustine of Hippo. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Paloutzian, Raymond F., James T. Richardson, and Lewis R. Rambo. 1999. “Reli-
gious Conversion and Personal Change.” Journal of Personality 67, no. 6:
1047-79.
Pulis, John W., ed. 1999. Religion, Diaspora, and Cultural Identity. New York: Gor-
don and Breach.

Robbins, Tom, ed. 1988. Cults, Converts, and Charisma. Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage.
Snow, David A., and Richard Machalek. 1984. “The Sociology of Conversion.” An-
nual Review of Sociology 10: 167-90.
Tippett, Alan R. 1992.“The Cultural Anthropology of Conversion.” In The Handbook
of Religious Conversion, edited by H. Newton Maloney and Samuel Southard,
pp. 192-205. Birmingham, Ala.: Religious Education Press.
Troeltsch, Emst. 1960 [ 18901. The Social Teachings ofthe Christian Churches. New
York: Harper.
Van der Veer, Peter. 1996. Conversion to Modernities: The Globalization of Chris-
tianity. New York: Routledge.
Weber, Max. 1963. The Sociology of Religion. Boston: Beacon Press.
Werbner, Richard P. ed. 1977. Regional Cults. New York: Academic Press.
Wuthnow, Robert. 1998. Afrer Heaven: Spirituality in America since the 1950s.
Berkeley: University of California Press.
Zane, Wallace W. 1999. Journeys to the Spiritual Lands: The Natural History of a
West Indian Religion. New York: Oxford University Press.
13
Converting to What? Embodied Culture
and the Adoption of New Beliefs
Rebecca Sachs Norris
Conversion involves not just adopting a set of ideas but also converting to
and from an embodied worldview and identity. Since the symbols and prac-
tices of any religion have developed historically within a specific context,
they cannot convey the same meaning to both native practitioners and con-
verts. Given that cultural beliefs and practices shape experience, and that the
meaning of religious language and ritual is grounded in embodied experience,
converts initially understand the symbolism and language of their adopted re-
ligion through the filter of their original language and worldview. This applies
not only to ideas but also to gesture, posture, and ritual, which involve deeply
ingrained associations and learned relationships between bodily practice and
inner states of consciousness. This chapter discusses three consequences of
this embodiment for the nature of voluntary spiritual conversion. First, al-
though a convert experiences conversion as a reorientation to a new religious
belief system, the conversion occurs primarily because it corresponds with
the convert’s preexisting ideas or feelings about truth or meaning. Second,
unless they are converting to a different branch of their old tradition, converts
usually exhibit one of two ways of relating to the laws and rituals of their
adopted religion: zealous adherence or selective performance. Third, since
the worldview of the convert exists not only as abstract ideas but also as em-
bodied reality, practicing the adopted religion requires not only the gradual
assimilation of the meaning of terms and concepts based in the language and
symbols of another culture, but also the performance of ritual postures and
gestures requiring retraining of deep-seated somatic responses.
Interviews used in this chapter were taken in 1994 in the greater Boston
area for a study of conversion, with the exception of F. D., with whom I spoke
171
172 Rebecca Sachs Norris
in 2000. The interviewees are all middle-class, though not necessarily upper
middle class. All came from Jewish or Christian backgrounds, and all were in
their forties at the time of the interviews. Fieldwork with the Threshold Or-
der in Vermont took place in 1993 and 1994. By the term “conversion,” I re-
fer to the voluntary adoption, for personal spiritual reasons, of a religion or
set of beliefs other than the one with which the convert was brought up. What
the French call “reversion,” an experience of a new depth of belief in one’s
own religion, which is also referred to in English as conversion, is not dis-
cussed in this chapter.
HOW N E W I S N E W ?
C O N V E R S I O N A N D T H E ROLE O F PREEXISTING BELIEFS
Voluntary converts choose a new religious affiliation based on preexisting

deep-seated beliefs. According to Rolf Homann (1990),
Theories of recognition or understanding plainly show that our mind always

leans first towards recognizing what we already know. Transferring this to cul-
tures, it can be said that we recognize in another culture whatever is a compo-
nent of our own culture. (65)
How, then, is it possible to convert to a religion that is based in another cul-

ture? Understanding of the language and symbols of an alien tradition can
only develop gradually, and, in fact, a voluntary convert is adopting beliefs
interpreted through an already existing meaning system. A few examples
from my fieldwork illustrate this pattern.
A. F., an artisan who builds and repairs harps in the Boston area, told me
that he had no church background, but it was clear that his family was
strongly attached to “normal” American Judeo-Christian culture. They would
not use the Islamic name he took but insisted on using the name given him at
birth. In spite of having no church background, he stated that at one time he
“thought he was a Christian,” but he “had no teacher to show him the inner
strength [of Christianity] .” An identity crisis-‘‘I had no identity”- was fol-
lowed by a period of being a Sikh, a follower of Yogi Bhajan. He said in ret-
rospect that he had needed that particular path at that time because it provided
strict controls. When he no longer needed those controls, he left. He later be-
came a member of the Sufi Order-an Americanized Sufi order founded by
Anayat Khan-and after that he found the Mevlevi order of which he is now
a member. A. F. found the Sufi Order after being involved with various med-
itation practices -he was looking for something that worked better, some-
thing “more like home.” He attended introductory Sufi classes, but it was an
Converting to What? 173
intense experience at his first dhikr (a religious ceremony consisting of recita-

tion from the Quran, music, and movement intended to lead to a sacred state
of remembrance of Allah) that led him to his strong connection with Sufism.
He also stated that the language of Sufism called him, conveyed something
that the language of Buddhism, for example, did not. He knew “my path is
Sufism but it might not be this school,” and in looking for a group with which
to perform dhikr he found the Threshold Circle, the Mevlevi order in Ver-
mont, and felt it corresponded to his needs. He stated that Sufism was “inside
me, waiting to be uncovered or released . . . it’s just there.” A. F. thinks of
himself as a Muslim, although he doesn’t follow all the laws and he admits
that some Muslims might not think of him as one.
F. D., another man I interviewed, decided with his brother not to go ahead
with their intended conversion to Judaism, because the Rabbi’s ideas of what
Judaism was did not conform to theirs. F. D. stated that he had had a lot of
contact with Jewish culture due to “strange thoughts” he and his younger
brother had when they were in high school. He and his brother decided to
convert to Judaism after reading the Bible together. They felt there was a
break between Judaism and Christianity that was not correct. They went and
spoke with the Orthodox rabbi in the town where they lived, who sent them
away, saying that even people who were born into Orthodox Judaism worked
all their lives to learn and understand the traditions. They later found out that
this is part of the conversion “ritual”-that one is turned away three times but
must come back. In any case, they decided to take classes in Judaism and to
move to Israel. The conversion did not work out because the rabbi who was
instructing them took the main tenets of Judaism (the temple, the laws, etc.)
and deconstructed them one by one. These being the basic principles that
F. D. and his brother felt were so important, they could not tolerate the
Rabbi’s treatment of what they valued so highly, and the conversion fell
through. (F. D. now belongs to a sect whose members consider themselves
Messianic Christian Jews.)
The third example is from a written account of conversion to Islam (Moore
1985):
For the three days following our meeting, two other Americans and I listened in
awe as this magnificent story teller unfolded the picture of Islam, of the perfec-
tion of the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, of the Sufis of Morocco, and
of the 100-year-old plus Shaykh, sitting under a great fig tree in a garden with
his disciples singing praises of Allah. It was everything I ever dreamed of. (16)
These same sentiments can be found in interviews with converts conducted

by others and in conversions to a wide variety of traditions; they are not rare
but are a common element in conversions. In an interview with the Boston
Globe, a convert to Islam who had been actively seeking a new tradition re-
ports, “I didn’t stop believing in God, but I started looking for the right way
to worship God” (“Americans” 2000: A16). In contrast, a convert to Hin-
duism who was not actively seeking for something (she was a “totally con-
tent human being” before her trip to India) states: “When I arrived at the
Ganges in 1996 for a holiday, I knew that I had come home. I was in pure ec-
stasy” (“American” 2000: A6). Such sentiments also occur when the conver-
sion is only from one type of Christianity to another: “I feel comfortable, as
though this is where I should have been” (“Catholicism” 2000: A19)
These statements suggest that conversion is a matter of matching a tradi-
tion to an ideal or experience that already exists. Converts in my interviews
recognized something that was previously a part of their inner life: “Sufism
was inside me,” “It was everything I ever dreamed of,” “I started looking for
the right way to worship God,” “I knew that I had come home.” Similarly,
R. A., A. F.’s girlfriend, felt that her experiences with birth and death as a
nurse were in a way her initiation, so that when she met the Sufi teaching it
was a matter of recognizing a quality, an authenticity, that she already knew.
(Her affiliation is with the Sufi Order.)
FORMS OF PRACTICE
Having acknowledged something in a religion that answers an inner need, the

convert then, only after discovering that this is the “right” tradition precisely
because it corresponds to something already existing, begins the process of
assimilating the beliefs and practices of the adopted religion. Usually this
takes either of two forms. One is the zealous convert’s devoted adherence to
laws and rituals. Simon Lichman, referring to Orthodox Jewish converts he
has encountered in Israel, suggests that they are attempting to be “Jewish by
performance,” since they are forever denied the possibility of being Jewish by
birthright.’ This may be a particularly strong impulse for converts to Judaism,
given its concern with birthright and Jewish bloodlines (see Buckser, chapter
6), but it also occurs with converts to other traditions. Converts to Sufism, for
example, often take new names (as with A. F., whose family refused to use
his Muslim name) in order to complete the change of identity. This insistence
on a total immersion may relate to a feeling of inauthenticity. The fact that the
convert comes to the newly adopted religion through the lens of an already
existing culture creates an experience of not quite feeling like a member of
the new tradition, a feeling that the convert may try to overcome through rig-
orous adherence to laws and practices. Having converted to a new tradition,
it may also be too difficult at first to face any contradictions between the old
and new worldviews, in which case rigid obedience prevents these contradic-
tions from surfacing?
The other form in the case of middle-class Americans converting to a dis-
tinctly different tradition is a partial and ongoing process that continues to be
based on already established identities and ideas. Some Sufi converts, for ex-
ample, adopt only those practices and beliefs that concur with preestablished
cultural viewpoints. This tendency is informed by American cultural ideals
involving independence and freedom of choice. I observed an example of se-
lective performance, as we might call it, at a meeting of the Threshold Soci-
ety, the Mevlevi order in Vermont. At that time, the society was composed en-
tirely of American converts of varying degrees of experience. It was
announced at a weekly meeting that a sheikh from the Helveti order in Turkey
had been invited as a guest, but that he would be leading the evening prayer,
the salat. A number of women asked if they would really have to cover their
heads for the salat-a ritual requirement that was being taken quite casually
there. They were American, they wanted a choice in the matter, and they
wanted to discuss the whys and wherefores. Covering their heads made them
uncomfortable, and the fact that it was required was not sufficient reason for
them to relinquish their aut~nomy.~ Moreover, evidently even performance of
the salat was not regular, as a practice session followed this announcement
and discussion.
Just as Americans understand religion to be a matter of “spirituality”
whereby we can choose to adopt any tradition we want, so too we will adopt
only those practices that make sense to us or with which we feel comfortable.
In the Middle East, Sufism is highly formal in practice. In America, it can be
taken up as an inchoate spirituality,perhaps aided by Sufism’s orientation to-
ward inner meaning rather than outer form. A. F.’s objection to the word
“conversion” exemplifies this attitude: “With the word conversion I think of
religious practice.” I asked him whether Sufism is religion. He replied that his
understanding is that religious practice is related to written law; Sufism is
spiritual practice.“
Americans believe deeply that it is our right to have a choice of religion and
that we can pick any religion that resonates with our individual experience.
Furthermore, we can take a piece of one tradition and combine it with a piece
from another if we so please. We can practice yoga and Zen Buddhism and
read Rumi, and at the same time consider ourselves Jews or Christians, be-
cause the inclusion of each element is based on personal meaning. This indi-
vidualized modular spirituality, disassociated from any one specific religious
practice, is not universal but reflects American ideals and values regarding
freedom and individualism? Adopting the whole of a tradition from another
culture goes against the grain, especially since for us adherence to ritual
176 Rebecca Suchs Norris
requirements must come from personal meaning, not authority -a point of

view with a distinctly Protestant flavor?
R. L. was formerly a maternity nurse, but at the time of the interview she
was not able to work because of rheumatoid arthritis. She converted to Or-
thodox Christianity yet still considered herself a Jew, partly due to the fact
that she sees Orthodox Christianity as an “extension of Judaism, not a
change.” Orthodoxy is rigorous in its ritual requirements-how did a Jew
who considered herself “almost an atheist” in her early twenties experience
this? R. L. did not see the rigor as a matter of absolutes. Part of her under-
standing of the rigor and commitment required by her adopted religion is that
the monks who were the sources of the ritual and practices lived very differ-
ent lives than hers. Thus, it was acceptable for her relationship to those re-
quirements to be different than theirs. She stated that she did not perform rit-
uals out of “obedience,” although she felt that others sometimes do. She said
that she doesn’t “do things unless they feel real,” even if they have been ex-
plained to her. She gradually takes on more as “it becomes more real to me,
more important.” Adherence to ritual requirements, for her, is a choice based
on a preexisting sense of what is real.
Americans are very concerned with things being real, and ritual is often
suspect because it is seen as insincere or empty. Every convert with whom I
have spoken, without exception, has referred at some point to the adopted tra-
dition being more real, to searching for something more real, and so on. This
more real “reality” is understood to be beyond language. R. A stated: “There’s
a lot in us that’s essential. I can be in tears from Hindu puju too. It’s beauti-
ful. There’s something underneath language, otherwise how could we do
these things, there’s something in hearing those words. . . R. A., along with
.lr7
A. F., also spoke about communication taking place even when one doesn’t
understand the language. In fact, according to A. F., “Coming from the ap-
propriate culture might be a block, [because one] might not see the mystical
practice within the ritual.”
CULTURAL TRANSLATION A N D PERFORMANCE
Though many converts refer to the spiritual reality behind the words and
phrases used in a given religious tradition, nonetheless they must be able to
derive meaning and direction from the written and spoken instructions of
teachers and texts. One factor that was influential in bringing a couple I in-
terviewed to their particular teacher of Tibetan Buddhism was that the first
lectures they attended were given by Rimpoche Trungpa, who was “Ameri-
canized,’’ meaning that he had grown his hair and married. (I have also been
told that he eats meat.) More importantly, he spoke English fluently and un-
derstood Americans well enough to bring a Tibetan Buddhism that L. T., one
of the converts, referred to as “freshly baked for Americans.” He rendered
this particular form of Buddhism more accessible by using concepts that were
relevant to contemporary culture and by speaking English instead of using a
translator and leaving many Tibetan terms in their native form. Similarly, ac-
cording to an American convert to Buddhism who now teaches Buddhism,
“I’m trying to make Buddhism more accessible to Westerners. So I’m less
monastic, emphasizing seclusion less and integration in daily life more, and
include other things that people need like exercise and good eating and
healthy relationships and therapy” (“A Voice” 2000: B2).
Ritual practices are subject to selection because of embodied and estab-
lished attitudes and concepts. These ways of knowing the world are so deeply
ingrained that we do not normally even recognize the ways in which they
shape our experience:
We say that our first culture, inherited by birth, becomes “second nature” to us
in such a profound way that at times we no longer can distinguish what is gen-
uinely of our human nature as such biologically and philosophically, and what
is acquired and leamed. (Ranly 1991: 65)
Religious concepts of inner states such as emotions are even more difficult
to relate to coming from outside a tradition, as they can be experienced only
through preexisting cultural conditioning (see Asad 1993).8 For example,
when the Turkish sheikh did attend the evening meeting of the Threshold So-
ciety, there was a conversation and a number of the converts expressed their
gratitude to have found Sufism. One woman spoke, with tears flowing, of the
love she felt through her connection to Sufism, her language and gestures
clearly expressing a sentimental love. Rumi, known as Mevlana, the founder
of the Mevlevi order, spoke, however, not of sentimental love but of mysti-
cal love, a love through which he was not only “cooked” but “ b ~ r n e d . ”Con-
~
verts bring preexisting ideas and experiences to terms and concepts of the
adopted tradition, affecting their understanding of those ideas. Even more
difficult to comprehend than emotions are references to states of prayer or of
transcendence-abstract and mysterious even to those with a background in
the given tradition.
Like our everyday experience, religious emotions and worship experiences
are learned through association and enculturation. Children initially take ges-
tures or postures, like the kneeling position of prayer, in imitation of others or
because they are told or taught. But gradually the physical and emotional di-
mensions of worship become embodied, personal experience, and each time
a gesture is repeated, the kinesthetic, proprioceptive, and emotional memory

of that gesture is evoked, layering, compounding, and shaping present expe-
rience. Images, ideas, and emotional and physical associations are all active
and present in the experience of a ritual gesture or posture. These gestures and
postures express inner attitudes or states, and they correspond to a particular
concept of deity or the transcendent (Csordas 1994: 3). For example, full
prostration during Islamic prayer expresses submission to God. In contrast,
the position of sitting meditation in Zen Buddhism communicates that awak-
ening comes from within, not from obedience or surrender. For charismatic
Christians, the concept of surrender to the will of God (Csordas 1994: 19)
corresponds to their experience of “resting in the spirit,” which Thomas Csor-
das describes as “the sacred swoon in which one is overwhelmed by divine
power and falls in a state of motor dissociation” (1994: 32). These practices
are acquired, embodied experience, and there is a correspondence between
the outer form and the inner state.I0
Ritual takes advantage of two truths about the body: it is capable of learn-
ing certain states, and it has its own manner of knowing. Through the physi-
cal, perceptive experience of worship, as David Levin says in The Body’s
Recollection of Being (1983, “The sacred language is woven, is insinuated,
into the very fibers and bones of the body” (215); ritual gestures encompass
religious ideals as well as emotional experiences. Just as the process of com-
ing to understand the ideas of an adopted tradition is a gradual process, so too
the performance of ritual gestures and postures will have different inner as-
sociations and feelings for a convert than for a native practitioner. The body
and feelings as well as the mind are influenced by a preexisting worldview
and must learn the new tradition. For example, the Orthodox sign of the cross
is a specific set of symbols” that can gradually become meaningful experi-
ence. This was the experience of a former student of mine who had converted
to Russian Orthodoxy before leaving her native Russia. She said that at first
she just performed the gestures and thought about the meaning (each time the
hand touches the body to make a part of the cross, it has a specific inner sig-
nificance), and gradually she came to experience the inner meaning in her
feelings and body. For R. L., who converted from Judaism to Orthodox Chris-
tianity, this was a complex process. She said that having grown up as a Jew,
“Jesus Christ is like a swear word.” She also spoke of how difficult it was
even to cross herself when she first started.
The convert’s relation to worship practice can change over time. Mal-
leability, multidimensional memory, and the direct perception of impressions
of the world are some of the qualities of the human organism that enable
learning of new inner states and transformation of old ones. These capacities
enable converts to gradually understand the meaning of terms, symbols, and
rituals of their adopted traditions. (This is not to claim that there is only one
real meaning of any word, gesture, or belief system. Not only are embodied
symbols polysemic even for one given individual, but also it is clear that each
culture puts its own imprint on any given religious tradition.)
CONCLUSION
A convert does not take on merely a new set of beliefs but rather a new set of
beliefs as understood through the old. From within a preexisting worldview
and identity, a convert chooses his or her adopted religion because it corre-
sponds with ideas or wishes that have arisen within an existing psychological
context. Thus, though the converts with whom I have met speak of a reality
beyond language, one is attracted to (or through) the language of Buddhism,
another to that of Sufism.
Having found a tradition that satisfies specific needs, the concepts and
practices of the adopted religion are filtered through the convert’s language
and associations. This affects not only the meanings of ideas and symbols but
also the attitude of the convert toward ritual requirements. Some converts
take on their adopted tradition with rigorous adherence; others perform se-
lectively, accepting only what corresponds to preexisting attitudes. Selective
performance can be vindicated in the eyes of converts since they have con-
verted for spiritual reasons, and the spirituality of the tradition is not under-
stood to be synonymous with ritual performance. This view is at odds with
much of Islam, Eastern Orthodoxy, and certain forms of Hinduism, where the
religion exists through performance of ritual.
The experiences of those gestures and postures that are performed, like
emotional and spiritual states, are filtered through embodied associations.
Any term used in the adopted tradition, such as “love” or “prayer,” can only
be understood by the convert through already existing internal definitions. In
a related fashion, experiences of bodily practices such as performing full
prostration in the sulut or making the sign of the cross are affected by preex-
isting kinesthetic, proprioceptive, and emotional memories automatically
evoked when taking a posture or moving in a certain way.
These three aspects-correspondence with preexisting ideals and wishes,
performance choices based on preexisting cultural conditioning, and under-
standing and experience colored by embodied association-lead to a natural
question: to what the convert has actually converted? Do new members of Is-
lam, Christianity, or Judaism join the same religion as native members, or do
they enter something fundamentally different, a distinctive world known only
to the convert? I leave that question hanging for the present; more research is
clearly needed. As we pursue an answer, however, we should remember that

the features of human experience that produce these three patterns -those
same qualities that enable culture to become embodied, meaningful experi-
ence in the first place-make it possible for converts, through verbal and
physical practices, over time to profoundly transform their understanding and
experience of adopted traditions based in another culture,
NOTES
1 . Personal conversation at AFS meeting, Columbus, Ohio, October 26,2000.

2. In contrast, those born into a tradition, even an Orthodox one, may not practice
strict obedience but still consider themselves full members of that religion.
3. Numerous other questions were brought out in the discussion: for example, as
the sheikh was their guest, should they behave according to the traditions of the guest
or should the guest accommodate himself to the traditions of the host? Does this
change when the host represents not only himself and his order but also the historical
Turkish tradition? What does covering the head signify? Why should women be re-
quired to create a sacred space by covering their heads but not men?
4. In contrast, two practitioners of Tibetan Buddhism that I interviewed objected
to the use of the word conversion on the grounds that “Buddhism is so all-
encompassing that you can be anything else and still be a Buddhist.”
5. To the extent that this model of spirituality is found in Europe as well as the
United States, it could be referred to as Western rather than American.
6. The exceptions to this are those who welcome the freedom from choice that
comes from submission to the rituals and laws of a tradition. This is also a strong
force in conversion, as it eliminates confusion and uncertainty, and provides definite
answers.
7. She also stated that Sufism is trying to take the wrappers off “You take all the
wrappers off, when nothing is there then you’ve got it.”
8. Tala1 Asad, in Genealogies of Religion (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity Press, 1993),writes
The formatiodtransformation of moral dispositions (Christian virtues) depended on more

than the capacity to imagine, to perceive, to imitate-which, after all, are abilities everyone
possesses in varying degree. It required a particular program of disciplinary practices. The
rites that were described by that program did not simply evoke or release universal emo-
tions, they aimed to construct and reorganize distinctive emotions-desire (cupidifas/
curifas),humility (humilirus),remorse (contritio)-on which the central Christian virtue of
obedience to God depended. This point must be stressed, because the emotions mentioned
here are not universal human feelings. . . .They are historically specific emotions that are
structured internally and related to each other in historically determined ways. (134)
9. This is expressed in Rumi’s writings by such passages as “Go and die, go and
die, For this love go and die. . . .” (Rumi 84,Divan-e-Shams) and “0love, 0 tumul-
tuous love, 0 restless bleeding dove, This fire from above, Makes love in your heart
reign, With His love I am raw, I am confused and in awe, Sometimes my flames with-
draw, Sometimes consumed and slain” (Rumi 65, Divan-e-Shams).
10. Likewise, the changes in communion ritual brought about by Vatican I1 express
a shift in theological orientation and experience from transcendence to immanence.
Whereas formerly the parishioners were not allowed to touch the communion wafer
and sometimes didn’t even bare their hands before it, they now take it in their own
hands and give themselves communion. Formerly, they knelt before the mystery of
Christ; now they stand.
11. The thumb and first two fingers touching each other represent the trinity; the
ring and little fingers touching the palm represent Christ in two natures. The fingers
are held in these positions to make the Orthodox sign of the cross. Crossing oneself
is done in the opposite direction than that of the Catholics, and each time a part of the
body is touched it is meant as a specific reminder of an inner state.
REFERENCES
“Americans Speak of the Joys of the Hajj.” 2000a. Boston Globe. March 16,2000,
sec. A16.
“American Woman at Home as a Hindu.” 2000b. Boston Globe. January 22, 2001,
sec. A6.
Asad, Talal. Genealogies of Religion. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University
Press, 1993.
“Catholicism Sees Surge in Adult Conversions.” 2000c. Boston Globe. April 23,
2000, sec. A 1, A19.
Csordas, Thomas. Embodiment and Experience: The Existential Ground of Culture
and Self: Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
-. The Sacred Self: A Cultural Phenomenology of Charismatic Healing. Berke-
ley: University of California Press, 1994.
Homann, Rolf. “Cross-Cultural Dialog or Attempting the Impossible.” World Fu-
tures: The Journal of General Evolution 28 (1990): 65-71.
Levin, David. The Body’s Recollection of Being. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul,
1985.
Moore, Abd al-Hayy. “Choosing Islam: One Man’s Tale.” Whole Earth Review 49
(Winter 1985): 16.
Ranly, Ernest. “Cross-Cultural Philosophizing.” Philosophy Today 35, no. 1 (Spring
1991): 63-72.
Rumi. Divan-e-Shams. www.rumionfire.com.
“A Voice for American Buddhism.” 2000d. Boston Globe. February 3,2001, sec. B2.
14
From Jehovah’s Witness to Benedictine Nun: The
Roles of Experience and
Context in a Double Conversion
Mary Ann Reidhead and Van A. Reidhead
CONVERSION NARRATIVESARE MULTIDIMENSIONAL
I n this chapter, we examine the narrative conversion account of Sylvia,’ a

young woman who has twice converted, first from Jehovah’s Witness to Ro-
man Catholicism and later to Benedictine monasticism. Each of her conver-
sions was announced by a personal world-changing religious experience. Her
first conversion represented a radical discontinuity and precipitated a total re-
organization of her life. Her second conversion was dependent on the first
but -like other conversion accounts contained in this volume-documents
how life-changing conversion events play out as a continuity rather than as
discontinuity. This second conversion opened Sylvia to a culturally distinct
monastic understanding of what it means to be converted, and, over time,
caused her to redefine her life’s work in terms of “constant conversion.”
The juxtaposition of before and after contexts, especially when mediated
by revelatory religious experience, is our focus. Our aim is to understand the
determinative, probable, or random elements in choices made by individuals
who have had conversion experiences. Sylvia’s narrative illustrates how
long-term consequences of conversion experiences can be directed and
shaped by the ideological mission and cultural structures of earlier and sub-
sequent religions. We will address a number of related questions: How did
the context of Sylvia’s Jehovah’s Witness upbringing prime her for a reli-
gious experience? How did Sylvia’s original Jehovah’s Witness upbringing
co-impact her actions after her religious experience? How did her conversion
to Catholicism shape her subsequent choices? How did conversion to Bene-
dictine monasticism vary with respect to the cultural matrices that preceded
and followed it, as relates to her original conversion experience? How has
183
184 Mary Ann Reidhead and Van A. Reidhead
Sylvia’s sacred narrative discourse been altered by the distinctive Benedic-

tine approach to conversion? Would Sylvia’s outcomes have varied if the
contexts of her conversion experiences had been different?
Sylvia’s conversion narrative was recorded between 1997 and 2000. It is
presented in the order of telling. We approach Sylvia’s narrative at two lev-
els. First, what happened to Sylvia in the sequence of her conversions, and
what she says about how this sequence affected her (see Mattingly 1998:
7-11)? Second, how is this narrative a source of phenomenological facts
about her understanding and adaptation? Neither Sylvia’s narrative nor the
facts of her life justify positioning our own analysis outside the authority of
Sylvia’s personal history.2
GOD EVENTS AND CONVERSION TO CATHOLICISM
Mary Ann Reidhead first met Sylvia at St. Hildegard Monastery in May 1997.
Sylvia had come for the weekend as a vocation guest, and Reidhead was col-
lecting data for a paper on vocations in religious life (Reidhead 1998). Sylvia
was delighted to tell her story and recounted her sudden movement from Je-
hovah’s Witness to Roman Catholicism. Within a week, she had left her fam-
ily and entire social network, moved in with people she hardly knew, and be-
gun life in a new religion among strangers.
In her initial narrative, Sylvia provided information that helped us under-
stand the context that set the stage for discontinuity. Sylvia was born into Je-
hovah’s Witness culture and enculturated within its cosmology and narrative
traditions. In Sylvia’s own words:
When I became a Roman Catholic I had been a full time minister for the Jeho-
vah’s Witnesses. I could not understand why I could not feel God. I thought I
was serving him. Literally, I’d be on my knees, “Why can’t 1 feel you? Where
are you? Why aren’t you in my life?’ I was afraid and lonely, because I couldn’t
figure out what my sin was, what I was doing wrong.
Sylvia began her narrative by providing a historical anchor that divides

time before and after her first conversion and established her knowledge
about the context of preconversion.As a door-to-door Jehovah’s Witness min-
ister, she yearned to be rewarded with an experience of God that would pro-
claim her worthiness and reward her fidelity. Sylvia was on a quest. She
sought an experience that would make her feel successful. But rather than ris-
ing to glory, elected by God, she felt that God was absent from her life. This
caused her much suffering. A Catholic coworker invited Sylvia to her daugh-
ter’s baptism, and she accepted the invitation. Sylvia states:
From Jehovah’s Witness to Benedictine Nun 185
I walked into a Catholic Church, which was taboo for me. I had no idea what
Eucharistic presence was or meant. I did not know who was behind the taber-
nacle doors, but all of a sudden I could feel God. To this day I describe myself
as one of those stainless steel milkshake containers, cold and empty, and then
being filled up with warm, fuzzy hot chocolate with marshmallows, because I
felt like I was being filled.
Her description of the sacred event is that she felt like a “cold and empty”
“steel milkshake container,” suddenly filled with “warm, fuzzy hot choco-
late with marshmallows”- a religiously unadorned representation straight
out of Dairy Queen culture that stands in marked contrast to her explanation
of its source-“Eucharistic presence [God mystically] . . . behind the taber-
nacle doors.” Her explanation comes from a later narrative construction be-
cause this imagery could only have been incorporated after some Catholic
instruction. In 1997, when this later part of the narrative was collected,
Sylvia had enough knowledge to construct a Catholic representation of the
pivotal event in her life. The absence of such language poignantly illustrates
how she tried to depict her ineffable, revelatory event using familiar words
and images, ones with evocative power and meaning in her own experience.
She chose images and narrative style from the comforting experiences of the
life of a young person with little world experience. The persistence of this
“every American,” “soda fountain” imagery, contrasted with the sanctified
Catholic imagery that is paired with it, suggests that the pivotal segment, the
representation of the religious experience, has its real time origin very close
to the event itself.
Sylvia felt that she had experienced God, but what does a Jehovah’s Wit-
ness do when she feels God for the first and only time, and it occurs in a
Catholic church? Everything, including the event, because of the context in
which it occurred, fell outside the sacred categories that Sylvia needed to
maintain her identity as a Jehovah’s Witness. The desired confirmation came
within a context not easily incorporated, and there would be consequences, by
dint of a sacred encounter happening outside the sanctified categories of Je-
hovah’s Witness cosmogony, where (according to what Sylvia had been
taught) it was not possible for such an encounter to take place (see Douglas
1982a). How would Sylvia deal with her conundrum? Hypothetically, she
might have done the cynical thing and taken the experience back to the Wit-
nesses, and reconfigured it to fit within their cosmogony and sanctifying dis-
course. Alternatively, she could have used her experience to complete her
quest within a Jehovah’s Witness context. But she did neither and states:
Within a week I moved out of my home. I left my family, friends, job; all were
Jehovah’s Witnesses, the only world I knew, and they practice shunning. I knew
I would become the living dead. I called the person who had invited me to the
baptism and said, “I need a place to stay.” I could still feel God inside, so I had
to follow this.
By choosing not to deny her experience of God, and, most significantly,

where her experience of God had occurred, Sylvia understood that she had
exhausted her options among family and friends. From a Jehovah’s Witness
context, she had crossed from the sanctified categories of the living into the
polluted, noncategory of the “living dead” who must be shunned to protect
those who are alive in the faith. Religious groups with strongly guarded cat-
egories defining who belongs and what behaviors are permitted expect peo-
ple to take action to protect against the special destructive agency of insiders
who are in communion with people in polluted categories (Douglas 1982a,
1982b, 1982c; see also Buckser, chapter 6). From our data, it is not possible
to identify all the considerations that influenced Sylvia’s assessment that she
had no choice except to abandon her social world. Was it a preemptive move
to avoid the inevitable? Did she do it as an act of conscience to protect her
family? Was it a proactive immigration into the sacred landscape where she
now felt God’s presence resided? Perhaps it was a combination of all of the
above. Her plea, “I need a place to stay,” made to an unnamed “person” who
had invited her to a baptism, illustrates the desperate nature of her situation.
She told us that the God event continued for some time: “I could still feel God
inside, so I had to follow.” And she followed her feelings into the arms of peo-
ple whose classification in her universe had changed by virtue of their asso-
ciation with the God event.
We know Sylvia’s experience had been a world-shattering event for her
that paradoxically also held generative capacity through the experience of
warmth, goodness, acceptance, worthiness, and love. It brought her into a
new world with new categories. Victor Turner’s concept of the ritual
processes attempts to explain how such events unfold when people within a
tradition are deconstructed of their childhood categories and reconstituted in
a world of adult understanding (see Turner 1969: 61). Sylvia’s experience is
also consonant with Eric Gans’s (1990) concept of “generative anthropology”
as configured through analysis of the world-changing experiences of Moses
and Saul of Tarsus.
Sylvia chose to manage the generative discontinuity in her life by convert-
ing to an existing religion with ready-made categories for her and her experi-
ences. She attended classes to become a Catholic. She reported,
I felt like I’d been duped. Someone had told me what they thought Catholics be-
lieved-that’s how they had been taught, and the person before them, and none
of them had it right. I felt myself in the middle of this rich, deep, heritage-type
faith, and I loved it.
In the above passage, Sylvia expresses her disillusionment with Jehovah’s

Witness enculturation. She says that she “felt duped.” For her, disillusionment
with Jehovah’s Witness knowledge about Catholicism facilitated her recon-
struction into a Catholic cosmology by authenticating Catholicism in the
same movement that it dismantled the knowledge she had learned as a Jeho-
vah’s Witness. This unlearning and learning is part of the process identified
by Lewis Rambo (1993: 82-86), especially through the work of the “advo-
cate,” the authoritative guide who, like Sylvia’s instructors, worked to repo-
sition her in a new world. This learning and unlearning evoked feelings that
were expressed in terms familiar to her description of the original religious
experience- “rich,” “deep,” and warm “hot chocolate.” She felt herself be-
coming immersed in a “deep, heritage-type faith” with a succession of peo-
ple and events. She began to feel at home in this new heritage because God
had “spoken” to her in it and had put her there Himself, and her senses con-
firmed that she belonged. As her story progressed to the commitment stage
(see Rambo 1993: 132-37), she accumulated experiences, relationships, and
knowledge that reinforced the reality of her God experience and her decision
to order her life around it.
In April 1994, Sylvia was baptized. Right away, she joined the parish choir
and took on other church duties. Having traversed the usual stages of con-
version, Sylvia might have concluded her narrative there and settled down to
live an ordinary Catholic life, but for Sylvia, that was not enough.
“WANTING TO DO MORE”:
ONGOING EFFECTS OF JEHOVAH’S WITNESS ENCULTURATION
Sylvia spoke about a vague restlessness, a need to continue, an indication that

something more was required to complete the plot that only appeared to have
reached its end. She states, “Having been a fulltime minister as a Jehovah’s
Witness, I desperately wanted to do more, but I had no idea where God was
pulling me.”
Despite all that had happened, she felt the need to do more. But she was
unsure as to what it was and attributed her disposition to her Jehovah’s Wit-
ness upbringing that now informed her Catholic self. It was not herself, how-
ever, but God who was “pulling” on this cultural predisposition, telling her
that the quest was not finished and that there was something special that she
still needed to do. In articulating this quest, she exhibits a capacity to position
the personal and sacred in flexible categories. She did feel a need to renounce
everything about her Witness self in order to follow God in a Catholic con-
text. That Sylvia told us this story inside a Benedictine monastery where she
intended to become a nun demonstrates her comfort with ambiguous cate-
gories. It is clear that conscious elements of a Jehovah’s Witness “self’
resided inside Sylvia the Catholic.
Sylvia saw great irony when she contrasted her actual life as a Catholic and
what should have become of her according to Witness beliefs. She delighted
in her new knowledge of God and the freedom it afforded her. Sylvia believed
her material success validated her conversion experience and actions, provid-
ing proof to her former Jehovah’s Witness friends that God had shown her the
truth? She states.
Meanwhile, I became the success story the Jehovah’s Witnesses never wanted to
hear. I had a car, my own apartment, and a good job. When you leave Jehovah,
you turn your back on God. Organized religion, crowned by Roman Catholi-
cism, is the Whore of Babylon, so I literally walked into the arms of Satan. I
would have no joy in my life, no friends. I would be on welfare. I was damned.
Well, all of a sudden I wasn’t!
The “Whore of Babylon” is a highly charged reference among Jehovah’s

Witnesses, and it was a super category for Sylvia because it predicated what
was possible in all aspects of life once she became a Catholic. But her early
experiences undermined Jehovah’s Witness categories and helped her to de-
fine herself in a new materially successful way that she had never enjoyed be-
fore. Moreover, these newfound qualities endowed her life with unexpected
delights. And it all started, she noted, with her encounter with God:
But I was blessed with more. I had people that enriched my life-people in my
own age bracket. As a Jehovah’s Witness I was locked into an older age bracket.
For the first time I had a life, and I could see it was a gift from God.
Sylvia acquired an enriched social life that was sanctified within the sacred
geography that it opened for her. She felt “blessed” because it was all “a gift
from God,” stemming from her first experience of Him and her response to
Him. Without that event, she knew that she would have none of this. It was
quite literally a gift.
She put herself under a spiritual director, Father Timothy, who knew
Mother Kathleen, prioress at St. Hildegard monastery (a fact that Sylvia later
understood as prefiguring her call to Benedictinism). She was directed by Fa-
ther Timothy to read classics of women’s spirituality.After reading St. Teresa
of Avila’s Interior Castle, Sylvia declared: “I’m going to become a Carmelite
nun, in a full cloister, somewhere in the middle of nowhere.” But her life was
full, and she was comfortable.
A year later, Father Timothy suggested a visit with Mother Kathleen. This
visit was Sylvia’s first encounter with living nuns, and in this and earlier
events, she saw signs that God had been leading her to the Benedictines. Un-
til the day of her visit, she had not known that Mother Kathleen’s monastery
was Benedictine, and that gave certain prior events even greater meaning.
She states,
I had no idea that the Jubilee medal of St. Benedict4 that my Godmother gave
me before baptism would have so much influence in my life. All of these little
pieces of this puzzle God was putting in place in my life, but I couldn’t see it at
the time.
Here, Sylvia prepares us for something dramatic by telling the story back-
wards, foretelling the meanings of things that had already happened but that
she had not yet revealed in her narrative. Something big was coming, and she
emphasizes that everything that had happened and was yet to come was put
there by God to prepare her for what He was about to reveal. According to her
logic, God was putting her life puzzle together, but she couldn’t discern how
the pieces fit when He first put it in place. Only in the case of a few dramatic
events does her narrative show signs of an alternative logic, the option to take
things as signs immediately and act accordingly.
SECOND CONVERSION EXPERIENCE:

THE BENEDICTINE SISTERS OF ST. HILDEGARD
From the moment Sylvia arrived at the monastery, everything was transfig-
ured. She states,
Here was this woman, welcoming me, and all I could think about was how beau-
tiful she was. To me she was glowing inside. Here was this community where
they were all smiling, happy, glowing, and full of God. “This,” I said, “is the
way it’s supposed to be.” I was allowed to pray with them, but I couldn’t, be-
cause I was crying.
God again touched Sylvia, this time through the embodied symbols of His
love in the fully habited, traditional Benedictine nuns of St. Hildegard. She
recognized in these nuns people who-like herself- felt that God had given
them everything freely, and who, in response, were compelled to give it all
back to Him freely by giving up all their treasures-not as a sacrifice, but as
an act of love, as a gift. Her recognition did not come in the form of an intel-
lectual realization, an “Aha!” event, or an inspiration, but as yet another rev-
elatory event, something mentally and bodily bigger, with the power to en-
compass and integrate all smaller mental and bodily ways of knowing.
Her second religious experience, although revelatory as a distinct event,
does not stand alone. Its significance is dependent on her original conversion
experience. It was a spontaneous rehappening of the original event in which
she was freely created and thus liberated to life by God (see Gans 1990).The
revelatory power of such events was identified in Victor Turner’s recognition
of spontaneous communitus, in which individuals experience all things and
events as a unity (Turner 1974: 231-71). Taking this further, Edith Turner
(1996) has shown how similar sacred encounters or revelations function in the
context of a community that is, through experience and knowledge, prepared
to receive them. Due to its context and how Sylvia had responded to events
and opportunities in it, she was prepared for her conversion experience. It oc-
cupied a place in Catholic practical and sacred categories, and experienced
specialists were there to help her. Sylvia felt that she personally understood
what the experience meant and what she should do. Mother Kathleen and Fa-
ther Timothy took her experience seriously but cautioned against her imme-
diate interpretation of its practical meaning. It would be two years before she
was positioned to enter St. Hildegard as a postulant, a would-be nun?
Four months later, Sylvia attended her first retreat at St. Hildegard. The re-
treat reinforced her experience, and she asked if she might join. “I had all of
these questions, like, ‘So, do you wear slips?”’ She had a “gut instinct that
God was tugging” her, and she “had grown accustomed” to following.
She visited the monastery regularly after that, and a tentative date was set
for her to enter, but much had to be done. Mother Kathleen insisted, “You
need to look at other places too.” Sylvia visited other religious orders, but
none felt “like community” to her. Eventually she was able to say,
Now I have answered those questions. Everything I have is a gift from God.
I could see where the pieces were being maneuvered. You could tell God was
fitting them together, and that’s one thing, but knowing that your life is from him
comes in at a totally different level. The one thing that is mine to do with what
I want is my life and my freewill. It is like God says, “This is your freewill. You
decide what you want to do with your life.” My choice is to give it back. That’s
why St. Hildegard’s is right for me.
In this segment, recorded shortly before she entered St. Hildegard, Sylvia
felt that everything was ready. But the singular power of this segment comes
from its being the clearest statement of her now-conscious understanding of
what had happened to her in the original God event and how it had reshaped
her thinking. Nothing in her narrative so clearly evidences her evolving in-
terpretation of the meaning of the original event. God revealed that her life is
a free gift from Him. This revelation liberated her to develop a full life of her
own, and now, out of gratitude experienced in her second conversion event
and subsequent preparation, the only fitting response was to reciprocate with
the gift of her own life to God. According to Gans (1990), encompassing grat-
itude is the predicted natural response of a “religious spirit” to such an event
as Sylvia experienced (2 1, 120).
The discursive structure of this section of Sylvia’s narrative is monastic
and shows how Sylvia had come to incorporate Benedictine ways of thinking
as she explains the more inchoate experiences of the first event and the yearn-
ings that it triggered. She now taps the discourse of a 1,500-year-old reflex-
ive tradition to supply her with the words and logical structures to verbalize
what she originally felt.
When Mary Ann Reidhead first interviewed Sylvia in 1997, Sylvia said she
knew what to expect when she crossed the threshold and became a Benedic-
tine nun. “I have seen the whole life cycle,” she said: new nuns becoming
novices, an old one’s sixtieth jubilee, even a funeral. She had worked
side-by-side with the sisters, witnessed their “huge smiles” in the grunt work
of changing bed sheets in the guesthouse, “Because,” she said, “they’re
changing that bed for Christ. He’s in whoever comes on retreat, whoever is
going to stay in that bed.” But Sylvia was still in the early romantic stage of
becoming a nun. When she was actually at St. Hildegard, she felt that she
could enter and stay from that moment. But it took a dramatic event in the ma-
terial world to move Sylvia, a young woman with “a life,” into the monastery.
At St. Hildegard, shortly after entering in August 1997, she exclaimed,
The last two weeks before I entered were nothing but a snowball of miracles. I
got laid off on Monday. Tuesday I was asked to house sit for three months.
Wednesday our cantor said her uncle could sell my car. All of a sudden, God
took me to the wire and then answered everything. It’s a leap of faith.
The materiality of Sylvia’s life was not separate from the call to Benedic-
tinism. She had been holding back from the decisive step, though she had
long pronounced herself ready. Then, unexpectedly, she lost her job, and in
this act God took her “to the wire,” and she let it happen.
Becoming unemployed, her first concern was how to make ends meet, but
within a day events began to confirm what she was thinking: it was time to
make the monastic commitment. Her circle of friends could have found her a
new job, but through a combination of her own agency and events facilitated
by others, she understood the meaning of what had happened. She found a
rent-free place to live for three months, which is about the time it takes to
wrap things up and move to a monastery. The sale of her car would save
money, helping her be debt-free, a typical precondition for entrance to a
monastery. In her experience, she took the “leap of faith” beginning with the
event of being laid off. God took care of the rest. Within a few months, she
was in the monastery.
TRANSFORMATION: ENCULTURATINC
TO A LIFE OF PERMANENT CONVERSION
When Mary Ann Reidhead next interviewed Sylvia in 1998, Sylvia was ap-
proaching age thirty and had completed six months of her postulancy.6 The
role that Sylvia’s Catholic friends played in her entering St. Hildegard was
initially one of resistance, a common response in Catholic culture; then ac-
quiescence; and finally participation. After she had divested herself of pos-
sessions, her friends threw a bridal party-a “mystical wedding,” they called
it. Then, “They brought me home,” she said.
What Sylvia most appreciated about St. Hildegard was the nonjudgmental
way the nuns treated one another. Having been brought up in a severe home,
during the first few months she jumped every time Mother Kathleen spoke
her name. Mother Kathleen quipped that she was going to bring in a pack of
cigarettes and say, “At ease, soldier! Here have a smoke.”’ But after six
months, she felt that the monastery was becoming her emotional home. She
felt accepted.
She had seen that everyone has “bad veil days.” But mostly she was aware
of love, acceptance, and equality. These experiences, which were shared with
the other sisters, were further reenactments of her experiences in the original
and second revelatory events, and they progressively confirmed the appropri-
ateness of her response to God’s love for her. And in the sisters’ interactions
with each other, she began to see a human relationship prototype for herself.
“Like an old married couple,” she said, “these nuns are joined at the hip.” She
wanted that for herself.
At the last interview in August 2000, Sylvia had been a nun for three years.
She had completed a nine-month postulancy and a two-year novitiate. She
had made her first vows and taken a new name, Sister Margaret. The blush of
first romance was long gone, and Sylvia had gotten down to the daily grind
of life in a Benedictine monastery. She had been a nun of St. Hildegard long
enough to position her story within the Benedictine discourse of ideals and
practices.
Sylvia is an excitable extrovert, and her religious passages were presented
dramatically. By contrast, the Benedictine lifeway is steady, obedient, and
disciplined. Conversion, known as conversatio morum (conversion of life), is

a canonical vow. In Benedictine culture, conversatio morum results in docile
abandonment to a life defined by continuous conversion, through little non-
events, until death. The conversatio process is reflexive, textual, historical,
and experiential (Reidhead and Wolford 1998).The storytelling opportunities
are few because narrative performances are discouraged. This is illustrated by
a Florida study in which a group of monks was encouraged by their abbot to
tell their life stories. Many monks chose not to participate, partly for reasons
of nonnarrative ideology and partly from the effects of life in an environment
where oral histories are seldom told (Angrosino 1991).
The classical narrative form in cloistered Benedictine culture is the “lived
life,” unspoken and unseen. The conversatio quest is embodied, not spoken.
In terms of narrative style, a nun’s life is unfinished, unplotted as it were, un-
til she dies and the gift of her life is handed over completely in a final union
with God. A cross in a Benedictine cemetery is the only narrative that most
nuns and monks leave. In another sense, however, it is believed that “this life”
is a beginning, and perseverance in the conversatio process successfully ends
a nun’s story because it is a point at which she submits herself completely to
the loving work of God. God’s grace will continue beyond the grave until He
brings her to perfect union with Himself. This has been her quest and desire
since her awakening to monastic life. A nun’s story is concluded when she
reaches union with God, after death, but she enacts this final union daily by
submitting her fate to God. Each time she enacts this, the plot of her story is
brought to its end. But at each stage, the plot is union with God, and its suc-
cessful end is foretold by the acts of mutual self-giving that define the rela-
tionship between the nun and God. Sylvia’s most important public enactment
is yet to come when she makes her solemn vows in the summer of 2003.
Will Sylvia make it through solemn vows and become a professed nun? In
August 2000, Sylvia faced new challenges and tests of her Benedictine con-
version. She spoke of personal conflicts with the prioress, whom she had idol-
ized, but rather than harbor grudges, she learned to complain directly to the
prioress. A greater challenge, however, is that the liturgy has become the ob-
ject of a community-wide struggle. A protracted contest of wills is likely, and
Sylvia’s superiors have asked her to observe community discussions on the
issue. This dispute pits the monastery’s most sacred domain- the community
prayer life-against its most profane one- the power of competing personal-
ities. This was Sylvia’s first look at a community-wide dispute that may go on
for years. This test of her conversatio raises a pivotal question: When the dust
settles, will Sylvia be able to reintegrate her original experience in a mature,
sophisticated understanding of what it means to be a nun in a community of
prayer? Will her faith that St. Hildegard is a vessel worthy of nurturing her
gift of her own self to God survive? Despite her initiation into the monastery’s
troubles, in August 2000 Sylvia said,
For three years I’ve been on this roller coaster ride with the Holy Spirit. When
I came here I had no idea what to expect. I don’t know what tomorrow will
bring, but I’m OK. I’m enjoying it.
This concluding statement from Sylvia’s evolving narrative is more nu-

anced than earlier statements. She has been on a “roller coaster ride” with
peaks and valleys, slow ascents and rapid drops, but it has been a ride with
the Holy Spirit. Whenever the Holy Spirit is reported as an active God pres-
ence, it indicates that more subtle experiences have replaced the more dra-
matic ones of early conversion. Three years earlier, Sylvia was sure she knew
what to expect at St. Hildegard. Now she doesn’t “know what tomorrow will
bring,” a confession that would bring nods of approval from superiors, be-
cause candidates who persist in knowing what to expect have a tendency to
try to make it happen, and this augers badly among people questing for aban-
donment to the will of God. The time when Sylvia was certain that God
would bless her with smiles and happiness among the sisters of St. Hildegard
forever has given way to days and years of not knowing how or when God
will speak again, except through the daily routine of ordinary life.
CONCLUSION
This chapter examined a conversion experience in relation to the before and

after contexts of conversion and its relation to a later conversion experience
that focused the direction, understanding, and actions of the convert follow-
ing the first experience. Sylvia’s Jehovah’s Witness upbringing primed her for
religious experience that would confirm her as someone chosen by God. But
when this did not occur, cognitive dissonance and suffering followed. The
longed-for religious experience occurred, however, in a Catholic Church, in-
stantly changing Sylvia’s understanding of the world, albeit at an inchoate
level, and precipitating a sudden discontinuity in her life. Unwilling to deny
her God event and shunned by the Jehovah’s Witnesses for claiming it in a
Catholic context, Sylvia left her mother’s home and moved in with a Catholic
family. The place where the event occurred and the Jehovah’s Witness prac-
tice of shunning strongly predisposed Sylvia to see Catholicism as her per-
sonal link to God. Nevertheless, this was a personal choice, and by making it
Sylvia’s religious experience became a conversion experience in the sense of
converting to a new religion. The institutional structure-ancient ritual tradi-
tions, well-formulated theology, and local faith community of Catholicism-
From Jehovah s Witness to Benedictine Nun 195
provided a stable environment with tools and support for Sylvia to use in re-
constructing her world and her identity. Over time, Sylvia acquired skill in
Catholic discourse and logic of spiritual experiences, which she was able to
apply to her own life.
Catholicism opened new horizons and choices for Sylvia to express her
gratitude to God, and her Jehovah’s Witness upbringing scripted that she
should do more than just become Catholic. Catholic culture provided her with
the option of identifying a spiritual director to guide her in the synthesizing,
interpretive, meaning-making process after baptism. Her spiritual director
took her to a Benedictine monastery to show her an alternative way to serve
God. Her yearning to “do more” perhaps primed her for another religious ex-
perience that would clear up the uncertainty about what she should do. This
happened on her first visit to the monastery. She experienced this event as a
call to Benedictinism and a conversion, because it set in motion her transfor-
mation from lay Catholic to Benedictine nun, a movement that required
change in all outward aspects of her life and encouraged new perspectives for
understanding her psychological/experiential/spirituallife. Unlike the discon-
tinuity caused by her first conversion experience, however, Catholic cos-
mogony provided Sylvia with options for integrating this conversion event,
and despite its sudden announcement, her transformation from lay person to
nun was gradual and continuous (Austin-Broos, chapter 1).
Guided by the monastic context of her second conversion and by Benedic-
tine religious adepts with responsibility for her formation, Sylvia developed
a sophisticated, adaptive theological understanding of her original conversion
event: what has happened since, what it means, and what this requires of her.
She now understands the event as prefiguring her call to a life of freedom, de-
fined by acts of giving and receiving in mutuality with God, her sister nuns,
and the outside world to which she gives her life in prayer. Her conversion
story has grown more subdued as she has adopted a narrative stance in which
her life per se has become her narrative. She now defines herself in terms of
her commitment to lifelong conversion and lives a life of embodied enact-
ments of God’s free creative act of self-giving in her original conversion
event and her free self-giving response to him.
The narrative categories of Jehovah’s Witness sacred discourse were in-
flexible and could not incorporate Sylvia’s God event. The narrative cate-
gories of Catholicism, however, were flexible enough to allow for her second
conversion, providing an alternative way for her to position herself in rela-
tion to God and society without having to leave the church. Sylvia’s narra-
tive brings into focus the power of context in predisposing people who have
conversion experiences to alternative courses of action. Sylvia’s narrative
leaves little doubt about the world-changing nature of her first and second
conversion experiences. But circumstance played a strong role in determin-

ing the specific kinds of post-event actions and beliefs that evolved. The con-
text of events strongly prepositioned how Sylvia would proceed toward post-
event interpretation and action.
Conversion events can happen in any context -an institutional church, tent
revival, charismatic meeting, Lakota sweat lodge, or grove of trees. But for
Sylvia, the before, during, and post-event contextual categories for expres-
sion and interpretation, strongly influenced by who was present to help re-
assemble her altered world, played critical roles in determining her life di-
rection. Lewis Rambo’s (1993) work has established the general importance
of these factors in shaping the lives and decisions of converts. In a world of
intensive religious experience and conflict, it is important for researchers to
develop more sophisticated processual knowledge about conversion and its
creative and destructive capacities.
NOTES
1. Sylvia is a fictitiousname, as are all others, including the name of the monastery.
2. See Mattingly’s (1998: 23-47) comprehensive critique of narrative theory and
support for approaches that can find the real, experiential,and historical in narrative
data.
3. Eventually Sylvia’s mother did reconcile with her. In Sylvia’s understanding,
this happened when her mother was forced to see that her daughter was living a good,
sincere religious life, the demonstration of which was seeing for herself that her
daughter prayed for her daily.
4. The sixth-century founder of Benedictine monasticism.
5 . Today people who feel themselves called to monastic life are never, based on
our observations,encouraged to act immediately but to continue investigating, letting
things unfold while staying in touch with the monastery vocation director. Thus, the
movement to the monastery is gradual.
6. Postulancy is the first of three continuous periods of preparation (formation),
usually spanning five to six years, before a Benedictine makes solemn vows.
7. Smoking is forbidden among the sisters at St. Hildegard’s.
REFERENCES
Angrosino, Michael V. “Conversations in a Monastery.” Oral History Review 19, nos.

1-2 (1991): 55-73.
Douglas, Mary. “Cultural Bias.” In In the Active Voice, edited by Mary Douglas,
pp. 183-254. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1982a.
-, Natural Symbols: Explorations in Cosmology. New York: Pantheon Books,

1982b.
-. “Introduction to Group Grid Analysis.” In Essays in the Sociology of Percep-
tion, edited by Mary Douglas, 1-8. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, in coopera-
tion with the Russell Sage Foundation, 1982c.
Gans, Eric. Science and Faith: The Anthropology of Revelation. Savage, Md.: Row-
man & Littlefield, 1990.
Mattingly, Cheryl. Healing Dramas and Clinical Plots: The Narrative Structure of
Experience. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
Reidhead, Mary Ann. “Meaning, Context, and Consensus in Becoming and Remain-
ing a Benedictine.” Magistra 4, no. 1 (1998): 44-56.
Reidhead, Van A., and John B. Wolford. “Context, Conditioning, and Meaning of
Time-Consciousness in a Trappist Monastery.” In Toward a Science of Conscious-
ness II: The Second Tucson Discussions and Debates, edited by S. R. Hameroff and
A. C. Alwyn, 657-65. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1998.
Turner, Edith. The Hands Feel It: Healing and Spirit Presence among a Northern
Alaskan People. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1996.
Turner, Victor. The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-Structure. Chicago: Aldine,
1969.
-. Dramas, Fields, and Metaphors. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1974.
15
Converted Christians, Shamans, and the
House of God: The Reasons for Conversion Given
by the Western Toba of the Argentine Chaco
Marcela Mendoza
66
O n e of the most fascinating topics in the study of conversion and commit-
ment,” says Rambo (1993), “is the nature of people’s motivation for conver-
sion. This is a concern for scholars of conversion as well as for those who are
advocates” (137). People’s motivation reaches a peak of relevance during the
initial commitment, and it may change as the converts acquire a new mystic
language and reconstruct their personal life stories. Some anthropologists
have studied the distinctive religious structures and shamanic practices that
make it more difficult for members of egalitarian band societies to convert to
a Christian creed (Yengoyan 1993). Other anthropologists-following the
analysis of the Comaroffs (1991)-have studied the imposition of hegemonic
political and economic powers over hunter-gatherer groups that experienced
missionization (Blaser 1999; Gordillo 1999). Instead of discussing the struc-
ture of the native religion or the broader sociopolitical context in which the
people are immersed, this study is focused on the religious explanation given
by former hunter-gatherers who have already converted to Christianity. The
explanation that I analyze below is an after-the-fact validation provided by
Western Toba adults converted to Anglicanism, initially preached to their par-
ents by missionaries from Great Britain in the 1930s.’
HUNTER-GATH ERERS A N D MlSSlONARl ES
The distinctive encounter and eventual conversion of hunter-gatherer peo-

ples by Christian missionaries around the world presents an interesting case
of missionization. In the Americas, from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego, Jesuits,
199
200 Marcela Mendoza
Franciscans, Salesians, and Oblates Roman Catholic missionaries (Caraman

1976; Fritz 1997; Helm and Leacock 1988; Martinic 1997; Saeger 1989;
Teruel 1998) and Russian Orthodox ones as well (Kan 1985) have estab-
lished missions among hunter-gatherers since the beginnings of the Euro-
pean colonization. Presbyterian, Anglican, Mennonite, and other Protestant
Christian missionaries have also opened numerous missions among foraging
peoples of the Americas and Australia (Broock 2000; Miller 1974; Swain
and Bird Rose 1988).
In North America, conversion of the native peoples was stimulated by the
belief that they were descendants of the ten lost tribes of Israel. Many times
the missionaries initiated the contact, but at other times the hunter-gatherer
bands approached the missionaries. The bands that sought out a relation with
missionaries were experiencing encroachment of their land or an increased
level of aggression by neighboring ethnic groups. The missionaries were suc-
cessful only in those areas where early contacts had undermined the aborigi-
nal lifeways. Once the relationship between a hunter-gatherer group and
Christian missionaries was established, both participants in the cultural dia-
logue made efforts to adapt to each other’s different approaches to society and
religion. For example, Franciscan Father Rafael Gobelli, head of Nueva Pom-
peya Mission among the Wichi of the Bermejo River in the Argentine Chaco,
wrote on February 8, 1913:
I don’t know what to do with these Indians. It is extremely difficult to make

them work, even for their own benefit. They only want to have free meals, rest
all day long, and leave for the bushes. (Cited by Teruel 1998: 114; my transla-
tion from Spanish)
The organization of small, mobile, and highly cooperative foraging groups

around the world has been described as nontemtorial, oriented to direct con-
sumption, and egalitarian. To adapt to the bands’ mobility, Protestant mission-
aries have attempted to follow the families’ seasonal trekking. These unsuc-
cessful attempts ended with the construction of permanent mission stations-
a strategy that fostered the sedentarization of the bands (Grubb 1925; Russo
1980).The stations were built as a base to proselytize. Missionaries could not
dissociate Christianity from their own cultural context, which included a
church community,wage labor, and a settled nuclear family. Besides their role
in evangelization,the missions offered various services-such as food, school-
ing, and healthcare-that effectively attracted the bands. The stations also of-
fered to the indigenous people a safe heaven from the violence generated by
colonizers and soldiers. The foragers were initially more enticed by the prac-
tical advantages of a mission than by the Christian theology preached to them.
Converted Christians, Shamans, and the House of God 20 1
To many hunter-gatherer societies, their contact with missionaries was fol-

lowed by the traumatic impact of epidemics and diseases. Shamans and heal-
ers were often unable to counteract the devastating effects of these epidemics,
a failure that, in turn, emphasized the people's sense of social and cultural cri-
sis. Anglican missionary Alfred Leake- who in 1927 started Mission San An-
drks among the Wichi of Upper Pilcomayo River- wrote:
Measles and flu epidemics had been raging among the Indians and also among
many of the Argentines, and on every side we saw sick people lying on the ground
in filthy rags, utterly miserable. Their only hope is that a witch-doctor may, by
singing chants, rattling gourds and making other unearthly noises, be able to drive
away evil spirits that are afflicting them. (Cited by Makower 1989: 64)
Shamans and elders generally opposed Christian evangelism, although there

were also examples of individuals in such roles offering themselves for baptism
into the new creed. Among hunter-gatherers, individuals rather than communi-
ties were the ones who withdrew their support by leaving the village near a
mission and moving to another place. Many missions among hunter-gatherers
of southwest Australia and the South American Gran Chaco experienced sea-
sonal fluctuations in their populations. Indigenous people who lived around the
stations often left the area in search for employment, to visit relatives, and to
forage in their traditional ranges. Although some missionaries were able to in-
troduce new ideas and practices to hunting-gathering communities,it proved to
be more difficult to induce the people into religious conversion.
THE WESTERN TOBA
The Western Toba hunter-gatherers inhabited the land north of Pilcomayo

River, between the parallels 23" 20' and 23" 30' latitude south, at least since
the 1600s, when the first colonial documents reported on their existence. To-
day, the Western Toba of Formosa Province, Argentina, constitute a popula-
tion of some 1,200 individuals. They live in three main villages and several
small settlements located at the intersection of Pilcomayo River and the
Tropic of Capricorn (Mendoza 1999).In the late 1800s, Bolivian settlers and
soldiers established cattle posts and forts north of Upper Pilcomayo River. In
1903, Argentine colonists began pasturing cattle in Indian land south of the
river. They initiated a process of encroachment that ended in 1989, when the
Argentine state granted to the Western Toba legal property over 35,000
hectares of their traditional ranges south of the Pilcomayo River (De la Cruz
and Mendoza 1989).
202 Marcela Mendoza
Initially, the Western Toba reacted to the presence of the cattle breeders
with contention. Between 1915 and 1917, a native prophet preached the need
to expel the settlers from Indian land. He had a vision from Cudetci (Our Fa-
ther) announcing that the indigenous people would become rich again and the
world would be as it was before the intrusion of the Europeans. Warriors from
different Toba bands actually raided cattle posts and drove the families of set-
tlers out of the area. From the point of view of the colonists, it was a rebel-
lion that deserved swift punishment. From the point of view of the Western
Toba, it was a nativistic movement that ended with their most significant de-
feat at the hands of the Argentine military. The doctrine of the indigenous
movement is comparable to the doctrine of the Ghost Dance studied by
Mooney (1886). In fact, both movements present surprising similarities re-
garding their hostility toward Europeans and the return to idealized aborigi-
nal times. My point here is that until the late 1910s, the Western Toba be-
lieved in the power of their shamans and their warriors to overcome the
intrusion of colonists. Several years after the defeat of Toba warriors by the
Argentine Army, some bands consensually decided to request a mission from
Anglican missionaries, who had already opened a station among the neigh-
boring Wichi, upstream the Pilcomayo River.
In 1930, the South American Missionary Society established El Toba Mis-
sion at the core of the area inhabited by the Western Toba. Not one of the mis-
sionaries spoke Toba language, but one Toba man spoke Wichi-a language
the missionaries could understand-and another Toba spoke some Spanish.
They were able to help in the early days of the mission. From the start, the
missionaries offered schooling, healthcare, and food in exchange for indige-
nous labor and local products, such as animal skins, feathers, and crafts. They
met the resistance of some Toba shamans and elders. The missionaries re-
garded shamans as “Satan’s chief weapon” (SAMS Magazine 1935a: 121).
However, the missionaries also received the support of several other individ-
uals who became preachers for the new creed.
Shortly after the establishment of the mission, the missionaries created a
Toba alphabet- which closely follows the Spanish alphabet-and began to
teach the people how to read and write their language. This newly acquired
ability was widely used to send messages back and forth to distant indigenous
communities. Beginning in 1934, the names of the Toba inquirers appear fre-
quently in the reports of the missionaries (see Leake 1970; Makower 1989;
Mann 1968; Sinclair 1980). The first Toba baptism took place in 1936. The
next year, a booklet of parts of the Old Testament and the Gospel of Mark was
published in Toba language. These were the first texts that the Toba were able
to read in their own language. In 1937, a missionary at El Toba Mission re-
ported: “In three of the villages actually on the station, and on one about two
Converted Christians, Shamans, and the House of God 203
leagues away, prayer huts have been built entirely on the initiative of the peo-
ple themselves” (SAMS Magazine 1937: 59).
However, the missionaries still doubted the extent of the people’s conver-
sion. For example, Alfred Leake reported in 1943:
Uraiqui, one of our best Christian evangelists, is an ex-witch-doctor, and al-

though we are convinced that he has given up all evil practices connected with
his old craft, the Tobas are not so sure. Every now and then we are told that such
and such a sickness has been sent by him, or that he has bewitched such and
such man . . . twelve and a half years after being welcomed amongst the Tobas
by Chief Choliqui, the Gospel has hardly scratched below the surface in very
many hearts. This knowledge makes us all the more thankful for those eighty-
odd faithful ones who have really broken with the old life. (SAMS Magazine
1943: 1 1 )
In the 1990s, Western Toba adults who had converted to Christianity ex-
plained to me the reasons why they believe in the God of the scriptures, about
whom the missionaries and native pastors have been preaching for the past
sixty years. The experiential knowledge of the converted adults comes not
only from listening to the missionaries’ preaching but also from listening to
the shamans’experiences. The scriptural God, they say, is a real spiritual pres-
ence that lives up in the skies. Ultimately, they believe in this God’s existence
because the shamans have confirmed and validated such a conclusion.
THE SHAMANIC ENCOUNTER
During their mystical flights to the upper sky, powerful shamans have been
able to reach the entrance of a very bright and large place guarded by the
owner’s helpers. The Toba used the word piguem’lec (translated as “angels”)
to name these helpers. The shamans said that this bright place was the “House
of God.” However, they were not allowed to enter there.
Toba religion is based on personal relationships between an individual and
spirits that are the “owners” of the animals and plants found in their habitat.
The Toba also establish relationships with other spirits that “embody” natural
forces and elements such as the thunder, the northern wind, the morning star,
and so forth. Each individual seeks to incorporate as many spiritual compan-
ions as possible because these companions would help the person to succeed
in daily hunting and foraging trips, and to overcome life-threatening situa-
tions. Every person-man or woman-can establish a relationship with a
spiritual companion. However, the individuals who are ritually initiated as
shamans count with the assistance of the most powerful of all spirits, who
204 Marcela Mendoza
teach and guide them. Empowered by a personal spiritual relation with their
helpers, Toba shamans devote themselves to heal the sick and make predic-
tions of future events.
None of the shamans’ spiritual companions-not even the most powerful
ones, they say-has ever been granted entrance to the House of God. It is a
place reserved for the owner’s servants, fiercely guarded by his helpers.
THE AFTERLIFE
The Anglican missionaries preached that all Christian believers would go to

heaven after death and that they would live forever in the “house” of the God
of the Bible. Nevertheless, they emphasized that only the faithful ones would
be welcomed there. Toba believers describe the House of God as a place where
food and water are abundant and the animals are tame and friendly to humans
(the animals would voluntarily become a hunter’s prey, they say). Several
Toba adults explained to me that this image of a peaceful and pleasant after-
life was an important consideration in their conversion to Christianity.
The extent to which Anglican missionaries have overemphasized a re-
warding afterlife for all the believers is unsure. What really matters is that
Toba converts became interested in the idea and elaborated over it. Tradi-
tional Toba religion does not pay much attention to the afterlife. In oral nar-
ratives, the dead carry on a peculiar existence on an opposite plane below the
surface of the earth. When the sun shines on Earth, it is night in the land of
the dead. The food eaten by the dead is considered inedible for those who are
alive. The souls of the recently dead often feel lonely and miss the company
of their loved ones. The recently dead would try to return to their village, the
Toba say, with the purpose of taking their loved ones back with them to the
underworld (see Wilbert and Simoneau 1982, 1989). The souls of sorcerers
and shamans who have betrayed their spiritual companions (for example, by
using their power to kill people) and the souls of those who were defeated by
another shaman during a shamanic duel are kept in confinement below the
surface of earth. They are condemned to a solitary life with scarce food and
water at hand.
To Christian converts who have been enculturated in the native religion
and believe in the power of Toba shamans to heal and to cause harm as well,
the oral story validating the existence of a House of God “up in heaven” rep-
resents a very important piece of information. The Toba converts talk about it
as if the story would have happened a long time ago. They say that the oldest
shamans had already been denied entrance to the celestial house before the ar-
rival of the Europeans.
It’s impossible to determine when the Toba shamans have created their ex-
planation about the “reality” of “God” and the “House of God”(before or af-
ter the spread of the Christian teachings). From a native point of view, the ex-
planation gives credit to the native cosmology and supports the shamanic
authority. From the converts’ point of view, the shamans’ mystical experi-
ences confirm the existence of a mighty “God’ who owns a place up in the
sky and whose helpers would deny entrance to individuals unrelated to the
owner.
Today, Toba adults converted to Christianity affirm that they will enter the
House of God after death and live in there. It is described as a place where
they will be happy forever in the company of their loved ones. To enter the
House of God, believers need to fulfill two conditions: they have to partici-
pate frequently in prayer meetings and they need to be in peace with their kin-
dred. Participation in prayer meetings creates bonding among believers and,
equally important, it propitiates the participants’ physical health and good for-
tune through collective prayer. Future happiness is also anticipated (and con-
firmed) in the people’s dreams. Those who are not believers- who practice
witchcraft, cause harm to their neighbors, refrain from sharing food, lie, and
steal-would not enter the House of God and would not enjoy the pleasures
reserved to the faithful.
CONCLUSION
Conversion to Christianity is a complex, multifaceted process involving per-

sonal, cultural, social, and religious dimensions. “While conversion can be
triggered by particular events,” says Rambo (1993), “for the most part it takes
place over a period of time” (165). To be successful, a process of conversion
needs to be rooted in the indigenous religious traditions of the people. Also,
as various Christian denominations would emphasize different aspects of
their creed and would carry on distinct missionary styles, the missionaries’
preaching could possibly elicit diverse responses from hunter-gatherers that
share similar religious conceptions. For example, the preaching of Mennon-
ite missionaries among the Eastern Toba of the Argentine Chaco (Miller
1967, 1995) nourished a Pentecostal-type movement. Eastern Toba religious
services emphasize healing and intimate communication with the spirits
(trance or spirit possession) that are reached in the course of dancing, singing,
and praying. “Pentecostal emphasis upon healing, Holy Spirit infilling, and
apocalyptic eschatology,” says Miller (1967: 186), has provided Eastern Toba
hunter-gatherers with a central theme around which the new beliefs could be
organized and disseminated.
206 Marcela Mendoza
Instead of personal communication with the Holy Spirit, the Western Toba
chose to highlight from the Anglican preaching the notions about a heavenly
God and a promised afterlife. They could have done it differently, however,
because the native Toba religion provides the conditions to understand and in-
corporate the Christian notion of “possession” by the Holy Spirit. After sev-
eral decades of missionization, Western Toba Christians have come to sepa-
rate themselves from nonbelievers. They manifest a change of beliefs and
behavior that could potentially endanger the survival of the native religion.
The recourse to the old shaman’s explanation to legitimate the existence of
the House of God made by the converted could be interpreted as a intent to
restore some of the authority (and integrity) of the traditional native religion
without seriously compromising the basis for the people’s conversion.
NOTE
1 . I carried out fieldwork among the Western Toba in 1984,1985,1987,1988, and

1993-1995. The research has been supported by the Argentine Council for Scientific
and Technological Research (CONICET) and by the Graduate College of the Univer-
sity of Iowa.
REFERENCES
Blaser, M. 1999. “Blessed Words: Missionaries, Chamacoco Leaders and the Politics
of Hegemonic Coincidence.” Paper presented at the Indigenous Peoples of the
Gran Chaco, Missionaries, and Nation-States conference, St. Andrews University,
Scotland, March 22-25.
Broock, P. 2000. “Mission Encounter in the Colonial World: British Columbia and
South-West Australia.” Journal of Religious History 24, no. 2: 159-79.
Caraman, P. 1976. The Lost Paradise: The Jesuit Republic in South America. New
York: The Seabury Press.
Comaroff, Jean, and John Comaroff. 1991. Of Revelation and Revolution: Christian-
ity, Colonialism and Consciousness in South Africa. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
De la Cruz, L., and M. Mendoza. 1989. “Les Tobas de I’Ouest de Formosa et le
processus de reconnaissance lCgale de la propriCtC des terres.” Recherches Ame‘rin-
diennes au Quebec 19: 43-5 1 .
Fritz, M. 1997. “Nos han salvado.” Misidn: Destruccidn o salvacidn? Quito,
Ecuador: Ediciones Abya-Yala.
Gordillo, G. 1999. The Bush, the Plantations, and the “Devils”: Culture and Histor-
ical Experience in the Argentinean Chaco. Ph.D. diss., University of Toronto.
Helm, J., and E. B. Leacock. 1988. “The Hunting Tribes of Subarctic Canada.”
In North American Indians in Historical Perspective, edited by E. B. Leacock and
N. 0. Lurie, 2nd ed., 343-74. Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press.
Grubb, W. B. 1925. An Unknown People in an Unknown Land. London: Seely,
Service and Co.
Kan, S. 1985. “Russian Orthodox Brotherhoods among the Tlingit: Missionary Goals
and Native Responses.” Ethnohistory 32: 196-223.
Makower, K. 1989. Don’t Cry for Me. Poor Yet Rich: The Inspiring Story of Indian
Christians in Argentina. London: Hodder and Stoughton.
Martinic B. M. 1997. “The Meeting of Two Cultures. Indians and Colonists in the
Magellan Region.” In Patagonia. Natural History, Prehistory and Ethnography at
the Uttermost End of the Earth, edited by C. McEwan, L. Borrero, and A. Prieto,
pp. 110-26. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
Mendoza, M. 1999. “The Western Toba: Family Life and Subsistence of a Former
Hunter-Gatherer Society.” In Peoples of the Gran Chaco, edited by E. S. Miller,
pp. 81-108. Westport, Conn.: Bergin and Garvey.
Miller, E. S. 1967. Pentecostalism among the Argentine Toba. Ph.D. diss., University
of Pittsburgh.
-. 1974. “The Christian Missionary: Agent of Secularization.” In Native South
Americans, edited by P. Lyon, pp. 391-97. Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press.
-. 1995. Nurturing Doubt. From Mennonite Missionary to Anthropologist in the
Argentine Chaco. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Mooney, J. 1886. The Ghost-Dance Religion and the Sioux Outbreak of 1890,vol. 14,
part 2. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.
Rambo, L. 1993. Understanding Religious Conversion. New Haven, Conn.: Yale Uni-
versity Press.
Russo, G. 1980. Lord Abbot of the Wilderness: The Life and Times of Bishop Salvado.
Melbourne: Polding Press.
Saeger, J. S. 1988. “Eighteenth-Century Guaycuruan Missions in Paraguay.” In
Indian-Religious Relations in Colonial Spanish America, Latin American Series,
edited by S. E. Ramirez, vol. 9, pp. 55-86. Syracuse, N.Y.: Maxwell School.
South American Missionary Society (SAMS) Magazine. 1935a. “The Toba Mission.”
South American Missionary Society (SAMS) Magazine 69: 128-29.
-. 1935b. “On the Banks of the Pilcomayo River.” South American Missionary
Society (SAMS) Magazine 71: 54-59.
-. 1943. “A Chief Dies.” South American Missionary Society (SAMS)Magazine
77: 11-12.
Swain, T., and D. Bird Rose, eds. 1988.AboriginalAustralians and Christian Missions.
Bedford Park, Australia: The Australian Association for the Study of Religions.
Teruel, A. 1998. “Misioneros e indigenas en el Chaco Saltefio en el siglo XIX.”
In Pasado y presente de un mundo postergado, edited by A. Teruel and 0. Jerez,
103-3 1 . Jujuy, Argentina: Universidad Nacional de Jujuy.
Wilbert, J., and K. Simoneau, eds. 1982. Folk Literature of the Toba Indians, vol. 1 .
Los Angeles: University of California Press.
208 Marcela Mendoza
-. 1988. Folk Literature of the Toba Indians, vol. 2. Los Angeles: University of
California Press.
Yengoyan,A. 1991. “Religion, Morality, and Prophetic Traditions:Conversion among
the Pitjantjatjara of Central Australia.” In Conversion to Christianity. Historical
and Anthropological Perspectives on a Great Transformation, edited by R. W.
Hefner, pp. 233-57. Berkeley: University of California Press.
AFTERWORD
16
Anthropology and the Study of Conversion
Lewis R. Rambo
T h e study of conversion has expanded dramatically in the last two decades.

Once the almost exclusive preserve of psychologists and evangelicals, con-
version is now being examined by anthropologists (Harding 1987; Hefner
1993; Jules-Rosette 1975, 1976), historians (Cusack 1998; Kaplan 1996;
MacMullen 1984; Muldoon 1997), literary scholars (Viswanathan 1998), so-
ciologists (Montgomery 1991, 1996, 1999, 2001; Richardson 1978; Robert-
son 1978; Yang 1999), and theologians from many religious traditions. The
study of conversion has gained momentum during the last two decades
largely due to a global resurgence in the study of religion.
Fundamentalist movements impact virtually all religions -sometimes with
striking political implications. Charismatic and Pentecostal Christianity per-
vades the world (Poewe 1994). Buddhist renewals abound in India and South-
east Asia and have attracted growing numbers of adherents in Europe and
North America. Most striking, however, is Islam, which has not only reasserted
itself with the conversion of millions of people in Asia, Africa, Europe, and
North America, but has also captured the hearts and minds of many who de-
sire to transform the world’s economic and political realities -especially those
living in places around the globe encumbered by the legacies of Western colo-
nial oppression, military domination, and economic exploitation. In Europe
and North America, the most dramatic and unanticipated conversions have
been conversions to new religious movements (see Dawson 1998).
Conversion captures the popular imagination and scholarly attention for
two basic reasons. At the individual level, we want to know how people
change. This issue haunts the minds of many as they contemplate the human
predicament. Most of us are keenly aware of the difficulties encompassed in
21 1
212 Lewis R. Rambo
change-even in mundane situations requiring individual initiative and

agency like eliminating a bad habit. Changing one’s religion is all the more
perplexing because religion is believed to be deeply rooted in family connec-
tions, cultural traditions, ingrained customs, and ideologies. At the social
level, we are impressed by the impact of massive religious change because so
much of the world has been and continues to be shaped by world religions
such as Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, and other reli-
gious forces (Hefner 1993; Kaplan 1996; Lamb and Bryant 1999). Therefore,
we are at once fascinated and baffled by the transformation of individuals and
groups undergoing conversion.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF ANTHROPOLOGY
TO THE STUDY OF CONVERSION
As is evidenced by this collection, anthropologists are making distinct and im-

portant contributions to the study of religious conversion. First, anthropolo-
gists appreciate and richly describe the context in which religious change takes
place. On the one hand, psychologists have tended to focus on individuals -
virtually ignoring the rich contextual matrix of conversion except for the role
of the family in a person’s intrapsychic processes. Anthropologists, on the
other hand, pay close attention to the contextual matrix of conversion (see es-
pecially Buckser, chapter 6; Norris, chapter 13; and Reidhead and Reidhead,
chapter 14).
Second, anthropologists are often in a position to see conversion as it oc-
curs among those who have had little previous exposure to Christianity or Is-
lam; for example, they can examine the intricate and subtle processes that
transpire in a convert’s first contact with a new religious option (see Farha-
dian, chapter 5; Lohmann, chapter 9; Mendoza, chapter 15; Menon, chapter
4; Priest, chapter 8). It is hoped that anthropologists will continue this focus.
It is also hoped that anthropologists will devote specialized and sustained at-
tention to the processes of conversion. Thus far, ethnographers in the field
have not focused exclusively on the conversion phenomenon per se but have
combined their studies of conversion with studies touching on a vast array of
other topics.
Third, anthropologists contribute to the study of conversion by providing
analysis and insight into the long-term consequences of religious change.
Psychologists and sociologists often have produced studies of conversion that
are synchronic: they offer portraits of conversion at one particular point in
time. Because longitudinal studies are more expensive and extremely difficult
to conduct, they are generally not attempted within the disciplines of psy-
Anthropology and the Study of Conversion 213
chology or sociology. Anthropologists, however, tend to establish long-term

relationships with particular groups and return to their research sites fre-
quently. For example, Glazier (chapter 12) has conducted research among re-
ligious groups on the Caribbean island of Trinidad for over twenty years.
Long-term fieldwork often yields rich data on processes of conversion as
these processes manifest among particular individuals and groups.
Fourth, anthropologists bring what might be termed theoretical flexibility
to the phenomenon of conversion (see Di Bella, chapter 7; Anderson, chapter
10). Anthropologists, it appears, do not rush to impose rigid theoretical inter-
pretations on their data. They seem to accept the complexity of conversion
events (see especially Brown, chapter 10; Buckser, chapter 6; Coleman, chap-
ter 2) and avoid hasty or sweeping conclusions. They are willing to restate
earlier conclusions in light of new data (see Anderson, chapter 10; Buckser,
chapter 6; Coleman, chapter 2; Glazier, chapter 12; Mendoza, chapter 15;
Seeman, chapter 3). In my view, this represents a valuable advance in the
study of conversion. Unlike the earlier, classic studies (e.g., those of G. Stan-
ley Hall, William James, Edwin Starbuck, and James H. Leuba), which were
conducted primarily from the perspective of Christian psychology, anthropo-
logical researchers have attempted to fit their theories to the data, not force
the data to fit their theories.
PERSISTENTTHEMES IN CONVERSION STUDIES
Fundamental issues reflected in this collection are similar to the issues that
emerge in the various disciplines addressing topics of religious change and
transformation.
Defining Conversion
The definition of conversion remains a vexing problem. The theological
legacy of Christian hegemony means that the word “conversion” is generally
limited to notions of radical, sudden change (for a critique, see the chapters
by Buckser, chapter 6; Coleman, chapter 2; Farhadian, chapter 5; Glazier,
chapter 12; Reidhead and Reidhead, chapter 14). Evangelical Christians have
tended to “own” the concept for several hundred years, and most conversa-
tions about conversion- whether on a popular or scholarly level-are con-
fined to the Pauline paradigm of sudden, dramatic change. The Pauline model
of conversion combines notions of an unexpected flash of revelation, a radi-
cal reversal of previous beliefs and allegiances, and an underlying assumption
that converts are passive respondents to outside forces. Some scholars (Long
214 Lewis R. Rambo
and Hadden 1983; Richardson 1978) consider the Pauline model too restric-
tive and have advocated jettisoning the word “conversion” altogether.
Definitions of conversion complicate discussions of conversion. What we
are really talking about are a cluster of types of changes that have been ob-
served and discussed. The rhetoric of religion -especially within evangelical
Christianity-has often called for radical, sudden, and total change within a
person’s life (Nock 1933). In fact, most human beings change incrementally
over a period of time; even after a long process, often the change is less than
a complete 180-degree transformation (see Brown, chapter 11;Glazier, chap-
ter 12; Reidhead and Readhead, chapter 14; Seeman, chapter 3). Asking the
question “What is changed?’ in conversion certainly initiates a very sobering
undertaking-especially for some religious people who have an investment in
demonstrating that dramatic changes take place. The search for a workable
definition of conversion is perhaps complicated by current postmodern sensi-
bilities in which traditionally accepted verities are held to question.
Paul Hiebert (1978), a Christian missionary who earned a Ph.D. in anthro-
pology, has struggled mightily with definitions of conversion. In the mission
field, the nature of conversion for Hiebert was not just an academic question.
How much did a person need to know, experience, and do to be considered a
“true” convert? What motivations for this process were legitimate and what
motivations were seen as illegitimate? Hiebert recognized from the outset that
in actual experience, no conversion is total, complete, and perfect. Given the
complexities, messiness, and diversity of individual human experience, com-
plete conversion is a goal to work toward, not a “finished” product (see
Brown, chapter 11; Buckser, chapter 6; Reidhead and Reidhead, chapter 14).
InsidedOutsider Points of View

Another fundamental issue is the degree to whether “etic” and “emic” con-
siderations should be given priority. As an advocate of the “insider” point of
view, I find the emic perspective extremely valuable. At the very least, re-
searchers need to adopt a perspective in which the experience of converts is
appreciated phenomenologically. All contributors to this volume seem to
have done this. Etic concerns are also crucial. Perhaps scholars of conversion
should come to recognize a continuum of concerns that embraces both the
“insider’s” perspective and the ‘,‘outsider’s”point of view as epistemologi-
cally and empirically important (see Jules-Rosette 1975, 1976).
Theology occupies a central place in understanding conversion processes.
Whatever one’s opinions concerning the validity and value of theology, the-
ology often plays a pivotal role in shaping experience and expectations re-
garding conversion. Moreover, theology constitutes part of the “DNA” of the
conversion process for people existing within a particular religious tradition.

Not all conversions are seen in the same way because the theology that in-
forms the psyche and culture of the person going through conversion is
deeply embedded in the structures that serve as the foundation, infrastructure,
and motivation of the conversion experience itself. The Reidheads’ chapter
(chapter 14), which skillfully integrates intrapsychic processes, social con-
texts, and Benedictine theology, provides an excellent example of how theol-
ogy informs the psyche. Di Bella’s chapter (chapter 7) also gives careful at-
tention to the theological ramifications of Biunchi and Pentecostal ritual. The
theology of converts must be taken more seriously by researchers- whether
in the fields of psychology, anthropology, or sociology. This does not mean a
simple affirmation of theological beliefs but constitutes a willingness to lis-
ten to the theological rationales used by converts to tell their own stories.
Again, the various analyses contained in this collection are exemplary.
Religious conversion raises fundamental questions about the human
predicament, the meaning and purpose of life, the nature of reality, and the re-
ality of a transcendent realm. It is extremely difficult- if not impossible- to
engage the topic of conversion from a disinterested point of view. Assump-
tions about life, religion, and God necessarily color one’s perceptions. Ex-
plaining conversion in naturalistic (and/or nonreligious) terms comes “natu-
rally” to an atheist or an agnostic since otherwise an atheist or agnostic would
be forced to examine the validity of his or her own assumptions about human
nature, reality, and transcendent orders.
Researchers who are both “insiders” and “outsiders” translate the phenom-
enon of conversion into their own categories and force the experience of con-
version into modes of expression that may or may not be recognized by the
other. Nevertheless, it should be possible for scholars to write in such a way
that their findings are comprehensible to the subjects of their research. Can
scholarly works be made useful to insiders, or are the worldviews and ap-
proaches to experience so different between insiders and outsiders that their
respective understandings cannot be integrated coherently?
Collections as Forums for Conversion Studies

Currently, the most common type of publication in conversion studies is col-
lected works such as this volume (see also Carmody 2001; Collins and Tyson
2001; Conn 1978; Duggan 1984; Eigo 1987; Hefner 1993; Lamb and Bryant
1999; Levtzion 1979; Malony and Southard 1992; McGinnis 1988; Muldoon
1997; van der Veer 1996). Collections of essays are useful as a platform from
which to present and examine the innate complexity and diversity of per-
spectives utilized in the study of religious conversion.
216 Lewis R. Rambo
The field of conversion studies is in flux. We may be approaching a state

of paradigm exhaustion. No new orthodoxies have been created. A recent
book, Conversion in the Wesleyan Tradition, edited by Collins and Tyson, il-
lustrates the wide range of topics elicited by serious reflection on the subject
of conversion. Collins and Tyson brought together an eminent group of schol-
ars to explore John Wesley’s personal experience of conversion, the ways in
which that experience was developed and deployed in Methodist circles, and
the relationship of conversion to various historical periods of the Wesleyan
movement-such as abolition and the women’s movement. In addition, con-
tributors were encouraged to employ the latest techniques of biblical scholar-
ship to plumb the depths of the Bible for the meaning and purpose of con-
version. Other essays in the Collins and Tyson volume examine practical
implications of conversion, the role of rituals such as baptism in conversion,
and the foundational question as to whether conversion provides something
truly new in theological epistemology. I elaborate on the Collins and Tyson
collection to emphasize that even within the Christian tradition, there is grow-
ing recognition of the importance of conversion and the complexity, diversity,
and elusive qualities of religious change. Anthropologists, psychologists, and
sociologists need to recognize that conversion is a source of debate, conflict,
and constant reevaluation within the Christian community. The same is true
for other religious traditions such as Islam.
SCROGGS AND DOUGLAS:

ISSUES IN THE STUDY OF CONVERSION
After reading these splendid essays on the anthropology of conversion, I was

reminded of Scroggs and Douglas’s 1967 attempt to discern the thematic con-
tours of the study of conversion within the field of psychology. Scroggs and
Douglas focused on seven major issues in the field. At the top of their list
were persistent problems of definition. In their survey, they described a num-
ber of different types of phenomenon as examples of conversion. Another is-
sue focused on debates as to whether conversion was “normal” or “patholog-
ical.” If conversion was seen as pathology, this engendered intense debates as
to whether conversion results in regressive or even pathological psychologi-
cal reactions. A related issue, which might be considered quaint today, fo-
cused on the so-called convertible type in psychology. In other words, are cer-
tain personalities more vulnerable to the sudden, radical dislocations
associated with the conversion experience?
Scroggs and Douglas (1967) also explored another typical psychological
concern regarding the “ripe age” notion of conversion. Many surveys of con-
version in the history of psychology had noted that the most common time for
conversion was adolescence. Few psychologists of Scroggs and Douglas’s era
questioned such a finding as, in part, a logical outcome of the fact that much
psychological research was conducted with undergraduate students in psy-
chology classes. Glazier (chapter 12) reports that conversion from the Spiri-
tual Baptist faith to Rastafarianism and vice versa often occurs later in life,
but-as he points out-his sample is small.
Scroggs and Douglas’s final question is essentially theological: Does con-
version result from human or divine agency? Few psychologists would assert
that conversion is caused by the interplay of the transcendent in the life of
those they study. But psychologists who have carefully observed and/or inter-
viewed converts acknowledge that many converts attribute their transforma-
tions to divine intervention. This raises the issue of how to negotiate between
scientific explanations of conversion and theological doctrines that mandate
the norms against which conversion experiences are measured. How do re-
searchers deal with a theology that asserts God’s role in conversion and sees
human beings as passive recipients of God’s grace? The seventh issue articu-
lated by Scroggs and Douglas attempts to establish the most appropriate the-
oretical model or paradigm for the study of conversion. Scroggs and Douglas
concluded that conceptual schemes strongly influence the methods and mod-
els deployed in the study of conversion.
I suggest that anthropologists-as well as historians, psychologists, and so-
ciologists-follow the example of Scroggs and Douglas. Articulating the
ways in which conversion has been studied and the major themes that have
emerged will provide useful guidance to future researchers.
THE FUTURE OF CONVERSION STUDIES
The future of conversion studies must involve sustained and systematic mul-
tidisciplinary research and theoretical exploration. The phenomenon of reli-
gious change is so complex that it not only benefits from, but also requires,
deploying resources from anthropology, history, psychology, religious stud-
ies, sociology, and so on. Each discipline offers insights and methods to ex-
amine the full range of issues and dimensions of conversion. Ideally, multi-
disciplinary studies of conversion will access the full richness of methods and
understandings that already exist in each of these disciplines but at the same
time will recognize the limitations of each discipline. Multidisciplinary ef-
forts begin with the assumption that each discipline must be self-critical and
willing to modify its assumptions, goals, and methods in the face of a phe-
nomenon that cannot be forced into a Procrustean bed.
218 Lewis R. Rambo
Some scholars have already undertaken multidisciplinary efforts to gain an

expanded understanding of conversion. For example, Donald Gelpi (1998)
draws upon the human sciences in his many writings on conversion within the
Roman Catholic tradition. Scot McKnight (2002), a Protestant New Testa-
ment scholar, uses secular studies of conversion to enhance his understanding
of conversion narratives within the Gospels. He examines biblical notions of
conversion as these relate to transformations within the inner circle of Christ’s
disciples. Missiologists, too, borrow from anthropological methods to enrich
their understandings and techniques.
With but few exceptions, the human sciences study conversion within the
boundaries of a single discipline. Sociological studies focus on recruitment
and socialization. Psychologists study conversion in the context of the clini-
cal practice of psychology and psychiatry. Until recently, anthropologists
rarely approached conversion as a central focus of study. This collection
constitutes an important exception to the above generalization and hopefully
represents an emerging trend within the discipline. Missiologists- who form
a large and diverse group of scholars working from within the Christian
tradition-should also be mentioned. Missiologists use a variety of disci-
plines (especially anthropology and history) in order to better understand the
contours of religious change.
Exemplary studies in the past can also inform future studies of conversion.
We have just passed the hundredth anniversary of William James’s Gifford
Lectures at the University of Edinburgh in 1901 and 1902. The resulting
book, The Varieties of Religious Experience, has become a classic and is still
in print. Few would deny the felicity of style, the embracing quality sensibil-
ities, and the generous, phenomenological approach James deploys. The per-
sistent appeal of this remarkable work lies in James’s capacity for appreciat-
ing ways in which human beings intersect with the transcendent. A weakness,
however, is that James’s study is almost exclusively Euro-American and
Christian in its philosophical assumptions and methodology. Nonetheless,
The Varieties of Religious Experience continues to be a major influence in the
study of conversion.
It is crucial that scholars of conversion seek out the valuable work of re-
searchers from other disciplines.An excellent example of quality contemporary
work in conversion studies is Robert L. Montgomery’s The Lopsided Spread of
Christianity: Toward an Understanding of the Difision of Religions (2002).
Montgomery is a sociologist who explores various theories explaining the dif-
ferential rate and extent of religious change before 1500 C.E. A fundamental is-
sue for Montgomery is the question of why Christianity was so successful in
spreading to the Roman Empire and Europe but unsuccessful in it attempts to
convert Persia, India, and China. Utilizing diffusion theory and social identity
theory, Montgomery draws upon historical materials on Christianity in the vast

territories west and east of Jerusalem. The scope of Montgomery’s study is vast
and his theoretical sophistication remarkable. He writes clearly, focusing on his
goal of critically applying various theories and their rigorous modifications,
and eliminating other theories that do not advance his agenda. His agenda is to
develop a theoretical model that elucidates and explains the causes of mission-
ary successes and failures in various religions around the world.
Conversion studies should also include attention to conversion experiences
and phenomena in the Roman Catholic, Mormon (Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter Day Saints), Assembly of God, and Southern Baptist churches. These
faith traditions are among the most effective agents of conversion in many
places of the world and yet are rarely the focus of empirical research.
Research on conversion should include more serious studies of Islamic
conversion. Especially since September 11, 200 1, it is imperative that Islam
be better understood and recognized as a force exerting a powerful political,
cultural, and religious influence around the world. Second only to the Chris-
tian faith in number of adherents, Islam’s more than 1 billion followers ex-
tend throughout the world. In the study of Islamic conversion, care must be
taken to see the phenomenon with new eyes. Christian-based categories must
be set aside, at least temporarily, so that the nature and scope of conversion
to Islam can be examined without preconception or bias. A special emphasis
should be placed on researching and understanding ways in which involve-
ment and commitment to Islam consolidates Islamic communities and-
in some cases-propels powerfully politicized movements in various parts of
the world. The work of Bulliet (1979), Hefner (1993), Kose (1996), Levtzion
( 1 978), and others can serve as starting points from which to begin a truly
new era of the study of conversion.
Few scholars have had the chutzpah, energy, and determination to under-
take an authentic, multidisciplinary study of conversion. Sometimes, one gets
the impression that anthropology, sociology, psychology, and so on are like
parallel railroad tracks. Each discipline has little or no knowledge or interest
in disciplines on the next track and even less interest in those disciplines sev-
eral tracks over. With the exception of acknowledgments to classics like
James’s The Varieties of Religious Experience (I985 [1902]) and A. D. Nock’s
Conversion (1933), scholars either willfully exclude or ignore other disci-
plines, or they may be unaware of the resources in fields other than their own.
Perhaps a modest beginning could be proposed. Brettell and Hollifield’s Mi-
gration Theory: Talking across Disciplines (2000) provides a possible model.
Scholars of conversion could begin by organizing a conference and/or a series
of articles that focus on the assumptions, methods, and theories of conversion
within various disciplines.
220 Lewis R. Rambo
Other issues need to be addressed to complete our vision of a multidisci-

plinary approach to conversion. Among these issues are gender (Brereton
1991; Juster 1989), religious ideology, politics, and the ways in which con-
version is not merely a passive or compliant survival strategy but a creative
form of resistance and even subversion (Viswanathan 1998). This collection
of anthropological essays constitutes an excellent beginning. It contains a
number of fascinating case studies, considerable theoretical innovation, and
ample evidence of disciplinary sophistication.
REFERENCES
Brereton, Virginia Lieson. From Sin to Salvation: Stories of Womens Conversions,

1800 to the Present. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991.
Brettell, Caroline B., and James F. Hollifield, eds. 2000. Migration Theory: Talking
across Disciplines. New York: Routledge.
Bulliet, Richard W. Conversion to Islam in the Medieval Period: An Essay in Quanti-
tative History. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979.
Collins, Kenneth J., and John H. Tyson, eds. Conversion in the Wesleyan Tradition.
Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon Press, 2001.
Conn, Walter E., ed. Conversion: Perspectives on Personal and Social Transforma-
tion. New York: Alba House, 1978.
Cusack, Carole M. Conversion among the Germanic Peoples. New York: Cassell,
1998.
Dawson, Lome L. Comprehending Cults: The Sociology of New Religious Move-
ments. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1998.
Duggan, Robert D., ed. Conversion and the Catechumenate. New York: Paulist Press,
1984.
Eigo, Francis A., ed. The Human Experience of Conversion: Persons and Structures
in Transformation. Villanova, Penn.: Villanova University Press, 1987.
Gelpi, Donald L. The Conversion Experience: A Reflective Process for RCIA Partic-
ipant and Others. New York: Paulist Press, 1998.
Harding, Susan. “Convicted by the Holy Spirit: The Rhetoric of Fundamental Baptist
Conversion.” American Ethnologist 14, no. 1 (1987): 167-81.
Hefner, Robert W., ed. Conversion to Christianity: Historical and Anthropological
Perspectives on a Great Transformation. Berkeley: University of California Press,
1993.
Hiebert, Paul G. “Conversion, Culture, and Cognitive Categories.” Gospel in Culture
1 (1978): 24-29.
James, William. The Varieties of Religious Experience. 1902. Reprint, Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1985.
Jules-Rosette, Bennetta. African Apostles: Ritual and Conversion in the Church of
John Maranke. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1975.
Anthropology and the Study of Conversion 22 1
-. “The Conversion Experience: The Apostles of John Maranke.” Journal of Re-

ligion inAfrica 7, no. 2 (1976): 132-64.
Juster, Susan. “In a Different Voice”: Male and Female Narratives of Religious Con-
version in Post-Revolutionary America.” American Quarterly 41, no. 1 (March
1989): 34-62.
Kahn, Peter J. Modeling Religious Conversion in Adulthood. Ph.D. diss., Pacific
Graduate School of Psychology, 2000.
Kaplan, Steve, ed. Indigenous Responses to Western Christianity. New York New
York University Press, 1996.
Kose, Ali. Conversion to Islam: A Study of Native British Convert. London: Kegan
Paul International, 1996.
Lamb, Christopher, and M. Darrol Bryant, eds. Religious Conversion: Contemporary
Practices and Controversies. New York: Cassell, 1999.
Levtzion, Nehemia, ed. Conversion to Islam. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1979.
Long, Theodore E., and Jeffrey K. Hadden. “Religious Conversion and the Concept
of Socialization.” Journal for the ScientiJic Study of Religion 22 (1983): 1-14
MacMullen, Ramsay. Christianizing the Roman Empire (A.D. 100400). New Haven,
Conn.: Yale University Press, 1984.
Malony, H. Newton, and Samuel Southard. Handbook of Religious Conversion. Birm-
ingham, Ala.: Religious Education Press, 1992.
McGinniss, Michael J., ed. Conversion: Voices and Views. Romeoville, Ill.: Christian
Brothers Conference, 1988.
McKnight, Scot. Turning to Jesus: The Sociology of Conversion in the Gospels.
Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, 2002.
Montgomery, Robert L. “The Spread of Religions and Macrosocial Relations .” Soci-
ological Analysis 52, no. 1 (1991): 37-53.
-. The Dzfision of Religions. University Press of America, 1996.
-. Introduction to the Sociology of Missions. Westport, Conn.: Praeger Publish-
ers, 1999.
-. The Lopsided Spread of Christianity: Toward an Understanding of the D i f i -
sion of Religions. Westport, Conn.: Praeger Publishers, 2001.
Muldoon, James, ed. Varieties of Religious Conversion in the Middle Ages.
Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1997.
Nock, Arthur Darby. Conversion. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1933.
Poewe, Karla, ed. Charismatic Christianity as a Global Culture. Columbia: Univer-
sity of South Carolina Press, 1994.
-. “Theories of Conversion.” Social Compass 46, no. 3 (September 1999):
259-7 1 .
Richardson, James T., ed. Conversion Careers: In and Out of the New Religions. Sage
Contemporary Social Science Issues, 47. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1978.
Scroggs, J. R., and W. G. T. Douglas. (1967). “Issues in the Psychology of Religious
Conversion.” Journal of Religion and Health 6, no. 3: 204-16.
222 Lewis R. Rambo
Van der Veer, Peter, ed. Conversion to Modernities: The Globalization of Christian-
ity. New York: Routledge, 1996.
Viswanathan, Gauri. Outside the Fold: Conversion, Modernity, and Belie5 Princeton,
N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1998.
Yang , Fenggang. Chinese Christians in America: Conversion, Assimilation, and Ad-
hesive Identities. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999.
Index
absolution, 87 Arya Samaj movement, 49

Accadia, 87 Asabano people, 111-13
accusation, 86 Assembly of God, 219
Adalsteinsson, J6n, 125 assimilation of adopted beliefs and
“advocate” as spiritual director, 187-88, practices, 174
195 associations of conversion: difference
affiliation, religion as, 109 for convert, 178; emotional and
afterlife, 86,204,206; Spiritual Baptist embodied, 177,178,179; learned,
ideas concerning, 151 171
agency, 29-30,33-34,3637,3940, attitudes, 178
123-24,127 Austin-Broos, Diane J., 24n5,25n13,
age of conversion, 2 16 251122,150
agnostics, 215 Australian Baptist Missionary Society,
alcohol, 97-99,104,106 112
altar call, 16, 18,20,22,25n13 authenticity, 8 1-82
Amsterdam, 155 authority, and conversion, 77-78
ancestors, 126, 129
Anglicanism, 199 Babylon, 155
Anglican missionaries, 202,204 baptism, 88,89,216
anomalous experiences: personal Baptist Church, 112
narratives of, 13840; role in Barker, John, 109
religious conversion, 139, 140, 141; Barnes, Sandra T., 163
types of, 133,136,138, 140 Bassett, R. L., 162
anthropomorphism, 114, 116 behavior, good and evil, 116
apocalyptic movements, 57-58 belief, 115, 123, 126-28, 130; as a
apostasy, 34,37 proposition, 120; as a relationship
Apulia, 85, 87 with supernatural beings, 109, 110,
aristocrats, 85 117-20
223
224 Index
beliefs, transformation of, 179 choice, 176; freedom from, 180n6;

belly: emotion and, 115; entry of, by freedom of, 175
spirits, 113; turning of in conversion, Christian and Missionary Alliance
110. See also digestive tract, as locus (CMA), 56
of spirits and volition Christian converts, 204
Belmont (Trinidad), 164 Christian Israelites, 3 1
Belzen, Jacob, 165, 167 Christianity, 29-31,34,37,87, 112,
Benedict, Saint, 189 113, 115, 123-28, 130; in India,46,
Benedictine monasticism, 183-88, 192, 50; relation to Judaism, 173, 176
194-95 Christianizers, 33
Benedictine nuns, 189, 191-93, 195 Christian missionaries, 200. See also
Berger, Peter, 119 missionaries
Beta Israel (Ethiopian Jews), 29,31-34, Christian psychology, 2 13
37-39 Christian Spiritualism, 133-35;
Bianchi, 85,86,90 Christian elements in, 134-35
Bible, 124, 128, 130,216,218 Christians, 32-33; missions among
Bishop of Iceland, 125-27 foraging peoples, 200. See also
Black Stalin (musician), 159 missionaries
blood, 36 churches, 87
body, 56-57,86,87,88,89, 178 cognitive dissonance, 194
body symbolism, 56-57, 165 collectivity, 85
bones, religious use of, 112 Collins, Kenneth J., 216
Bourdieu, Pierre, 165 colonization, 6
brainwashing, 16,20 Comaroff, Jean, 2-3, 17,20,25n9
Brettell, Caroline B., 219 Comaroff, John, 2-3, 17,20,25n9
Bromley, Myron, 56 commoners, 86
Brooklyn (New York), 161 communion, 86
Buber, Martin, 117 communitas, 190
Buddhism, 211,212 community, 87,89
Bulliet, Richard W., 219 compassion, 87
bureaucracy, 29,30,32,34,36,39 condemned persons, 85,86,89
burning movements, 57-58 confession, 86
Burridge, Kenelm, 55, 119 conscience, 86
constraint, 123-30
Cadetu (Our Father), 202 conversatio morum. See conversion of
calling, 88 life
Cape, Roy (musician), 159 conversion, 109, 199; academic views of,
Carmelite, 188 80-8 I ; age at, 216; and authenticity
Catholic Church. See Roman 80-81; and bodily practices, 56-57,
Catholicism 64; career of the convert, 136,143,
cemetery, 87 144115; as change of relationship, 109,
chapel, 86 116; from Christianity, 135;
charismatics, 17 collections of essays on, 215-16; and
Chief Rabbinate of Israel, 32 conceptions of group, 69,75-76,78;
China. 218 conflicts over, 69-70,74-77,79-80;
Index 225
“continuous,” 22; convert, 123-28, culture, American, 1 4 0 4 1

130; definition of, 110,119,136, Curepe (Trinidad), 157, 159, 160
14143,213-14; determining causes
of, 135-36,141-42; differing Daberdie (Trinidad), 161
understandings of, 58; effects on Dahomey, Kingdom of, 158
magical practice, 56; and ethnicity, Damascus, road to, 149,152
73; ethnopsychological models of, Danish Jews: history, 70; institutions,
120; experiential dimensions of, 69; 70-7 1
and group boundaries, 64,69; of death, 89,123,126-27
hunter-gatherer groups, 199; and defection, 153, 159
institutional authority, 77-78; deprivatization of religion, 62-63
intellectual motif of, 140; and desire, 105-6
intermarriage, 73-77; in Judaism, 72, Di Bella, Maria Pia, 215
73,81; and logic of numbers, 46,50; dietary practice and conversion, 76-77,
material inducements for, 43,45,48, 80
49,51,55-56,57; motivation for, dietary restrictions, Rastafarian, 164,
199; mystical motif, 136; and 166
nationalism, 5-6; and nation-states, 1, diffusion theory, 218
5-7; as passage, 2-3,5-6; digestive tract, as locus of spirits and
phenomenological approaches to, volition, 110, 111, 114. See also
218; political implications,56,65, belly
79-80; psychological studies of, 212, discharge of conscience, 86
215-19; and psychopathology,216; discourse, 191-92; Benedictine,
and reconversion, 43,49,50; and the 191-92; Catholic, logic of, 195;
self, 80; sincerity of, 74-75; and Jehovah’s Witness, 185, 195
social change, 64-65; social disengagement theory, 153, 154
dimensions of, 69,81-82; divine agency, 2 17
sociological studies of, 212,215-19; Douglas, W. G. T., 216-17
Spiritualist conceptions of, 133, dreadlocks, 155,160,166
136-37; stages of, 137-38; of Saint dreams, 88, 103-5; and relationships
Paul, 213-14; threats of to Hindu with supernatural beings, 119; as
nationalism, 43,45,5 1; and spiritual evidence, 112, 114
traditional warfare, 56; as translation, Duranmin (Papua New Guinea), 112
50-51; as “turning,” 110-11; Durkheim, Emile, 119
validation for, 199; and the world
religions, 3-5 earthquakes, 101-2
conversion of life, 193, 195; continuous Ecce Homo, 86
conversion, 193; reflexive and Ekman, Ulf, 16,21,24n3,251114,25n23
textual, 193 “elaborated likelihood model,” 162
conversos, 33 elect, 89
converts, status of, 80 El Toba Mission, 202
criminals, 85,89,90 embodiment, 177, 179
cultural conditioning, 177; of emotional emic point of view, 214-15
states, 179; of ideas and beliefs, emotion, 117, 177, 179; construction of
171-72,176-77 distinctive, 180n8
226 Index
Emperor Haile Selassie I, 155, 160 God, 95-96,99-107, 112-15, 118,

enculturation, 128, 177, 187, 192 203-6
Ethiopia, 29-31,33-35,37,39, 155; Goodman, Felicitas, 114
government, 30,32; Jews of, 31-32. Great Awakening (United States), 153
See also Beta Israel (Ethopian Jews) Grenada (West Indies), 155,160, 162,
ethnic affiliation, 31,34,39 163
ethnography, 40 Guthrie, Stewart, 114
ethnopsychology, 114 Guyana, 155
etic point of view, 214-15
Eurocentrism, 124 habitus, 18,21
Europe, 211,218 Haraldsson, Erlendur, 128
evangelical Christianity, 214 Hare Krishna movement, 154
executions, 86,87 head covering, 175, 180n3
experience, 2 9 - 3 0 , 3 6 3 7 , 3 9 4 ; lived, heart, as locus of caring, 114
37,40; religious, 30,40; social, 29, heaven, 103
36 Hefner, Robert W., 3, 18, 118, 124,127,
expiation, 87 152,219
ex-voto, 87 Heirich, Max, 126
hell, 95, 102-3
faithful, 85,89 Herzfeld, Michael, 6
faith movement, 15-16,21-23,24n3, Hiebert, Paul, 214
25n14,25n16,25n17,26n24 Hill, P. C., 162
Fang (ethnic group of Gabon), 158 Hinduism, 43,44-45,49-50
fasting, 106 Hindu nationalism, 43-50; and
fear, 101-3,106 allegations of Christian immorality,
Fernandez, James W., 153,158 4 4 4 6 ; and allegations of Christian
Finland, 21-22 terrorism, 4 6 4 8 ; and dowry, 49;
flood myth, 99-100 views of Christian women, 45-46;
forgiveness, 99, 103-4 views of Jesus, 45-46
Free Papua Movement, 59,61 Hindus, 4448,50-5 1
fundamentalism, 7 Hollifield, James F., 219
Holy Ghost. See Holy Spirit
gallows, 86,90 Holy Spirit, 22,24n5,88,90, 110, 112,
ganja (marijuana), 157,161,162, 113, 116,119,184
165-67 homicide, 97-101
Gans, Eric, 186, 191 Horton, Robin, 18,23, 118, 152
Geertz, Clifford, 3-4,37 House of God, 203-5
Gelpi, Donald L., 2 18 House of Nyahbinghi, 155
gender, 152, 162-63,220 humanism, 7
generative anthropology, 186 human rights, violations of, 58-59,60
Ghost Dance, 202
gifts, 88, 89 ideal images and conversion, 174
Gissurarson, Loftur, 125, 129 identity, 17-20,22-23, 123, 127, 172,
Glazier, Stephen D., 217 174, 175, 179; development of, 154;
glossolalia, 85,88,89,90, 112 Jewish, 29-30,7 1-77; psychological
Index 227
context of, 179; and worldview, 171, Kabala, 157, 158, 161
178,179 kinesthetic, 178, 179
imagination, 117, 119 Klass, Morton, 7-8
immigration, 29-30,32-35 Kose, Ali, 219
impressions, direct perception of, 178
inauthenticity, 174 ladder exercise, 86,90
India, 218; politics of, 4 3 , 4 6 4 7 , language, 85,86,88,90, 177; meaning
50-5 1; separatism in, 4 6 4 7 , 5 1 beyond, 176
individual, 85 Larson, Gordon, 56
Indonesian military, abuses by, 58-59 Latin America, 88
inner states, 179; and bodily practices, Levtzion, Nehemia, 219
171 Lewenstein, Tobias, 79-80
Irian Jaya, 55-65 Lexner, Bent, 79
Isis, cult of, 154 lifeway, 192
Islam, conversion to, 2 11 , 212,2 19 liminality, 85, 86,90
Israel: God of, 40; State of, 29-30, Lindholm, Charles, 119
32-35,3740 liturgy, 193; reflexive tradition, 191
Italy, 85, 87 Lohmann,RogerIvar, 111, 113, 117
London, 155,161
Jacobs, Janet, 153 longitudinal studies, 212,213
James, William, 17,25nll,95, 138, long-term fieldwork, 213
152,159,218,219 Los Angeles (California), 155
Jayapura, 58 loyalty, maintenance of, 153
Jehovah’s Witness: concepts of Lutherans, 125, 128
pollution, 186; conversion from, 184;
cosmogony, 185; enculturation and Machalek, Richard, 124, 154
upbringing, 187, 194-95; identity, magic, 112
185, 188; material success of, 188; Mandela, Karega (musician), 159
ministers for, 184, 187; narrative Maraval (Trinidad), 157, 162, 163
tradition and sacred discourse, 184, marginality, 85,89
195; sacred categories, 184-85, 188; Marley, Bob, 160
shunning among, 185, 194; views of martyrs, 87
sin, 184 mass, 86
Jesus, 87,89, 112, 115 materiality, 191
Jewish Community of Copenhagen McClenon, James, 138
(MT), 7 1 McGuire, Meredith, 165
Jewish identity: in Denmark 71,72; and McKnight, Scot, 218
intermarriage, 73-77; and matrilineal Mead, Margaret, 117
descent, 73 meaning, 123,127; experience of inner,
Jewish practice, different views of, 71, 178; gradual assimilation of, 171;
73 personal, 176; and truth, 178
Jordan, David, 126 medium, 125-26,129-30
Judaism, 29-30,32-35, 154; Orthodox, Melanesia, 110, 111, 114
33; relation to Christianity, 173, 176 Melchior, Bent, 79-80
justice, 87 Methodists, 216
228 Index
miracles, 126, 129 nativistic movements, 202

missiology, 2 18 New Age, 128
missionaries, 31,35,39,88,98, 100; New Guinea, 11 1
alleged trickery of, 44-45; criticism New Order (Indonesia), 58-59,61
of, 43-48,51; in Irian Jaya, 55; new religious movements, 153
perceptions of, 55-60,63; responses New Theology, 125-26,130
to human rights abuses, 59-61; role New York City, 155
of, 55-57,64-65; as threat to Hindu Nock, Arthur Darby, 110, 124, 152, 154,
culture, 43,46; as threat to national 158,219
integrity, 43,46-48,5 1; violence Nordic gods, 125
against, 43,47
Mission Aviation Fellowship (MAF), 56 offerings, 112, 115
missionization, 15,21, 199; Ogun (African deity), 161-64, 166
consequences of, 20 1 “Onward Christian Soldiers” (hymn), 61
mission stations, 200 Orisha (African deity), 157,158, 160,
modernity, 1,4-5; and missionaries, 163,166
64-65 Orpheus, cult of, 154
Montgomery, Robert L., 218-19 Oshun (African deity), 162, 163, 165,
morality, 118 166
Mormonism, 219 Otto, Rudolf, 119
mourning ceremony (Spiritual Baptist), outreach, 20,22
156,160,161,163
Muhrain, Archbishop (Spiritual Baptist), Palermo, 85,87
149,156 Paloutzian, Raymond F., 149, 158, 159
Muller, Nazma, 157 Papua New Guinea, 109
multidisciplinary studies of conversion, Papuan identity, 60; and Dani identity,
217-18,219,220 61,62
Munninghoff report, 59,60 paranormal, 133,136, 138
Munninghoff, H. F. M., 59,60 Paul, Saint, conversion experience of,
music: and Papuan identity, 62; and 80-81, 149, 152,213,214
political protest, 61-62 peasants, 89
mystical experiences, 133, 136, 138 Peel, J. D. Y., 17
Mythra, cult of, 154 penitence, 33-34
Pentecostalism, 19,25n14,38,85,87,
nabelan kabelan, 57,58,64 88,90, 160,211
narrative, 30, 183-85, 187, 189, 191, perception, 178
195; classical Benedictine unspoken, phenomenological approaches to
193; evolution of, 194; flexibility of conversion, 2 18
in Catholicism, 196; inflexibility of Point Fortin (Trinidad), 149
among Jehovah’s Witnesses, 195; life politics, 220
as, 195; performances of Pope in India, 45
discouraged, 193; theory, 196n2 Port of Spain (Trinidad), 149, 156, 163
nationalism, 43-50 possession, 114-15
native prophets, 202 postulants, 190, 192, 196n6
Index 229
power, 79-80,123-28 religious movements, 134, 141

practice theory, 18 resurrection, 87
praxis, 123-24, 127 revival, 112, 117
prayer, 87,88, 100,105-6,112, 117; Richardson, James T., 143, 144115,
fulfillment of as evidence, 113 144118
preconversion contexts, 184 ritual, 36, 85,86,90; of circumcision,
priests, 87 36; of domination, 37; gestures and
prisons, 86,87,90 postures, 171, 178, 179; of
procession, 86,87,90 immersion, 36; obedience to, 176;
psychological studies of conversion, performance of, 179; retraining of
212,215-19 somatic responses to, 171; zealous
psychopathology and conversion, 2 16 adherence to, 171,174,176,179
purity of heart, 29,34,39 Robbins, Tom, 153, 154,155
Roman Catholicism: Eucharistic
rabbis, 29,32-34,38-39,79-80 presence in, 185; instruction in, 185;
Rada (African deity), 158 in Irian Jaya, 59; narrative
Rambo, Lewis R., 1-2,36,110,118, categories, 195; representation, 185;
119,123, 165, 187, 196 and the self, 188; social dimensions,
Rastafarian women, status of, 162 192; spiritual discourse in, 195; as
reciprocity: embodied enactment of, “Whore of Babylon,” 188
195; in gifts, 188, 190-91,193-94 Roman Empire, 154,218
recruitment, 218 romanticism, 8-9
refugees, 29,32-33,39
reggae, 155,159 sacred narrative, 184
Reidhead, Mary Ann, 215 sacrifice, 89
Reidhead, Van A., 215 Sahlins, Marshall, 3
relationships: religions as, 109, 112; role saint, 87,89
in conversion, 116-19; with Saint Vincent (West Indies), 155
supernatural beings, 109, 115-16 salat, 175
relativism, 7 salvation, 86
religious change, 212 sanctification, 89
religious conversion. See conversion Sangre Grande (Trinidad), 157,164
religious experience, 117; Catholic Sanskritization, 49-50
discourse of, 195; continuity in, 183, Satan: as source of bad behavior, 114,
193, 195; discontinuity in, 183, 186, 116; traditional spirits equated with,
194-95; generative capacity of, 186; 112
of God, 184-88; gratitude, 191; scaffold, 86,87,89
integration of, 193; mediated by science and religion, 134
context, 194; mediated by specialists, scripture and native tradition, 63
190; reenactments of, 192; Scroggs, J. R., 216-17
revelatory, 183, 190; subtle, 194; sCance, 133, 135, 1434114
suffering, 184; union with God, 193; secularism, 1
of unity, 190; world changing, 183, selective, 171, 177, 179
186-87 selective performance, 179
230 Index
self, 110-11, 114, 115 Strathern, Marilyn, 114

sex, 96-97, 100, 102, 106 Stromberg, Peter G., 16, 107
shamans, 201,202,203; dueling by, suffering, 34,38,87,104-5; and group
204; and mystical experiences, 205; identity, 60
mystical flights of, 203; soul of, 204 Sufism, 172, 173, 175
shame, 36-37 suicide, 104
Shouter Prohibition Ordinance, 156 supernatural world: as imaginary, 117;
shunning, 185-86, 194 plausibility of, 117; propitiation of,
Sicily, 85, 87 112; used to model volition, 114
sickness, 88 Sweden, 15-16, 19,21
sin, 86,95-107 symbolism, body, 165
Snow, David A., 124,154 syncretism, 2
social change, 64-65
social drift theory, 154 taboo, 185; effects of conversion on,
social identity theory, 218-19 113
socialization, 218 Telefomin (Papua New Guinea), 112
sociological studies of conversion, 2 12, Teresa of Avila, Saint, 188
215-19 testimonies, 16, 20
somatic responses, 171 theology, 214-17; Benedictine, 215
souls, 86,87; after death, 115; attacks of Thomas, Saint, 46,50
at grave, 112; captured as source of Toronto, 155
illness, 111; locus of, 109, 115; transformation: of inner states, 178; of
melding of in conversion, 1 19; as a understanding and experience, 180
model of volition, 114; as sources of Travisano, Richard V., 1 4 2 4 3
good and evil, 115; types of, 111 tribals, 47-49,5 1
South American Missionary Society, 202 Trinidad, 2 13
Southeast Asia, 211,215 Trinitarianism, 88
Southern Baptists, 219 Turner, Edith, 190
Southland School of Theology, 156 Turner, Victor, 186, 190
spectacle, 87 turning, as a metaphor for conversion,
speech patterns, Rastafarian, 154 110-1 1
spirits, 109, 125-30,133, 135, 14344; Twelve Tribes (Rastafarian sect), 159,
anthropophagic, 111; internal and 160
external loci of, 116; as kin, 119; of Tyson, John H., 216
natural objects, 112
spiritual companions, 203,204 Unification Church, 153-54
Spiritualism: definition of, 133, 143nl; Unitarianism, 87,88
history of, 134-35,143n2, 14344n4; United States, 88
opposition to by Christians, 134-35; University of the West Indies, 159, 163
and syncretism, 135
spirituality, 39; inchoate, 175; versus van der Veer, P., 24n 1,251111
ritual performance, 179 violence: against Christians, 43,44,47;
spirit work, 113 conversion and, 113; spiritual causes
sprites, 112 of, 115
Stakes, Graham, 43 visions, 112
Index 23 1
volition, 109, 113-16; belly as locus of, encroachment on land of, 201;
110; spiritual takeover of, 112, language, 202; shamans, 202,204
117-18; supernaturalistic models of, witchcraft, 99, 101, 1 1 1 , 114
119 women, 44,45-46,86; as mediums,
112; status of among Rastafarians,
Weber, Max, 3-5,119,151 162; status of among Spiritual
Weininger, Benjamin, 119 Baptists, 162-63
Wesley, John, 216 Word of Life, 24-26
Wesleyan movement, 2 16 World Orisha Conference of 1999,
Western Toba hunter-gatherers, 20 1 ; 163
baptism among, 202; converts, 204; Wuthnow, Robert, 141,167
About the Contributors
Robert T. Anderson, who is a physician as well as an anthropologist, spe-

cializes in alternative medicine, which often accesses paranormal and reli-
gious beliefs and practices. A professor of anthropology at Mills College, he
is also head of the Department of Sociology and Anthropology. His most re-
cent books include Magic, Science, and Health: The Aims and Achievements
of Medical Anthropology (1996), Alternative and Conventional Medicine in
Iceland (2000), and The Ghosts of Iceland (in press).
Diane Austin-Broos holds the Radcliffe-Brown Chair in Anthropology at the

University of Sydney. Based on fieldwork in Jamaica and Australia, she has
written extensively on a broad range of topics, including religion, political
economy, and cultural change and transformation. Her books include Jamaica
Genesis: Religion and the Politics of Moral Orders (1997), Creating Culture:
Profiles in the Study of Culture (1989, editor), and Urban Life in Kingston,
Jamaica (1984). Her current project examines processes of change among the
Western Arrernte of Central Australia. Dr. Austin-Broos is a fellow of the
Australian Social Science Academy and a past president of the Australian An-
thropological Society.
Thomas Kingsley Brown is a research associate with Zetetic Associates in

San Diego, California. His research interests include consciousness, neuro-
science, deviance, and intentional communities in North America. He earned
a Ph.D. in anthropology from the University of California at San Diego in
2000, and he holds chemistry degrees from the California Institute of Tech-
nology and the University of Pittsburgh.
233
234 About the Contributors
Andrew Buckser is associate professor of anthropology at Purdue University.

He is the author of After the Rescue: Jewish Identity and Community in Con-
temporary Copenhagen (2003)and Communities of Faith: Sectarianism, Iden-
tity, and Social Change on a Danish Island (1996). His research examines re-
ligious movements, modernity, and identity in contemporary northern Europe.
Simon Coleman is reader in anthropology and deputy dean for social sci-
ences and health at the University of Durham. His research interests include
the study of charismatic Christianity, pilgrimage, religious art, ritual, and
globalization. He is the author of many books and articles on the anthropol-
ogy of religion, including Pilgrim Voices: Narrative and Authorship in Chris-
tian Pilgrimage (2003, edited with J. Elsner), The Globalisation of Charis-
matic Christianity: Spreading the Gospel of Prosperity (2000), and
Pilgrimage Past and Present: Sacred Travel and Sacred Space in the World
Religions (1995, with J. Elsner). He has conducted fieldwork in Sweden and
the United Kingdom.
Maria Pia Di Bella specializes in the relation between religion and law at
CNRS-CRALEHESS, Paris. She has written widely on Sicily and Italy, on
themes relating to speech strategies, the body and pain, and religious and le-
gal practices. Her most recent project studied the popular sanctification of ex-
ecuted criminals in Sicily (1541-1820). She is currently preparing a compar-
ative work on capital punishment in Europe and the United States after World
War 11. She was a visitor at the Institute for Advanced Study in 1994 and
2002-2003. Her publications include La Pura veritii: Discarichi di coscienza
intesi dai Bianchi (Palermo 1541-1820) (1999), Vols et Sanctions en Mkditer-
r u d e (1998, editor), and Miracoli e miracolati (1994).
Charles E. Farhadian is assistant professor of religion at Calvin College.

His fieldwork, conducted in Southeast Asia and Oceania, examines the dy-
namics of world religions and comparative missiology. He received his doc-
torate in religious studies from Boston University in 200 1 .
Stephen D. Glazier is professor of anthropology and graduate faculty fellow

at the University of Nebraska, Lincoln. He is author of Marchin’the Pilgrims
Home: A Study of the Spiritual Baptists of Trinidad (1991) and editor of
Caribbean Ethnicity Revisited (1985), Anthropology of Religion: A Handbook
(1999), and The Encyclopedia of African and African American Religions
(2001). Dr. Glazier has served as secretary and vice-president of the Society
for the Anthropology of Religion and is currently president of the Society for
the Anthropology of Consciousness. He studied anthropology at Princeton
and the University of Connecticut where he earned his Ph.D. in 1981.
About the Contributors 235
Roger Ivar Lohmann is assistant professor of anthropology at Trent Uni-

versity. He received his Ph.D. in anthropology from the University of Wis-
consin, Madison, in 2000 and has previously taught at the University of
Wisconsin, the College of Wooster, Western Oregon University, and the Uni-
versity of Toronto. He is the editor of Dream Travelers: Sleep Experiences
and Culture in the Western Pacijic (2003) and “Perspectives on the Category
‘Supernatural,”’ a special issue of Anthropological Forum (2003). He has
conducted ethnographic fieldwork in Papua New Guinea among the Asabano.
His major interests include the cognitive and experiential foundations of reli-
gion, local forms of evidence behind spiritual beliefs and religious change,
and the imagination across all states of consciousness and cultural contexts.
Marcela Mendoza is a senior researcher at the Center for Research on

Women at the University of Memphis, where she is also an affiliate faculty
member in the Department of Anthropology. She was trained as an anthro-
pologist at the University of Buenos Aires and received her doctorate from
the University of Iowa. Dr. Mendoza is the author of Band Mobility and
Leadership among Western Tuba Hunter Gatherers of Gran Chaco in Ar-
gentina (2002). She has also published many articles on hunter-gatherer soci-
eties of the South American Gran Chaco, analyzing subsistence practices, so-
cial organization, and religion. She is the past president of the Mid-South
Association of Professional Anthropologists.
Kalyani Devaki Menon is assistant professor of religion at DePaul Univer-

sity. She received her Ph.D. in anthropology from Syracuse University in
2002. Dr. Menon’s fieldwork has focused on women in the Hindu nationalist
movement in New Delhi. She is currently working on a manuscript that ex-
amines the ways in which these women mobilized support for the movement
in socially, politically, and economically diverse communities. Her research
interests include religious nationalism, gender, cultural memory, postcolonial
and feminist theory, and South Asian politics.
Rebecca Sachs Norris is assistant professor of religious studies at Merri-

mack College. She also teaches a course on Death, Suffering, and Identity at
the Boston University School of Medicine. Her primary interests are embod-
iment and identity in relation to transmission of religious states, and suffer-
ing, spirituality, and identity. She organized the Anthropology of Religion
Consultation of the American Academy of Religion, for which she now serves
as a steering committee member.
Robert J. Priest is associate professor of mission and intercultural studies

and director of the Doctor of Philosophy in Intercultural Studies at Trinity
236 About the Contributors
International University. His degrees include both a Master of Divinity from

Trinity Evangelical Divinity School and a doctorate in anthropology from the
University of California at Berkeley. He has written widely on traditional re-
ligion and conversion to Christianity, based on his fieldwork among the
Aguaruna of Peru. In addition to his academic appointments, Dr. Priest has
served in a variety of church ministries.
Lewis R. Rambo is professor of psychology and religion at San Francisco

Theological Seminary and at the Graduate Theological Union, Berkeley. A
leading authority on religious conversion, he also studies self theory, psy-
chology of religion, cinema studies, and multicultural systems of care and
discipline. Dr. Rambo holds advanced degrees from the University of
Chicago and Yale Divinity School, and has conducted fieldwork in Israel, Ko-
rea, Japan, and the United States. He is the author of Understanding Religious
Conversion ( 1993).
Mary Ann Reidhead is a research associate in anthropology and graduate

student in philosophy at the University of Missouri, St. Louis. Her major re-
search includes ongoing ethnography in Benedictine monasteries and among
Benedictine Oblates, a lay monastic movement, and includes survey research
on spiritual integration. Her publications include both ethnographic articles
about nuns and public-policy papers on spiritual integration. Her current
work compares the impact of the sex abuse scandal in the Catholic Church on
nuns, monks, and diocesan priests.
Van A. Reidhead is associate professor of anthropology and chair of the fac-

ulty senate at the University of Missouri, St. Louis. His fieldwork has in-
cluded extensive studies of monastic orders in the United States as well as ar-
chaeological investigations in Ecuador, the Ohio Valley, and Missouri. He is
the author of A Linear Programming Model of Prehistoric Subsistence Opti-
mization: A Southeastern Indiana Example (198 I), as well as numerous arti-
cles on the anthropology of religion. In 1995, Dr. Reidhead co-founded the
Center for Human Origin and Cultural Diversity; his current projects include
the Holy Trinity Abbey Ethnography Project and the Spiritual Integration
Measurement Project.
Don Seeman is assistant professor of religion and Jewish studies at Emory

University. He was previously lecturer in the Department of Sociology and
Anthropology at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. He has conducted field-
work in Israel and Ethiopia, and is interested in the cultural phenomenology
of religious experience, as well as medical anthropology and Jewish studies.

Anthropology of Conversion PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Anthropology of Conversion PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Anthropology of Conversion PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

What is the main topic of the book?

What is the main topic of the book?

What information is provided about the editors?

What information is provided about the editors?

The Anthropology of

Edited by Andrew Buckser and Stephen D. Glazier

Published in the United States of America

PO Box 317, Oxford, OX2 9RU, UK

Copyright 0 2003 by Andrew Buckser and Stephen D. Glazier

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-PublicationData

Printed in the United States of America

I n November 2000, Professor Morton Klass organized a symposium on the

remained unfinished at his death, including the collection on conversion,

1 The Anthropology of Conversion: An Introduction 1

Part One: Conversion and Social Processes

2 Continuous Conversion? The Rhetoric, Practice, and Rhetorical

3 Agency, Bureaucracy, and Religious Conversion:

4 Converted Innocents and Their Trickster Heroes: The Politics

5 Comparing Conversions among the Dani of Irian Jaya 55

6 Social Conversion and Group Definition in Jewish Copenhagen 69

7 Conversion and Marginality in Southern Italy 85

Part Two: Conceptualizing Conversion: Alternative Perspectives

8 “I Discovered My Sin!”: Aguaruna Evangelical

9 Turning the Belly: Insights on Religious Conversion from

10 Constraint and Freedom in Icelandic Conversions 123

11 Mystical Experiences, American Culture, and Conversion

Part Three: Conversion and Individual Experience

12 “Limin’ wid Jah”: Spiritual Baptists Who Become Rastafarians

13 Converting to What? Embodied Culture and the Adoption of

14 From Jehovah’s Witness to Benedictine Nun: The Roles of

15 Converted Christians, Shamans, and the House of God:

16 Anthropology and the Study of Conversion 211

Religious conversion poses a powerful challenge to anthropological theories

central focus of sociology. Sociological studies examined processes of indi-

The volume begins with a general introduction to the anthropological study

Conversion, therefore, is not a matter of rethinking the nature of reality, but of

This volume originated in two symposia on the anthropology of religious

Diane Austin- Broos

Recent years have seen a resurgence in the study of conversion as anthro-

CONVERSION AND HISTORICAL DYNAMICS

Ethiopian Haile Selassie as the returned Christian savior. A variety of New

CONVERSION, MEANING, AND PRACTICE

Buddhism, and the charismatic Christian swoon, often rendered as “dancing

A major theme in this collection is that conversion is continuing and prac-

Conversion,” was sponsored by the Society for the Anthropology of Con-

1 . My reference here is to Weber’s “world religions,’’ including Judaism, Islam,

sonal experience in canonical language and recreating that experience in the

“Conversion” is a fuzzy term. At times, it is tempting to follow the Co-

anthropological emphases on economic, cultural, and political contexts that

CONVERSION AS A QUALITY OF ACTION

Let me start my description of Word of Life practices with an ethnographic

tongues by the preacher- it is clearly the internally orientated ritual that

self-descriptions that talk more of a “deepening” of faith (cf. Stai 1993),

To give an example of how these meanings can be realized and interpreted

Life strategies do provide conservative Protestant appropriations of increas-

Ammerman, N. Bible Believers: Fundamentalists in the Modern World. New

Purity of heart is to will one thing.