Airways Source Book - Screen PDF

4.
1031/Z/99-158
Source book for efficient

air duct systems in
Europe
AIRWAYS
T. Malmstrom
J. Andersson
F.R. Carrié
P. Wouters
Ch. Delmotte
FOREWORD
This document was written within the framework of • Belgian Building Research Institute
the European AIRWAYS project (Save II program - Division of Building Physics and Indoor Climate
Project 4.1031/Z/99-158 – DG TREN). Representatives for this project :
Peter Wouters and Christophe Delmotte
SAVE is the European Union non-technology energy Boulevard Poincaré 79
efficiency programme. B-1060 Brussels
One of the goals of this programme is the Belgium
implementation and completion of Community-wide Tel : +32 2 655 77 11
measures taken to improve energy efficiency in the Fax : +32 2 653 07 29
domain of buildings. E-mail : [email protected]
Website : http://www.bbri.be/
The objective of the AIRWAYS project is to provide
guidance for designing and maintain energy efficient • Ecole Nationale des Travaux Publics de l'Etat
air duct systems, and bringing to light energy saving (ENTPE)
opportunities in parallel to health, safety, and comfort Département Génie Civil et Bâtiment - URA
issues. CNRS 1652
Representative for this project :
This book is targeted at decision-makers concerned François Rémi Carrié
with indoor climate issues, including policy makers, Rue Maurice Audin 2
architects, and designers. It provides condensed F-69518 Vaulx-en-Velin
information on reasons behind better air duct system France
design and how this can be achieved. Tel : +33 4 72047261
Fax : +33 4 72047041
The participants in the research (also called the E-mail : [email protected]
AIRWAYS Partners) are: Website : http://www.entpe.fr
• Royal Institute of Technology, KTH • Scandiaconsult

Project coordinator Representative for this project :
Representatives for this project : Johnny Andersson
Tor Malmstrom and Torbjörn Erikson Kapellgränd 7
Brinellvägen 34 P.O. Box 4205
S-10044 Stockholm S-10265 Stockholm
Sweden Sweden
Tel : +46 8 790 7836 Tel : +46 8 615 62 15
Fax : +46 8 411 84 32 Fax : +46 8 702 19 25
E-mail : [email protected] E-mail : [email protected]
Website : http://www.kth.se/index-eng.html Website : http://www.scc.se
More information on AIRWAYS partners !
© Copyright 2002 AIRWAYS Partners
1
Source book for energy efficient air duct systems in Europe
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The AIRWAYS project was funded in part by the

European Commission within the framework of the Industrial support
Save II Programme (Project 4.1031/Z/99-158). • Bergschenhoek B.V. - The Netherlands "
The authors wish to thank the following organizations

for their financial support to the AIRWAYS project: Governmental support
• Swedish National Energy Administration,
Airways partners support Eskilstuna, Sweden
• Belgian Building Research Institute "
Belgium
Thanks are also due to the external organisations that
• Ecole Nationale des Travaux Publics de l’Etat - provided pictures to illustrate the present book:
France "
• ABB "
• Royal Institute of Technology • Aldes "
Sweden " • Bergschenhoek BV "
• Lindab "
• Scandiaconsult – Sweden "
! Link to an other document
" Link to an external website
2
Source book for efficient air duct systems in Europe
HOW SHOULD THIS BOOK AND THE ENCLOSED CD-ROM BE USED
This book presents a global approach to the design of with a pointing finger (A plus sign appears on the hand
efficient air duct systems and is available in both a if the link points to an external web site). Then click
printed version and an electronic version on CD-ROM. the link.
The technical note on ductwork for ventilation systems, After you have paged through documents or used
produced in the name of the Airways project, is not navigational structures to move through documents,
available in a printed version but is available on CD- you can retrace your path back to where you started.
ROM. ! [Ref 6]
To retrace your path within a PDF document, click the
Check lists for important design issues are available in Go To Previous View button in the command bar, or
printed form in the book and also available in printable choose Document > Go Back for each step back.
form on the CD-ROM. They are intended to be used in
the practical design of ventilation systems. To retrace your viewing path through other PDF
documents, choose Document > Go Back Doc for each
The documents on the CD-ROM have been recorded in step back. Or hold down Shift, and click the Go To
PDF-format. You need Adobe® Acrobat® Reader Previous View button.
(version 4.0 or later) to be able to read the PDF files.
When you follow a link to another PDF document, it
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major computer platforms, as well as fill in and submit according to your preferences.
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The electronic version of this document available on through the documents.
the CD-Rom is provided with active links (represented
Use the Select Indexes command (Edit > Search >
by small blue icons !) to the other documents in order
Select Indexes) to select the Airways index.
to open them.
You can also make a search using the Document Info
Most of the numbered references (table of content,
(title, author, keywords). If the With Document Info
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3
Source book for energy efficient air duct systems in Europe
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD .........................................................................................................................................................................1
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .......................................................................................................................................................2
HOW SHOULD THIS BOOK AND THE ENCLOSED CD-ROM BE USED .........................................................................3
TABLE OF CONTENTS........................................................................................................................................................4
1 INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................................................................6
1.1 Why is it important to design a well-functioning ductwork? ....................................................................................6
1.2 Thermal comfort – no draught.................................................................................................................................7
1.3 Low energy use.......................................................................................................................................................7
1.4 Avoid noise transmission through the ductwork......................................................................................................8
1.5 Do the ducts have to be hidden? ............................................................................................................................8
1.6 Fire hazard and ductwork .......................................................................................................................................8
1.7 How are the duct designers, and other participants, working with duct design and requirements today? .............8
1.8 Highlights of the book..............................................................................................................................................9
2 AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS ................................................................................................................................10
2.1 Ventilation principles .............................................................................................................................................10
2.2 Main ductwork components ..................................................................................................................................12
3 WHY SHOULD YOU CAREFULLY DESIGN A DUCTWORK SYSTEM ?...............................................................15
3.1 Why bother?..........................................................................................................................................................15
3.2 Duct design should be based on co-operation......................................................................................................15
3.3 Airflow and laws of nature .....................................................................................................................................15
3.4 Keep the system healthy.......................................................................................................................................16
4 SAVING ENERGY IN DUCT SYSTEMS ...................................................................................................................17
4.1 Lay-out ..................................................................................................................................................................17
4.2 Ductwork airtightness............................................................................................................................................17
4.3 Insulation...............................................................................................................................................................17
4.4 Low pressure drops...............................................................................................................................................19
4.5 Energy-efficient fans and reduced system effect ..................................................................................................19
4.6 Control of airflows, temperature, and humidity .....................................................................................................19
4.7 Coil fouling ............................................................................................................................................................19
4.8 Heat recovery........................................................................................................................................................19
5 STIMULATING GOOD QUALITY DUCTWORK IN EUROPE ..................................................................................20
5.1 What is good quality ductwork? ............................................................................................................................20
5.2 Possible schemes for stimulating quality ..............................................................................................................20
5.3 Practical examples ................................................................................................................................................21
6 DOES IT COST MORE TO DESIGN, INSTALL AND USE BETTER DUCTWORK? ..............................................23
6.1 Cost components ..................................................................................................................................................23
6.2 Global understanding of potential cost savings ....................................................................................................23
6.3 An interesting approach through Life Cycle Costing.............................................................................................23
6.4 What are the barriers to design, install, and use better ductwork ?......................................................................25
6.5 What are the benefits to design, install, and use better ductwork ? .....................................................................25
4
6.6 In summary ...........................................................................................................................................................25
7 FUNDAMENTALS OF DUCT DESIGN .....................................................................................................................26
7.1 Lay out ..................................................................................................................................................................26
7.2 Cost – economical aspects ...................................................................................................................................29
7.3 Duct Air Flow.........................................................................................................................................................31
7.4 Hygiene .................................................................................................................................................................37
7.5 Insulation...............................................................................................................................................................41
7.6 Fire ........................................................................................................................................................................43
7.7 Strength.................................................................................................................................................................44
7.8 Acoustics...............................................................................................................................................................45
7.9 Energy use ............................................................................................................................................................47
7.10 Airtightness ...........................................................................................................................................................49
8 CIRCULAR VERSUS RECTANGULAR DUCTS ......................................................................................................52
8.1 Space demand for ductwork .................................................................................................................................52
8.2 Costs .....................................................................................................................................................................53
9 MANUFACTURE AND INSTALLATION...................................................................................................................55
9.1 Manufacture of ducts............................................................................................................................................55
9.2 Installation of ducts ...............................................................................................................................................57
10 TESTING, ADJUSTING AND BALANCING (TAB) ..................................................................................................61
10.1 Quality control .......................................................................................................................................................61
10.2 As-built drawings...................................................................................................................................................61
10.3 Cleanliness control................................................................................................................................................61
10.4 Airflow balancing ...................................................................................................................................................61
10.5 Tightness control...................................................................................................................................................65
11 MAINTENANCE ........................................................................................................................................................66
11.1 Maintenance – why? .............................................................................................................................................66
11.2 Maintenance – how? .............................................................................................................................................69
11.3 Ductwork cleaning.................................................................................................................................................70
12 SOME PRACTICAL EXAMPLES (CASE STUDIES)................................................................................................72
12.1 The Royal Swedish Music Academy, Stockholm..................................................................................................72
12.2 ’The First High Rise Building’, Sergel, Stockholm.................................................................................................74
12.3 Large office building in Stockholm ........................................................................................................................75
12.4 office BUILDING in Gotenburg..............................................................................................................................75
12.5 A selection of the worst .........................................................................................................................................76
13 CHECK LISTS FOR DUCT DESIGN ........................................................................................................................78
13.1 Why do we need checklists ?................................................................................................................................78
13.2 How to use the checklists ? ..................................................................................................................................79
13.3 Building phases.....................................................................................................................................................81
13.4 Specific requirements............................................................................................................................................84
14 ANNEX ......................................................................................................................................................................93
14.1 Handbooks, Bibliographies ...................................................................................................................................93
14.2 Standards, Recommendations, Guidelines...........................................................................................................93
14.3 Quantities and units ..............................................................................................................................................95
5
1 INTRODUCTION
One aim of this source book is to increase HVAC normally based on an assumed emission of CO2 and
designer awareness of the important role the ductwork moisture from occupants, dust and gases emitted from
plays with respect to function, costs and energy use of furnishings, furniture, interior surfaces and activities.
the HVAC system. Another aim is to point out the In this case the airflow is needed to dilute the
connection and co-operation that is necessary between emissions and transport them out of the room.
the HVAC designer and the architect when working
with building design and space requirements. To The other main reason why transporting air to and from
illustrate how this can be done the book provides case a room might be needed is to control the thermal
studies demonstrating good examples and, in a few climate. In this case transporting heat to or from the
cases, less fortunate examples (§ 12). room with the air controls the room temperature. If the
room needs to be cooled, the excess heat will be
carried out of the room by supplying air at a lower
1.1 WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO DESIGN A temperature than the desired room temperature. If the
WELL-FUNCTIONING DUCTWORK? room needs to be heated this will be done by supplying
air at a higher temperature than the desired room
1.1.1 General temperature.
This chapter describes some of the philosophies behind In both cases - air quality or thermal climate - the
the design of a ventilation system, the ways to decide airflow is calculated to correspond to the assumed
upon correct airflow and the importance of loads of emissions or, similarly, to the heat/cold load.
guaranteeing that the air really will be of use. The A given heat/cold load and a suitable temperature
ductwork thereby plays a most important role in difference between the supply and the room
safeguarding air quality, good thermal climate and temperatures will correspond to a required airflow. A
occupant wellbeing. given or calculated emission load and an acceptable
emission level increase between the supply and the
As soon as a ventilation system is connected to more room concentration levels will similarly also
than one room, there is a need for a distribution system correspond to a required airflow.
– a ductwork – to connect the different rooms to air-
handling units and extract fans. The airflow that is It is therefore vital that the correct airflow is
decided suitable for ventilation and thermal comfort transported to and from the rooms accordingly. To be
reasons has to be transported to and from the rooms. efficient, the air should neither be allowed to leave the
The air distribution to and from the rooms – the supply supply duct nor be allowed to enter the extract ducts
and extract air flows – has to be adjusted to the correct through leakage openings. It is hence important that the
values by achieving correct pressure drops through the airflow is adjusted to the correct values before the plant
pressure resistance in ducts, dampers, registers, air is taken into operation.
terminal devices, and other ductwork components.
The ways of adjusting the airflow and the different
As described in this book there are many ways methods to measure airflow in ducts and at registers
whereby a duct system will function in a less efficient with an acceptable amount of accuracy is also
way. The air flow distribution might differ due to described in this book (§ 10.4).
influence from wind and outdoor temperature (§ 3.3),
air may leak into and out of the ducts through small
1.1.3 Air quality – emissions should be
holes (§ 4.2), high air velocities might create unwanted
diluted and safely transported from the
noise (§ 7.8), dust and other impurities in the duct
rooms
system might cause health problems unless dealt with
(§ 7.4). These and other factors should be taken into “Dilution is not the only solution to pollution” 1. This
consideration during design, installation and means that the first way to reduce high and unhealthy
maintenance of the duct system and the following pollution levels in rooms should be by reducing the
chapters will show how this can be done in order to strength of the emissions sources – by choosing low
achieve an efficient and well functioning duct system emitting materials and components wherever possible.
at a low investment and low life cycle cost. There are many national and international research
programs in operation for labelling building and
1.1.2 The air should be transported to the interior materials. These take the emission to the room
areas in the building where it is most air during normal operation into consideration.
needed
Air transport is often necessary for maintaining good 1
This good rule was defined at the first international
air quality in a room. The ventilation calculation is thus conference on Healthy Buildings (Stockholm 1988).
6
Today’s’ knowledge on this still lacks maturity. might be more difficult to design than a mixing
However, in time, this approach might be used to ventilation system.
calculate airflow rates based on IAQ demands. Hereby
the cost for higher ventilation airflow could be The ultimate goal for the design of a ventilation and air
compared to the initial, operating, and Life Cycle cost handling system is to satisfy the needs and wishes of
of less emitting furnishings and finishing materials the occupants without creating any inconveniences like
draught or noise. It stands to reason but is not always
If the emissions are due to activities in a room it is the case; this book points out some of the problems that
important to prevent the hazardous or disagreeable should be examined – before they become problems!
pollutants from being inhaled by the occupants. The air
has thus to be supplied to and extracted from the rooms
with this in mind. The air should be supplied to the part 1.3 LOW ENERGY USE
or the room where occupants are to be found while the The energy use of a ventilation system should be
air should be extracted from that part of the room reduced as much as possible without decreasing the
where the highest concentration of pollutants can be benefits of the system regarding thermal comfort and
expected (e.g. at the kitchen stove, above polluting indoor air quality. The annual energy needed for
machines). This safety in preventing hazardous transporting the ventilation air through the system is
pollutants to enter breathing zones can be still proportional to the fan power and the number of
increased if the source of pollution is enclosed to a operation hours per year.
high degree only leaving small openings for the extract
air to enter. The under-pressure in the enclosure or Both these values can be influenced. The fan power is
hood compared to the ambient pressure in the room proportional to the airflow and the total pressure
makes it hard for the pollutants to enter the room. difference through the system and inversely
There are many articles and handbooks covering this proportional to the efficiency of the fan with its motor.
item. One common principle is that the design of the
hood should take into account the laws of nature. If the Normally the pressure drop in the system is roughly
emitted pollutant is warmer than the room temperature, equally distributed between the air handling unit and
the hood (e.g. a kitchen hood) should be located above the duct system. How the latter is calculated is
the pollution source to be able to take care of the described more in detail below (§ 7.3), where it is
upward air movement. If the pollutant (e.g. particles shown that the pressure drop increases with the square
emitted from a grinding machine) is released with a of the air velocity. By keeping low air velocities in the
velocity the hood should mainly be covering the area in ducts, i.e. choosing ductwork with ample dimensions,
the direction of the pollution flow. A commonly used the energy can thus be reduced which, if the annual
metaphor is the goalkeeper’s glove – to catch the ball number of operation hours is high, will lead to
where it arrives. substantial energy savings. Another advantage of low
air velocities in the ductwork is that the risk of emitting
noise from the ductwork is diminished.
1.2 THERMAL COMFORT – NO DRAUGHT
Ventilation air is used as an aid to creating a better Often the supply air is heated or cooled before being
thermal indoor climate by transporting excess, or lack supplied to the room. If the ducts are properly
of, heat and moisture out of or to the room insulated, the temperature difference will be kept
respectively. But this advantage is often reduced by between the air in the duct and the cooler or hotter
simultaneous disadvantages from the same air. It might surroundings of the ductwork. This will reduce the
create disagreeable fast air movements in the room. In need for any extra thermal energy input in the air
wintertime a person is more sensitive to draught than in handling units to cover thermal losses.
summer. In winter the acceptable air velocity is
normally below 0.15 m/s while in summer – when the In both these cases – i.e. reducing the transport energy
air movement is often longed-for and agreeable due to by sizing the ductwork and reducing the thermal losses
the higher room temperature - the maximum air by insulating the ductwork – the investment cost will
velocity is normally 0.25 m/s. be higher than the one for a poorer installation.
This influences the choice of ventilation system. The As the ducts probably will be used for many years
air is supplied to the room via supply air registers that these possible energy and cost savings vs. the extra
have to be chosen in such a way that the corresponding investments should be considered on a Life Cycle
air velocity in the occupied zone is acceptable. This Basis – discussed below (§ 6.3).
determines the size and number of the registers and the
distance between them and to the occupants.
Displacement ventilation systems, where the supply air
is delivered at a lower temperature and at floor level
7
1.4 AVOID NOISE TRANSMISSION insulated in such a way and to such a degree that the
THROUGH THE DUCTWORK heat from a fire on one side of the wall will not be able
Ducts are normally connected to adjacent rooms which to set fire to anything on the other side. Tightening the
might create an unnecessary path for noise to be space between the outside of the duct and the wall
transmitted between them. During normal operation opening fulfils the tightness requirement, “E”. Both
when the fans are running this is not normally a these requirements, for E and I, are combined with a
problem but should they be stopped e.g. after normal figure expressed in minutes during which the
office hours, conversation in one room might be construction has to withstand the effect of a standard
overheard in the other. In cases where there are more fire as defined in international standard. A normal
strict requirements on privacy between rooms, the requirement for walls in office buildings is fire class
ducts have to be designed and installed in a way that “EI 60”.
corresponds to the chosen sound insulation of the
adjacent wall. One of the case studies presented in this But there is yet another demand – the ducts on both
book (§12) shows how this can be done in a building sides of the fire wall have to stay in place during the
with very high demands on privacy between rooms. fire. The duct hangers thus also have to withstand the
strain from a fire during the same time required for the
duct itself. This mechanical strength demand during
1.5 DO THE DUCTS HAVE TO BE HIDDEN? fire is expressed in international standard as an “R”-
demand and should thus for the office building above
There is a trend among some architects today to let part
be expressed as “R 60” for the duct hangers.
of the building installations be visual to the user. They
regard that the installations are necessary for the
There are different ways of arriving to a safe solution.
function of the building and not something that has to
The ducts may be fire insulated on both sides of the
be hidden. One of the case studies in this book (§ 12)
wall or the duct could be connected to the wall opening
could be seen as an example of this trend. The brightly
via a fire damper tested to fulfil e.g. “EI 60” as in the
coloured circular ducts are running up through atria in
example given above. The fire dampers are normally
the office building. On the different floor levels, the
officially tested and provided with certificate showing
ducts are also visible and not hidden above false
that they close tightly and withstand the heat during the
ceilings which is normally the case in office buildings.
time required. The fire damper can however only
provide safety if it works properly and closes when the
Besides resulting in lower building costs, this
fire starts. Therefore some countries require that fire
normally also presents an advantage for the thermal
dampers are regularly tested and that this requirement
climate in the building. The lack of false ceilings
is stated in the operation manuals of the installations.
results in a larger ventilated room volume. The extra
The fire dampers normally used today thus have to be
space thus created at the ceiling, where the emissions
equipped with damper motors used to open the damper
are normally at a higher concentration, results in a
after the test.
better use of the ventilation airflow. The direct contact
between the ventilation air and the bare concrete
Sometimes the chosen solution is a combination of
ceiling also enhances the possibility to use cool night
these alternative ways - duct insulation and fire damper
air for comfort cooling of the building.
– providing an alternative as safe as the wall itself.
This visual installation of ductwork in e.g. office
buildings is however only acceptable if the
1.7 HOW ARE THE DUCT DESIGNERS, AND
workmanship of the installation is of a high standard
OTHER PARTICIPANTS, WORKING
and should otherwise be avoided.
WITH DUCT DESIGN AND
REQUIREMENTS TODAY?
1.6 FIRE HAZARD AND DUCTWORK Designers of HVAC systems, installers, contractors
and building owners in different European countries
The ductwork could present a fire hazard in a building
have been interviewed or asked to answer enquiries
when the ducts run through fire classed walls. There
sent out to provide a background on what tools and
are different building code requirements in different
facilities are used. They were also questioned on what
countries but they all have one thing in common – the
the quality requirements on ductwork are and how they
duct penetrating the wall must not lead to a reduction
are expressed and controlled [Ref 1] !.
in the fire safety of the building. The technical solution
chosen should thus be compared to the case of the wall The evaluation of this material shows that there is a
without any penetrating duct.
certain difference between the way technicians in
Even though the national requirements differ, there are
northern and southern Europe use ductwork. The
mainly two different demands required for fire safety
former seem to be more accustomed to using circular
in this case, namely fire insulation “I” and tightness or
ducts as a standard solution whenever suitable while
“integrity”, ”E”. The first requirement, “I”, is covered
technicians in southern Europe use more rectangular
if duct penetration through the wall is thermally
8
ductwork. The differences in working with these two tightness characteristics, and maintenance
types of ductwork are discussed in different following requirements.
chapters in this source book (§ 8). A third lesser used • Chapter 8 compares space requirements and costs
alternative, the flat-oval ducts, does not seem to be of for circular and rectangular ducts.
common use by interviewees and are not available on • Chapter 9 describes duct manufacture and
the market in most of the countries. installation.
• Chapter 10 describes how the quality of the system
The answers mainly show that ductwork in many is controlled before being put into operation.
countries is considered as an important part of the • Chapter 11 points at the importance of maintaining
building installations and that this part of the design the duct systems during its lifetime.
work is done meticulously. This is gratifying as the • Chapter 12 presents several practical examples and
ductwork normally accounts for about half of the case studies of duct installations, good and bad.
installation costs of the HVAC plant. • Chapter 13 comprises a large number of ductwork
checklists that can be used by those concerned
The ductwork is also indirectly involved to a large from the programming phase to operation and
degree in the life cycle costs if not designed in a proper maintenance.
way. These questions are dealt with in several of the
• Chapter 14 includes references to literature and
following chapters in this source book (§ 6.3).
relevant duct standards.
In some countries, e.g. in Sweden with its half century
old “AMA-system”, which is described in § 5.3.4,
quality requirements for duct installations have been
specified for many years. These demands are normally
stated in building specifications, expressed in
controllable units and controlled by testing before the
contractor is released from his commitments.
In other countries the awareness is not as clearly

expressed. Ductwork tightness requirements of
ductwork are. neither expressed in building
specifications nor tested before the building is taken
into operation. These different philosophies and
different methods were also found in an earlier EU
SAVE-project “Improving ductwork – A time for
tighter air distribution systems” [Ref 2] where
ductwork in Sweden was found to be about 25-50
times tighter than ductwork used in Belgium and
France (§ 7.10.6 ).
1.8 HIGHLIGHTS OF THE BOOK

The present sourcebook comprises the following main
content:
• Chapter 2 gives an overview of different

ventilation principles and components used in such
systems.
• Chapter 3 explains some reasons why and how a
ductwork system should be carefully designed.
• Chapter 4 describes how less energy can be used
in the duct system.
• Chapter 5 gives examples on how better ductwork
can be introduced in Europe.
• Chapter 6 discusses the cost elements and whether
a better ductwork really costs more than one of
lower quality.
• Chapter 7 shows different ways of integrating a
duct system into the building, how to reduce noise
transmission and fire hazards, system flow and
9
2 AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
An air distribution system generally consists of a

network of ducts, wall cavities, or plenums whose key
role is to provide clean air (sometimes at required
specific thermodynamic conditions) to rooms so as to
dilute or extract pollutants and/or to condition spaces.
Note that ducts are not always necessary to distribute
the air in a building; however, they are often the most
flexible and practical option.
2.1 VENTILATION PRINCIPLES Figure 2. Schematic representation of E system. The

There are 4 major types of air distribution systems: air comes naturally into the building through cracks,
• Natural (N) (self draft) systems (also called slots, trickle ventilators, or other devices, and is
“Natural ventilation”) mechanically driven out through a central exhaust
• Natural supply and mechanical extract (E) systems duct system.
(also called “Fan assisted exhaust ventilation”)
• Mechanical supply and natural extract (S) systems
(also called “Fan assisted supply ventilation”)
• Mechanical supply and extract (SE) systems2 (also +
-
called “Fan assisted balanced ventilation”)
Among those types, it is customary to distinguish

between constant airflow (CAV) systems and variable
airflow (VAV) systems. A final distinction is usually
made between systems whose function is solely to
provide fresh air to the rooms (ventilation only), and
those whose ventilation function is combined with heat Figure 3. Schematic representation of balanced SE
recovery, heating or cooling, humidifying and/or de- system. The air is mechanically supplied and
humidifying the air (also called HVAC systems). extracted through two separate ducted systems. The
air handling unit includes a heat recovery unit to
The term “VAV” is often associated with air transfer the energy of the outgoing air stream to the
conditioning systems where the load provided to a incoming air stream.
room is controlled with the airflow rate, while the term
“DCV” (Demand-Controlled Ventilation) denotes Table 1 summarises the advantages as well as the
systems where the fresh air delivered to a space is critical issues that have to be dealt with for the major
controlled based on air quality demands (e.g., presence types of air distribution systems.
or CO2 concentration). As regards the most frequently-used ducted systems in
new construction, the European Union can roughly be
divided in the three major zones described in Table 2.
Hybrid ventilation systems are another type of

ventilation system that have gained increased attention
over the past few years, especially in the framework of
IEA Annex 35 (1998-2002) [Ref 14]. These systems
combine natural and mechanical ventilation principles.
Figure 1. Schematic representation of a typical Hybrid ventilation is defined as a “two-mode system
natural stack ventilation system. In this figure, the air which is controlled to minimise energy use while
comes naturally into the building through cracks, maintaining acceptable indoor air quality and thermal
slots, trickle ventilators, or other devices, and exits comfort. The two modes refer to natural and
naturally through vertical ducts. The air motion is mechanical driving forces.” Nowadays, hybrid
due to temperature differences or wind or both. ventilation is implemented mostly in a few low-energy
prototype buildings.
2
This category is sometimes divided into balanced
systems with both supply and extract fans and re-
circulation systems with only one fan. Balanced
systems almost always incorporate heat recovery.
10
Advantages Critical issues Typical applications Cost/energy issues
• No fan energy • Very difficult to • Dwellings • Low initial cost
• No fan noise control air • Low-energy • No fan energy use, but
• Low space demand distribution prototype buildings heating/cooling energy
although the ducts • Very difficult to cannot be recovered
must be large to maintain ventilation from extract air streams
Natural
minimise pressure flow rates

drop • Normally no filtration
of incoming air
• Normally no heat
recovery possible
• Noise transmission
through openings
• Moderate space • Difficult to control air • Dwellings • Moderate initial cost
demand distribution • Fan energy use to be
Natural supply and
mechanical extract
• Pollution control at • Increased infiltration considered

the source • Noise transmission • Recovery of
• Possible heat through openings heating/cooling energy
recovery for other • Normally no filtration from extract air streams
purposes than air of incoming air rarely implemented
heating (rarely
implemented)
• Moderate space • Difficult to control air • Clean rooms (the • Moderate initial cost
demand distribution rooms are • Fan energy use to be
Mechanical supply and natural
• No contamination • Increased exfiltration pressurised to avoid considered

from outside • Pressurised building entry of polluted air) • Not possible to recover
• Possible to combine can create moisture • Urban ventilation heating/cooling energy
with air treatment problems in outside
extract
(but no heat recovery walls

or recycling implies • Not possible to
large energy use) include heat recovery
• Noise transmission
through openings
• Supply ducts should
be clean.
• Possible to control • Balanced systems • Dwellings (in • High initial cost
airflows in rooms need at least two fans, extreme climatic • Fan energy use is very
Mechanical supply and
• Possible to combine which implies greater regions) significant

with air treatment fan energy use • Offices and • Reduced
• Possible to include • Noise to be prevented commercial heating/cooling energy
extract
heat recovery units • Space demand (more buildings use due to heat recovery
ducting)
• Increased
maintenance
• Supply ducts should
be clean
Table 1. Overview of major ventilation system types. The table contents apply to most systems. Note, however, that
there may be exceptions.
Northen Balanced mechanical ventilation with

regions heat recovery (SE); air heating and/or
cooling with heat recovery (SE)
Middle Mechanical exhaust ventilation (E); air
regions heating or cooling (SE)
Southern Air conditioning (commercial buildings)
regions (SE)
Table 2. Frequently-used ducted systems in Europe
11
2.2 MAIN DUCTWORK COMPONENTS
2.2.1 Straight rigid ducts

They are made of:
• Metal (galvanised sheet metal, stainless steel, hot-
rolled (and painted) steel, aluminium, or sheet
metal with aluminium-zinc coating); or
• Synthetic material (PVC, polyamide, etc.).
Their cross-section is circular, rectangular, or “flat-

oval”. Their interior surface is in general smooth.
Figure 7: Tee junction.
2.2.4 Reducers
They allow a change in duct size and/or form.
Figure 4. Straight rigid spirally-wound duct.
2.2.2 Flexible ducts

These ducts can be shaped by hand. They are made of:
• Synthetic material (PVC, polyamide, etc.) wrapped
around a metal spiral coil; or
• Metal (stainless steel or aluminium).
Their cross-section is circular. Their interior surface is

in general either rough or bumpy (e.g., if the material is
wrapped around a metal coil). Although widely used Figure 8. Circular reducer.
mainly because they seem easier to install, these ducts
generate much higher pressure drops than rigid ducts.
2.2.5 Support systems
These include hangers and supports that ensure the
mechanical stability of the ductwork.
Figure 5. Insulated flexible duct with external vapour

barrier.
2.2.3 Bends and branches

These components allow a change in flow direction.
Figure 9 : Hanger.
2.2.6 Smoke / fire dampers

These are meant to avoid the spread of smoke or fire
Figure 6: Pressed bend (left). Segmented bend (right). through the ductwork.
12
2.2.9 Silencers
These components limit the noise transmission through
the ductwork. Most of them are made of ventilation
duct shell in an inner casing of perforated steel plate.
The void between the shell and the plate is filled with
mineral wool, leaving a free section bounded by the
perforated plate for air passage.
Figure 10 : Fire damper for circular ducting.
2.2.7 Turning vanes

These are used to guide the air through rectangular
bends so as to avoid flow disturbances within and
downstream of the bends as well to as to reduce
pressure drop through these components.
Figure 13 : Silencer
a
2.2.10 Inspection or service access doors /
openings
These include openings or doors, at the air handling
a/3 unit (AHU) for inspection and servicing/replacement of
parts (e.g., filter change), or in the ductwork itself to
inspect and clean the installation.
Figure 11 : Schematic representation of turning vane

Often only one vane is used in the elbow. It should
then be installed as shown in the drawing. At higher air
velocity, above ca. 6 m/s, the vane could produce
disturbing noise.
2.2.8 Regulating dampers

These are manually set or dynamically controlled flow
resistances that permit changing the airflow rate.
Figure 14: Bend with separate outlet for cleaning.
2.2.11 Filters
In an air distribution system, they are usually made of
multiple layers of porous or fibrous material where
gaseous and particulate pollutants deposit as polluted
air flows through them.
Figure 12 : Single-blade regulating damper. The
blade angle can be manually adjusted or controlled
with a motor.
13
2.2.13 Air terminal devices
They are the final link between the duct system and the
environment where the air is supplied or extracted.
Figure 15 : Air handling unit for an SE system. The

AHU includes two fans for the supply and extraction
air streams and a heat recovery device including
filters to avoid the fouling of the coils and the
ductwork.
2.2.12 Plenum boxes Figure 17. Rectangular supply air terminal device.
These are usually large cavities either:
• at the interface between a ductwork and one or
many air terminal devices; or 2.2.14 Insulation
• at the interface between the air handling unit and Insulation may be used:
the ductwork. • to avoid energy losses, especially with air heating
or cooling systems or ventilation systems with heat
Besides a simple branching interface, they can serve or recovery;
can include numerous functions such as: • to prevent the spread of fire;
• velocity and pressure profiles flattening at an air • to prevent the transmission of noise through the
terminal device; ductwork;
• airflow and pressure measurement and control at and for any combination of these reasons.
an air terminal device;
• noise attenuation. It is usually made of mineral wool or fibreglass
wrapped around or lined inside the duct3 (see also
§ 7.5). A vapour barrier may be applied to avoid
condensation problems.
Figure 18. Straight double-cased insulated duct.
Figure 16. Plenum box connected to an air terminal

device. Includes a regulating damper and acoustical
cladding.
3
Exposed fibreglass may be detrimental to indoor air
quality. Note also that air infiltration through the
insulation lined inside a duct affects its thermal
performance.
14
3 WHY SHOULD YOU CAREFULLY DESIGN A DUCTWORK SYSTEM ?
3.1 WHY BOTHER?

A first question that arises is of course – is it 3.2 DUCT DESIGN SHOULD BE BASED ON
worthwhile to invest efforts in both time and money in CO-OPERATION
ductwork design? Our answer is “yes, it is”! The The design of the duct systems has to be done in close
ductwork will normally be used for a long time to co-operation with the architect of the building. Starting
come. Regarded as a long time investment even small this collaboration at an early stage in the building
improvements of the design and the installation quality design phase could result in solutions that are of
will result in an interesting payback of the investment. positive value for both parties.
Another aspect that is discussed in this book (§4) is the
energy use of the duct system and how it can be Some of the case studies (§12) show examples in how
influenced by the choice of air velocities in the duct the ductwork has even been used as an integrated part
system and the layout and extension of the system. of the interior design of the rooms. False ceilings might
Normally the total energy use of the air-handling be needed for acoustical reasons, to reduce the
system is of the same magnitude for the two main reverberation time, but are perhaps not as necessary if
parts, the air-handling units and the duct systems for air their only function is to hide the ductwork and other
supply and extraction. building installations. In this case the money saved on
not installing any false ceilings could instead partly be
Another aspect that has to be considered is the used for an improved (and perhaps painted) ductwork.
acoustical role the ductwork plays both as noise
silencer, as noise producer and as noise transmitter Good design and excellent workmanship during
between two rooms. installation can thus result in ductwork installations
that can be left visible as an ocular demonstration of
the role they play in the function of the building. But –
this can only be accepted if the appearance of the ducts
is good enough. If that is not the case, it is better to put
them out of sight.
Figure 19 Noise transmitted between two rooms via

the ductwork.
Here only careful design and use of common sense will
result in an acceptable solution. The duct system being
part of an installation that probably aims at providing
the building users with a good thermal climate and
good air quality should not be considered as a nuisance
due to noise produced while doing so. Many
Figure 20 You don’t always have to hide the ducts.
individuals look forward to the time after office hours
Here false ceiling (seen to the left) has only been used
when the ventilation systems are stopped and silence is
where needed for acoustical reasons.
back. This dissatisfaction with a noisy ventilation
system is something that should be avoided. The
efforts made at system design stage should be of equal 3.3 AIRFLOW AND LAWS OF NATURE
proportions in all aspects to ensure the well being of A well-designed duct system will make airflow
occupants. Silence – or lack of noise – is often lacking measuring and adjustment easier – this should always
today and this can lead to stress and discomfort. A be done before occupancy. How the adjustment and
careful and knowledgeable design and installation can measurement is done is described in chapter 10. The
avoid noise problems from arising. One thing should careful design shall also consider the laws of nature:
be kept in mind here – it is easier to deal with this How is the system influenced by wind blowing on the
before the problems have appeared – afterwards it is façade? How is the airflow affected by stack effects in
more difficult, more costly, and more time-consuming wintertime?
to deal with. Once the users have already been
dissatisfied, they are harder to please.
15
3.4 KEEP THE SYSTEM HEALTHY
There is an increasing awareness of the possible risk of
the ducts serving as growing ground for mould. The
best preventive measures against this risk are:
• keeping the ducts dry by
- using the right type of air intake louver
- having low air intake velocity, normally a
velocity below 2.5 m/s will prevent rain drops
and snow flakes from entering with the supply
air
• locating the air intakes where the outside air is as
clean as possible, e.g. high up and towards the
court yard instead of the street
Figure 21 : Wind force on the façades affects the • not having the intake ducts clad with insulation
ventilation material on the inside
• inspecting the inside of the air intake duct
regularly for signs of cleaning need. This requires
that the ducts are provided with inspection lids.
• providing the intake ducts with drain outlets.
There is an increasing demand in many countries to

have the ducts cleaned on the inside to enhance the air
quality of the supply air and reduce one of the risks of
the sick building syndrome (SBS).
The methods for cleaning ducts, and the need for it, are
described in chapter 1. During the design the future
cleaning of the ducts should be simplified by showing
suitable locations for clean-out openings.
Figure 22 : The airflow differs between winter and

summer due to the stack effect
In a high rise building the airflow could otherwise

differ quite considerably between summer and winter,
the air might even go backwards through the registers!
16
4 SAVING ENERGY IN DUCT SYSTEMS
Duct systems account for a large fraction of the energy power of the airflow rate for an existing duct system, a
use in a building. However, there exists a significant leakage flow rate of 6% should imply a fan power
body of literature that shows that there are great energy demand increase of 20% (=1/(1-0.06)3 - 1). Normally
saving opportunities in this field. These are linked to the increase is about 15%.
various aspects of the duct design mentioned in Figure
23 and described below. 4.2.2 There may be net thermal losses when
the ducts pass through unconditioned
spaces
4.1 LAY-OUT Supply make-up air leaking out to unconditioned
The duct system layout has a major influence on spaces is simply lost along with the energy that was
pressure drop, therefore on the fan energy needed to used to condition that air. Insufficient heat recovery or
transport the air through the ductwork. While the duct recycling may also result from duct leakage in extract
designer should try to avoid long and tortuous paths, and return ducts.
building design issues such as the poor positioning of
shafts may dictate inefficient ductwork layout. Duct leakage may also affect the ventilation rates of a
Therefore, at the early stages of the building design, building, and therefore ventilation energy losses. Other
there must be a collaborative effort between the benefits of airtight ducts are described in the SAVE-
architect and the ductwork designer to assign enough DUCT handbook (Carrié et al., 1999). [Ref 2]
space to the ductwork installation.
4.3 INSULATION
4.2 DUCTWORK AIRTIGHTNESS Ductwork insulation is key for energy conservation
Various studies have shown that duct leakage can be a measures when a thermodynamic function is combined
severe source of energy loss. There are two major ways to the system. Energy losses associated to insufficient
to waste energy through duct leakage: insulation are commonly called conduction losses
(Figure 24). Performance loss in terms of Watts per
4.2.1 The fan has to work harder meter or °C per meter of duct length can be easily
The airflow passing through the fan is directly affected evaluated with standard heat transfer equations. The
by duct leakage. In order to meet the required airflow designer should evaluate the need for higher levels of
rates at the air terminal devices, the fan must be sized insulation based upon the significance of those energy
and operated at detrimental conditions for energy use. losses.
If the fan power scaled approximately with the third
Lay-out Fan energy use
Airtightness Fan energy use, convective losses, ventilation losses
Insulation Conduction losses
What to pay Low pressure Fan energy use

drops
attention to for
saving energy
in duct systems Fans Fan efficiency and system effect
The right amount of air, to the right place,

Controls at the right temperature, and humidity, and
at the right time
Coils Fouling
Heat recovery Fan energy use, convective and conduction losses
Figure 23 : Energy saving opportunities in duct systems.
17
25 25
250 mm
20 20
200 mm
Heat flow rate (W/m)
Heat flow rate (W/m)

160 mm
15 15
125 mm
Duct diameter
100 mm
10 10
5 5
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0.01 0.1
Temperature difference at begining of duct (°C) Temperature loss along the duct (°C)
Figure 24 : Heat flow rate and temperature loss per unit length of duct for different duct diameters. Airflow rate =
0.1 m³/s: 60-mm thick insulation
Figure 25. Water-loop heat exchanger (left); cross flow heat exchanger (middle); rotary heat exchanger (right).
18
to have the right amount of air delivered to the right
4.4 LOW PRESSURE DROPS place and at the right time, while minimising the
In a ductwork system, pressure can be viewed as distribution losses. When temperature and humidity
energy created by the fan that can be reversibly control is associated to the system, it is further
converted into kinetic energy (airflow), or irreversibly necessary to have the air delivered at the right
dissipated by wall friction or turbulence effects (e.g., in temperature and humidity for obvious comfort and
a bend or sudden expansion). These losses, commonly energy conservation reasons.
called pressure drops or flow resistance, must be
overcome by the fan to meet the desired flow rates at For this, adequate control devices and sensors should
the air terminal devices. Pressure drops are expensive be used and tuned. These include timers, multiple-
in that they are directly linked to the fan energy use. speed or variable-speed controllers, dampers, flow
Therefore, the designer should perform pressure drop regulating registers, velocity sensors, temperature
calculations and should try to minimise unnecessary sensors, humidity sensors, etc. Regular maintenance is
flow resistance. key to ensuring that there is no significant deviation
when the system is operated.
4.5 ENERGY-EFFICIENT FANS AND

REDUCED SYSTEM EFFECT 4.7 COIL FOULING
The fan is the driving force of a mechanical duct Evidence shows that coils can be seriously fouled.
system. Its power demand can vary drastically4, Besides indoor air quality issues resulting from this
typically from about 0.5W per l/s up to about 3 W per fact, the resistance to the flow passage can be
l/s depending on the fan itself, but also on the significantly increased. This unwanted increased
characteristics of the duct system in which it will be pressure drop may result in deficiencies such as
integrated, and the connection to that system. insufficient airflow rates and augmented fan energy
Therefore, it is important to use fans that are efficient use. A smaller effect is that the heat exchange between
in the range of operating conditions that are foreseen. the coil and the air is affected as the dust accumulated
can act as an added thermal resistance. Therefore, less
Also, to avoid significant departures from the energy is transferred from the coil to the air or vice
manufacturer’s performance data (system effect), the versa.
fan must be properly integrated in the system. This
includes installing correctly sleeves to cut vibrations To avoid these problems, protective filters should be
from the fan, but also avoiding singularities (e.g., installed upstream of the coils and regular maintenance
bends or branches) close to the fan. of the filters and coils is necessary.
4.8 HEAT RECOVERY

Ventilation heat recovery consists in transferring some
exhaust air stream energy to fulfil a specific task within
the building such as pre-conditioning of fresh air
(Figure 25). While this technique can be successfully
implemented, there are some hidden losses that can
seriously impact the energy benefits of such systems:
1. The fan (electric) energy use is increased (there are
two fans and increased pressure drop);
2. The system must not be short-circuited, in
particular, the building construction needs to be
fairly airtight;
3. The conduction and convective losses in the
supply and extract ducting (e.g., due to poor
Figure 26 : Sleeve to cut fan vibrations airtightness or poor insulation) must be limited.
Given these losses and the increased initial cost for

4.6 CONTROL OF AIRFLOWS, these systems, heat recovery in balanced ventilation
TEMPERATURE, AND HUMIDITY systems is in general not worthwhile in mild climates
Providing fresh air to a building implies an energy cost (< 2500 degree-days) from an energy stand-point.
just by the fact that the air needs to be brought to Note, however, that it may be useful from an air
indoor set-point conditions. Therefore, it is important distribution point of view and for environmental
reasons.
4
See § 7.9.3. The value of 0.9 W per l/s (0.25 W per
m³/h) is sometimes adopted as a reference value.
19
5 STIMULATING GOOD QUALITY DUCTWORK IN EUROPE
• In the case of airtightness, classes A, B, C and D

5.1 WHAT IS GOOD QUALITY DUCTWORK? correspond to different levels of performances;
Many experts agree that better ductwork performance • The needs may vary from country to country and
is needed in most European countries and that an also vary in time. In Sweden, there is already a
improvement in the quality is highly desirable. significant market for ductwork which :
However, in order to assess whether performances are - is delivered with clean surfaces (see
better, one should define a reference framework for protection end covers in Figure 28);
assessing the quality of ventilation systems. - is easy to maintain by including specific
provisions for ductwork maintenance;
In the ISO framework, ‘Quality’ is defined as: ‘Totality - pays specific attention to sustainable aspects
of characteristics of an entity that bear on its ability to (e.g. by replacing the plastic coverings by
satisfy stated and implied needs’ wooden based coverings.
Within this concept, the customers and the society
(through standards, regulations, etc.) have to define the
requirements for quality (Figure 27). Once these
requirements are defined, one can work out a concept
of quality assurance.
Society
assurance
Quality
related
Customer Entity
related
Customer
Supplier
Society
Part of the needs

which are not reflected
by the requirements for quality
Figure 28: Attention in ductwork cleaning in Sweden
Needs
of the customer 5.2 POSSIBLE SCHEMES FOR
Requirements
Requirements for Quality STIMULATING QUALITY
of society Given the fact that many customers are not aware of
the importance of certain performances and given the
Figure 27: Overall scheme for assessing quality fact that it is often not easy to evaluate if the
In practice, one observes that many customers and requirements are met, it is probably inevitable to apply
societies have no or very limited requirements in specific procedures for achieving minimum
relation to the performances of ductwork, e.g. performance levels.
ductwork airtightness, pressure losses, stiffness,
maintainability, etc. There are very few stated needs Basically, such approaches can be split up into 2
and probably a lot of implied needs. Moreover – and categories:
partly linked to the lack of requirements – there is often • Procedures which explicitly require minimum
no quality assurance. As a result, industry and installers performances in relation to the ductwork
are in many cases confronted with a market which pays performances;
little attention to a clear definition of the requirements • Procedures, which do not impose minimum
and, moreover, without a coherent scheme for quality requirements but which offer a framework that
control. strongly stimulates the application of systems with
good performances.
As a result, many manufacturers and installers have In practice, a mixture of approaches can be considered.
limited motivation to develop advanced ductwork Both approaches are further discussed in the following
concepts and/or installation techniques. Of course, paragraphs through the example of airtightness.
there are exceptions, e.g. the Swedish procedures in the
framework of AMA [Ref. 41] and OVK (Obligatorisk
Ventilation Kontroll) [Ref. 40].
It is important to stress that the ductwork market is

confronted with various levels of performance and
various types of needs. For instance :
20
5.3 PRACTICAL EXAMPLES • If measurement results are available, one can make
use of these measured data (Flemish approach
5.3.1 Minimum requirements for all only).
applications As such, there is no absolute requirement on ductwork
airtightness. However, if improved ductwork
Such an approach has the advantage that one is sure
airtightness is economically more attractive than e.g.
that minimum performance levels are achieved (of
better thermal insulation or a more efficient boiler, it
course, on the condition that there is an appropriate
seems logical that the decision makers will give
control procedure). Examples are:
preference to better ductwork airtightness.
• Minimum requirements for ductwork airtightness;
• Minimum requirements concerning provisions for Within the framework of the SAVE ENPER-TEBUC
ductwork maintenance project (www.enper.org), the issue of airtightness of
buildings and ductwork is one of the aspects under
The disadvantages are: consideration. A systematic inventory of all relevant
• It may be that other measures have a better cost- aspects is part of the envisaged work.
benefit;
• It is not possible to reward better performances 5.3.3 Performance control after execution of
than the minimum requirements. the works"
At present, many countries have requirements in
In particular in the case of aspects related to the energy
relation to energy performance of buildings and/or
performance of buildings and systems, it may be better
building and system components. In most cases, the
to count on indirect stimuli. This is discussed in the
proof of performance is only required at the moment of
next paragraph.
the building permit or in some cases even not at all. An
alternative approach is to ask proof of compliance after
5.3.2 Indirect stimuli by including ductwork
the end of the work. Such an approach is very
performances in global assessment
attractive in the case of ductwork airtightness since it is
schemes
well known that the quality of execution is for most
The energy related performances of ductwork are of ductwork systems crucial.
course important but should always be evaluated in
relation to other investments and costs for achieving 5.3.4 Pragmatic approaches are important
improvements in energy efficiency. Such an approach
The choice between direct requirements or indirect
is possible within the framework of so-called energy
stimuli is important. However, the philosophy and
performance standards and regulations. Such standards
approach for quality assurance is also very important.
and regulations determine for well-defined boundary
Attention has to be paid to the formal framework of
conditions the total energy use of a building and
quality assurance: Can the installers do it? How costly
impose a maximum value. All possible measures can
is the quality control? etc.
be considered for achieving this requirement, e.g.
better thermal insulation, better window performances,
Let’s take the ductwork airtightness as an example.
better heating, ventilation and cooling systems
efficiency, renewable energies use, etc.
Within the framework of the Swedish AMA
procedures, an interesting concept has been put into
At present, several European member states are
place:
implementing or preparing such an approach as a basis
for minimum legal performances. • The HVAC contractors are obliged by the AMA
requirements to include the cost of tightness
As an example, in the case of the new French approach testing in their contract price. The amount of ducts
(Réglementation Thermique RT 2000) and the proposal to be tested varies with the duct type; e.g. 10% of
for new approach in the Flemish region (Belgium), all circular ducts and 20% of all rectangular duct
ductwork airtightness is an explicit part in the work have to be tested. Building owners decide
procedure for determining the normalised energy which ducts should be included in the test and they
consumption of a building. Basically, the approach is are normally also present during the test. The
as follows: contractors themselves can carry out the control
measurements if they have the necessary
• If no information is available on the ductwork
knowledge and equipment, more often they engage
airtightness, one has to assume a default value. In
specialised subcontractors to do the testing at the
the case of the French approach, this corresponds
HVAC contractor’s expense. Should the test show
to a ductwork leakage rate corresponding to 15%
that the ducts are leaking more than required by
of the nominal air flow rate (about 2.5 times worse
the tightness class (B is standard for rectangular
than class A of the CEN standard);
ducts and C for circular ducts) this results in
requiring the leaking ducts are to be tightened and
then once more tested until they are approved.
21
• If the ductwork is found to be leaking in excess of
the requirement, the test is also increased to
include testing of further ductwork (another 10%
or 20% respectively). Should these also prove to
be leaking too much, all ductwork has to be tested,
tightened where needed and tested again. The
method for testing and the protocols to be used to
present the result is also presented in the HVAC
AMA book.
• In principle, one has to test only a 10% or 20%
fraction of the system, whereby the customer
specifies the section to be tested (Figure 29). Only
in case of non-compliance, more tests are thus
needed.
Requirements in
technical prescriptions
(class B, C, D, …)
Airtightness control by
ductwork installer
Test of 10% of ductwork

No
Yes No
OK? Improvements OK?
System approved
Test another 10% of ductwork

No
Yes No
OK? Improvements OK?
Test whole ductwork
Yes No
OK? Improvements
Figure 29 : Swedish approach in framework of AMA

procedures
Figure 30 : The Swedish AMA covers all areas -

construction, HVAC, electrical and refrigeration
22
6 DOES IT COST MORE TO DESIGN, INSTALL AND USE BETTER DUCTWORK?
Let’s consider the case of an attempt to save money by

6.1 COST COMPONENTS ignoring access issues at the design phase. A direct cost
The cost of an air distribution system can be divided consequence is that duct inspection and cleaning will
into three major components: be more expensive—e.g., the technicians will have to
• Capital or initial costs; cut holes for and install access panels.
• Operating costs;
Let’s consider the case of an attempt to save money by
• Replacement costs (this item goes beyond the
reducing or eliminating time/cost for pressure drop
scope of this book).
calculations and optimised fan selection. This will
often result in inadequate airflow rates, leading to
Many parameters have to be considered when
either insufficient air renewal in the occupied spaces
comparing the costs between two options, some of
or, conversely, excessive energy use as well as
which are listed below:
excessive air velocities and subsequent noise issues.
These problems are easy to spot at commissioning,
Capital or initial costs:
provided that it is performed. In that case, experience
• Cost for space;
shows that the repairs will cost more than the savings
• Cost factor for defining the requirements at the that have been achieved. Note also that penalties may
programme phase, including person-hours; be applied to the contractors in addition to the
• Cost factor for designing the duct system, obligation to fix the problem. If the problem is not
including person-hours, and calculation and design brought to light at commissioning, premature
tools; rehabilitation, energy use, and productivity cost factors
• Material cost for the ductwork, including packing, may very well equate the savings made during the
transport, and waste; design phase.
• Cost factor for installing the duct system,
including: In sum, cost savings looked at sequentially can be
- labour; extremely misleading. The decision makers must have
- tools, machines, huts, scaffolding, etc.; a global understanding of the underlying issues
- building cost (e.g., wall penetrations that must associated with potential cost savings on specific items.
be made);
- insurance, fees, site cleaning, etc.;
- site organisation, administration, profit; 6.3 AN INTERESTING APPROACH
- inspection and supervision; THROUGH LIFE CYCLE COSTING
- maintenance and operating manuals;
Different options should not be compared on an initial
• Cost factor for commissioning the system,
cost basis alone. For example, the ductwork insulation
including testing and balancing, airtightness test,
or the ductwork airtightness should be considered if
etc.
they have an impact on energy use, thus on operating
costs. Life Cycle Costing is a useful tool for such
Operating costs
comparisons as it brings the different cost components
• Operating cost, including training of personnel, together.
person-hours, heating and electricity energy use,
service and maintenance, etc. Life Cycle Costing allows one to express a stream of
expenditure over a number of years in terms of its Net
Replacement costs Present Value (i.e., it is brought back to its value in
• Replacement cost, including necessary building year 0). For instance, capital costs and energy
works, exchanges and repairs, rehabilitation, etc. (operating) costs can be combined to allow fair
comparisons between different options.
All these expenditures vary from one country to
another, even from one city to another and especially As an example, calculations were carried out in the
from one time to another. case described in Figure 31. The cost performance of a
leaky (3 Class A) and a tight system (Class D) are
compared in Figure 32. The results are based on the
6.2 GLOBAL UNDERSTANDING OF figures presented in Table 3. Figure 32 clearly shows
POTENTIAL COST SAVINGS the key role of the ductwork airtightness. The
The cost of a system should be evaluated globally, not calculation has been done according to the method
sequentially. presented in § 7.2
23
Normalized cost of the system 120 EUR/m2 of duct surface area
Cost for heating energy 0.03 EUR/kWh
Cost for electric (fan) energy 0.105 EUR/kWh
Additional initial cost of tight system 10 %
Fractional on-time 0.75 (6570 hours per year)
Discount rate 5%
Inflation rate for energy 1%
Table 3. Input parameters set arbitrarily for Life Cycle Cost calculation example shown in Figure 31 and Figure 32.
Beware that these figures can only be used locally in space and time for a specific ductwork system.
qV, fan, s qV, fan, e
Heat exchanger Buffer zone

(unconditioned space)
qV- qV+
Volume : 3000 m³
Infiltration flow rate: 83 l/s (300 m³/h)
Occupants : 50
Airflow rate per occupant : 6.9 l/s (25 m³/h)
Temperature reduction factor (b) : 0.5
b = (Tbufferzone – Tout)/(Tin – Tout)
Duct surface : 70 m² (supply), 70 m² (exhaust)

Duct pressure : 80 Pa (supply), 80 Pa (exhaust)
qV+ = qV- : 347 l/s (1250 m³/h)
Degree-days : 2500 °C h
Figure 31. Schematic diagram of the office building used in the LCC calculations . It is equipped with a balanced
ventilation system with heat recovery. The fan airflow rate is adjusted to match the required airflows at the air
terminal devices.
50000
Tight system (Class D)
45000
Leaky system (3 Class A)
40000
35000
30000
Cost (EURO)
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Years
Figure 32: Comparisons of costs (Net Present Values) of a leaky (3 Class A) and an airtight (Class D) duct system.
Calculations are based on the system described in Figure 31 and the parameters shown in Table 3. In that case, the
pay-back period is about 2 years.
24
6.4 WHAT ARE THE BARRIERS TO DESIGN, 6.4.5 There are no incentives for doing
INSTALL, AND USE BETTER things well
DUCTWORK ? Building quality ductwork is a delicate task that
requires time and skilled designers and installers.
6.4.1 Traditions, knowledge, and know-how However, tight costs devoted to air distribution systems
In many European countries, shifting to higher quality combined to little risk of penalties due to poor TAB,
ductwork would imply changes in: have encouraged design offices and installation
• The design methods, which imply a drastically companies to cut design time or personnel training
different approach to the design process with budgets.
subsequent cost, staffing and training issues;
• The manufacturing processes, which imply major
investments in machine-tools as well as staffing 6.5 WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS TO DESIGN,
and training issues; INSTALL, AND USE BETTER
DUCTWORK ?
• The installation methods to adapt to the changes in
design methods and products;
• The TAB process (see § 6.4.4), nearly nonexistent 6.5.1 For the owner
in most cases; Better ductwork installations need less maintenance
• The maintenance, poorly performed nowadays; and use less energy, which results in reduced operating
and costs. It increases the overall building quality, which
• The overall care for ductwork systems in the therefore rents and sells better.
building construction process.
However, today’s traditions and lack of knowledge and 6.5.2 For the designer
know-how for achieving better ductwork systems Good ductwork design reduces the risk of unpleasant
appear to be major barriers to any change in that surprises at commissioning that may result in penalties
direction. applied to the designer and/or the installer. It will also
positively contribute to the designer’s reputation.
6.4.2 Conflicts of interest in cost
minimization 6.5.3 For the installer
Cost minimization performed independently at various Well designed ductwork and quality products are often
stages of the system construction can be extremely easier to install. A good ductwork installation reduces
misleading. A classical example of such bias is a the risk of non-compliant installations that may result
building where the investors during the construction in penalties and additional work for the installer.
process are neither the future manager nor the future
occupants. These investors may not pay enough 6.5.4 For the occupants
attention to issues such as indoor environment and
Quality air distribution ductworks provide better
energy use and authorize budget cuts that will be
comfort to the occupants. It does not induce health
detrimental to both.
problems unlike poor installations sometimes proved to
be unhealthy. Finally, companies may benefit from
6.4.3 The owner ignores or underestimates
greater productivity of their staff.
the global impact of cost reductions
The owner may not understand that higher quality
ductwork results in better performances, therefore 6.6 IN SUMMARY
potentially a better indoor environment, lower energy
Quality air distribution systems can result in lower
use, greater renting and selling value, etc. Very few
costs. In particular, significant savings can arise from
owners view good air distribution system design as an
increased system lifetime, lower maintenance costs, or
investment.
increased occupants’ productivity. On the other hand,
initially cheap low quality ductwork may prove to be
6.4.4 Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing
very expensive in the long term. To draw adequate
must be properly done
conclusions, decision makers must have a global
One of the major barriers to a global approach is that, understanding of potential cost reductions on specific
in many European countries, commissioning is rarely items.
done. Besides, if it is performed, it rarely results in
requirements on flow balancing or air velocities for
instance; rather, it focuses on safety issues such as
compliance with fire safety regulations.
25
7 FUNDAMENTALS OF DUCT DESIGN
personnel and should be designed and equipped as

7.1 LAY OUT such.
7.1.1 One main system or several sub-

systems?
The first logical step during the design of the
ventilation and air-handling systems for a building is to
decide whether the supply and extract of air should be
handled by one common system for the whole building
or if several systems would be better.
The following items influence this question:

• The size of the building and the airflow needed –
the larger, the better reason to use several systems.
In a large low-rise building the ductwork will be
large, costly and difficult to accommodate if all air Figure 33 : Large roof mounted air handling unit
be supplied from one spot. lifted by crane to its location
• The number of occupants – have they different
demands on operation time (e.g. offices and stores 7.1.3 Location of air intakes and exhausts
do not have the same working hours so energy and
costs could be saved if the system could be run The air intakes for the supply air should be located
according to the individual needs and not at full where the quality of the ambient air is good.
speed because one tenant needs it).
• Do the users have different requirements on air It is better to locate them:
quality and thermal comfort? This would probably • High up on the backyard side of the building than
result in different technical solutions being easier towards the street with its traffic exhausts.
to handle with individual systems. If the users or • On the North façade instead of sunlit fronts.
tenants will cover their own costs it will also be • Away from exhausts from the same building or
easier to split the cost between them if they are neighbouring buildings. Consider the predominant
served on an individual basis. wind directions and the distance between intakes
• Fire zones and other safety aspects. It is often and outlets.
easier to design safe ventilation systems for • Away from cooling towers and evaporative coolers
individual fire zones than a common system that (The first reported case of Legionella was in 1976
connects to several (see § 7.6). in the United States of America where former
legionnaires of the American Army were affected
7.1.2 Location of fans and air handling units by an epidemic of pneumonia during one of their
congresses. The cause of the epidemic was the
There are several aspects that should be considered
presence of the bacteria Legionella Pneumophila
when the location of fans and air handling units is
in the small water droplets spread by the air
decided:
conditioning system).
• Try to avoid locating them near noise-sensitive
areas such as conference rooms etc. (see § 7.8). The location of the exhausts is the other side of the
• Locate them near the areas they serve to reduce the coin. Locate them where they won’t cause any
length of feeding ductwork. This will reduce both problems for yourself or your neighbours.
costs and energy use and save space.
• Air handling units, AHU’s, and supply fans should 7.1.4 Location of shafts
be located near to suitable air intakes (see § 7.1.3).
Study the different floors and how the supply and
• Fans and units need regular maintenance (see § 11)
extract airflow is distributed. Try to find locations of
to work properly and will have to be replaced
the shafts as central as possible. The more symmetrical
when they are worn out. Plan the location to
the distribution of air is in relation to the risers in the
facilitate this job. Avoid locations that are difficult
shafts the lower the cost of the ductwork will be and
to reach, e.g. attic spaces or roofs (especially in
the less space for them will be needed.
cold climate and on high rise buildings). Consider
carefully how this work is going to be done and
A symmetrical “tree-structure” of the riser in the shaft
what it requires. ( see § 7.1.5). Do not forget that
and its connected ducts on the floors will reduce the
these rooms are workrooms for the maintenance
26
pressure drop and thus energy use and will enhance the Plant room height (m)
air distribution.
5
In larger buildings divided into several fire zones it is
often an advantage to separate the supply and extract
4
ducts in separate shafts. The shafts are then considered
as separate fire zones on condition that the shaft walls
are of approved performance (see § 7.6). 3
For structural reasons the shafts are often located

adjacent to the lift shafts of the building. 2
In oblong buildings with lifts at both ends it might be a 0 10 20 30 40
good idea to locate supply risers in one end and the Total airflow (m³/s)
extract risers in the other.
Figure 34 : Estimated room height for air handling
Observe that the shafts have to be accessible from each installations
floor, both during installation and later on for
inspection and alterations. In larger buildings with Plant room area (m²)
several ducts the shafts are sometimes provided with 200
inspection doors at each floor, grating joists and
lighting in the shafts. 150
7.1.5 Space planning – Access and space
requirements 100
Very early during the design phase the size and
location of plant rooms (see § 7.1.2) and shafts (see § 50
7.1.4 ) have to be decided.
The space planning has to include the following 0

0 10 20 30 40
activities. The equipment, units, ductwork etc., has to
Total airflow (m³/s)
have ample space to be (see Figure 90 and 4 next
ones): Figure 35 : Estimated plant room area for air
• Transported into the building which might require handling installations
guy derricks, hoists, transport doors and openings
• Mounted which requires space for tools and
personnel. Ductwork installations require free 7.1.6 Symmetrical design
space for connecting the different duct parts The sizing of ductwork installations is described in
where the demand depends on the type of ducts, other chapters (see § 7.3 and § 8).
circular or rectangular and whether the ducts are
to be insulated on the outside (see § 8.1). One aspect that is sometimes overlooked is the
• Tested and commissioned (see § 10). advantage of using a symmetrical design of the
• Operated and maintained (see § 11). ductwork. When the total airflow into a large room is
• Repaired to be supplied equally through a number of supply air
• Substituted for new equipment when worn out or registers, the design shown in the example below
obsolete. The life span of technical equipment is results in the same duct pressure drop through all the
much shorter than that of the building itself. registers. With this design the air passes through the
Prepare for that ! (see also § 7.2 ). same duct length and through the same number of
bends on its way from the main duct to each of the
It could come handy to have some ideas of the space registers.
requirements before the detailed design has started.
The following diagrams could be used as first means of Using a symmetrical design, with “clusters”, where
assistance and rules of thumb. possible will facilitate the adjustment of the airflow;
the pressure drop being the same means that each
register should be adjusted to the same position. There
is no need for any control dampers except maybe
between separate clusters.
27
registers will have to be individually adjusted with
dampers to deliver the same airflow as shown below.
Figure 36 : Symmetrical ductwork where the supply

air (entering at 1) passes through identical duct
components on its way to the registers. The same
principle is shown with round ducts in Figure 38.
Figure 39 : Registers installed in parallel in a duct

have to be provided with individual dampers, and
perhaps also, as here, with silencers to reduce the
noise from the dampers. Ducts (yellow) in a
restaurant.
One important space-influencing factor is where supply
and exhaust ducts have to cross. This typically happens
with ductwork located at office corridor ceilings with
office rooms on both sides of the corridor. As this
space is normally used also for other building
installations, the installations have to be carefully
planned and coordinated - also regarding the time and
Figure 37 : Symmetrical ducts in a warehouse order for the different contractors. A detailed drawing
designating the space for each contractor is
recommended (see § 9.2.3).
When ducts are installed in a false ceiling space the

hangers for the ducts and for the false ceiling have to
be integrated. As the work is normally split between
two different contractors the installation work has to be
planned in advance.
Another question is of course whether the false ceiling

is really necessary (see § 3.2) or if the ducts may be
visible.
Figure 38 : Symmetrical ducts (blue) in a restaurant 7.1.7 Marking the installations

This also leads to a higher degree of standardization To facilitate the operation and maintenance of the
and probably thus to reduced costs and installation installations (see § 11) it is necessary to have main
time. The installation will probably also be more equipment marked with designations and numbers that
flexible to future changes of the airflow – if the airflow will be found in the operation and maintenance
in the main duct is changed, it will result in an similar manuals. The maintenance personnel might not be
distribution of the airflow through the registers. No familiar with the building or the installations and a
new airflow balancing of the registers will thus be proper marking aids them to be able to perform a
necessary. correct job.
The ductwork installation, as shown above and in one To identify the ducts e.g. in a shaft they should be
of the case studies (see § 12.5) in this book, is easy to marked with signs or nametapes showing e.g.:
install and will probably lead to a more cost-effective • Content, e.g. supply air
installation. • System designation
• Served room, zone or part of the building
If the registers are connected in parallel to the same • Arrow showing airflow direction
duct the static pressure in the duct will vary and the
28
Vital equipment, e.g. fire dampers, shall be marked and 7.2 COST – ECONOMICAL ASPECTS
the sign placed well visible. If the equipment itself is Duct costs vary from country to country, from time to
not visible – e.g. hidden above a false ceiling – the sign time, and can thus only be expressed here as relative
shall be placed on the wall underneath the damper – and not actual costs. One interesting comparison is
not on the surface of the false ceiling. between circular and rectangular ducts and some of the
differing cost aspects for these two alternatives is
discussed (see § 8.2).
Cost minimization is an important boundary condition

for ductwork design. When choosing between different
layouts of a duct system, all able to fulfill the primary
functions required, the alternative using least resources,
based on the lifetime performance, should be chosen.
Provided that the price of different resources as energy,
material, and building space is adequate, this choice
can be based on cost minimization.
Ventilation systems often account for the lion’s share

Figure 40 : Arrows showing flow direction and type of a building’s energy use. In another chapter (§
of air (red for supply and yellow for extract air). 7.4.2.2) it is e.g. shown that the pressure drop in air
filters accounts for a significant portion of the total
pressure drop in a ventilation system. If several
7.1.8 Make the installations adaptable (or alternatives are available then one should select filters
easy to change) based on energy efficiency without compromising
It is often worth while to make the installations filtration requirements. For economical reasons it can
adaptable to future changes in demand. New tenants or be advisable not to run the filters until the pressure
changes in activities and enterprises often lead to other drop has reached their maximum nominal values
requirements on the building installations. How provided by the manufacturers but change them earlier.
symmetrical ductwork might be one solution was The recommendation to calculate the Life Cycle Cost
discussed above (see § 7.1.6). (LCC) for actual alternatives should also be used when
selecting among different ductwork alternatives.
Well-planned and ample plant rooms for fans and air
handling units is one prerequisite for adaptability but The ductwork in a building will probably be used for at
the limiting factor is often the duct installations not least twenty years (see § 7.1.5). The investment cost,
being able to handle an increased airflow due to noise the cost for used building space and the annual energy
or other aspects. and power costs (electricity) during the useful life or
utilisation time of the ductwork are converted to a net
By designing duct installations for low air velocities present value in the LCC calculation.
the possibility to satisfy future demands on higher
airflow will increase. n
1+ j 
k
1+ j 
np
NPV = CC + OC × ∑   + RC × ∑  
k =1  1 + i  p  1+ i 
Demands on comfort cooling from the tenants in this
office building resulted in the installation of an AHU
comprising desiccant cooling instead of the former where:
unit. The ductwork in the building could be retained. NPV = the Net Present Value (currency);
CC = the capital cost (currency);
The installations have a shorter time span than the OC = the operating cost (currency);
building itself (see § 7.1.5 and 7.2). Be careful when RC = the replacement cost (currency);
using technical solutions where the installations are i = the discount rate (-);
integrated with the building structure. This could result j = the inflation rate (-);
in costly and difficult renovations when the ductwork n = the number of years over which the analysis
installations have to be replaced for some reason. is performed (-);
“Clean” and not combined materials also facilitate np = a year during which a replacement cost is
increased demands on environmentally acceptable foreseen.
solutions requiring recycling and reclaiming of
demolition waste. Note that different discount and inflation rates can be
applied to individual components of cost (e.g. energy
cost, maintenance cost, etc.).
The reader may refer to ASHRAE (1999) for further
29
details on LCC calculations. • the fan power (varies typically as v2.8 even though
v3 is often used)6;
A corresponding procedure is adopted for future • the pressure distribution in the ductwork;
maintenance costs, e.g. internal cleaning of ducts. The • the quality of air distribution;
alternative with the lowest LCC cost should be chosen • the noise generation;
as being “best buy”. • the costs for ducts, insulation, heat losses, space,
installation, maintenance, and more.
The investment cost for the ductwork comprises of
costs for When the air flow rates and the lay out of the duct
• material; system have been chosen, the next step is to size the
• manufacturing; ducts, that is to decide the diameters (or equivalent
• transportation; diameters) of different parts of the ductwork.
• insulation (including recycling costs);
• building space; For a given airflow rate the air velocity in the duct (v)
• installation of the ducts; influences:
• and cleaning and maintenance. • the duct diameter (D) to be chosen (D varies as
v-0.5 at constant airflow);
The cost for building space is probably the most • the pressure loss (varies typically as v2.4);
difficult factor to consider in the calculation. The cost • the fan power (varies typically as v2.4);
depends on how the saved space for a less space • the pressure distribution in the ductwork;
consuming alternative could be used and what profit • the quality of air distribution;
that could be gained by doing so. In a high rise • the noise generation;
building with vertical ducts installed in shafts, a • the costs for ducts, insulation, heat losses, space,
smaller space need by an alternative could increase the installation, maintenance, and more.
rental income considerably as it adds up on each floor.
One of the presented case studies shows an interesting Duct sizing can be treated as an economical cost-
example on this (see § 12.2). minimizing problem as all costs increase for larger duct
diameters except the fan energy cost, which decreases.
This optimization is much influenced by the fan energy
demand that rapidly increases when smaller ducts are
chosen. For Swedish conditions, “economical
velocities” have been shown to be in the range 7-4 m/s.
In practice, noise generation often is a limiting factor
resulting in velocities lower than the “economical” in
ducts close to the served rooms.
Control of the air distribution is easier when duct air

velocities are low. Flow energy losses are then small
which gives more uniform pressures in the system and
bigger authority to dampers and air terminal devices.
Figure 41 : Installation of vertical ducts in a high rise Low air velocities also mean bigger flexibility, as e.g.
building in a space saving manner. additions to the duct system are easier to handle and
there is a margin for airflow rate increase. Low air
The same is the case if the space needed for the velocities also decrease the risk for noise problems.
ductwork would influence the necessary height
between the floors. The extra space needed per floor Good function of the duct systems main object, air
times the number of floors could add up to a missed distribution, is the priority. Duct cost, noise generation,
floor in a high-rise building. One way of reducing this etc. are very important but have the character of
space need might be to refrain from using false ceiling boundary conditions. From this aspect cost
at least locally as discussed elsewhere in this book (see minimization is only feasible when all function criteria
§ 3.2). Another of the case studies illustrates this.
For a given existing duct, an airflow rate change will

influence: the velocity squared, that is ∆p ∝ v 2 . However, the
• the air velocity
friction factor decreases with increasing velocity
• the pressure loss (varies typically as v1.8 even
(compare the Moody chart - Figure 42) which results in
though v2 is often used5);
∆p ∝ v1.8
6
5
The pressure loss caused by friction is proportional to The fan power is proportional to the product of flow
the dynamic pressure, which in turn is proportional to rate (which is proportional to v) and ∆p
30
are met. The function criteria should have been adapted the pressure variations in a ventilation system are small
to the budget frame in an earlier stage of the project in comparison with the atmospheric pressure the
airflow is treated as incompressible (because it is
Historically, common sizing methods in "low velocity simpler) when making pressure loss calculations. (In
system" are: reality, air is of course compressible and behaves
• Equal Friction. This method gives higher nearly as an ideal gas. This means that the expansion
velocities for the larger duct size for the fan. process associated with the pressure losses in duct air
Typical friction value is 1 Pa/m. flow is isothermal while the compression process at the
• Choice of velocity: different in different parts of fan causes a temperature increase).
the system (values normally in the range 6-2 m/s,
the higher values closer to the fan. When space is A force has to be applied in the flow direction to
expensive, as in high rise buildings and ships, the sustain the flow and overcome the pressure losses. This
velocities are higher.) causes the pressure to decrease along the duct. These
This method can be regarded as a variation of the losses are divided into flow friction losses and
equal friction method, where consideration has component losses, e.g. in bends and T-junctions. Both
been taken to noise generation aspects. Based on types of losses are associated with losses of
literature studies and Swedish experiences, the momentum. Duct friction losses are caused by high
following suggestions can be given: velocity air in the middle of the duct which looses
momentum when it is brought into the low velocity
Air velocity (m/s) region around the perimeter of the duct by the
Dwellings Offices, schools turbulence, and the need to continuously accelerate the
Main ducts 4 6 air which is instead transported into the high velocity
Branch ducts 3 4.5 region. Component losses are often associated with
Duct with air 1.5 2 local acceleration of air (e.g. due to contraction
terminal device phenomena) and the following loss of momentum
when the air is slowed down. To minimize losses it is
Table 4 : Duct velocity recommendations. In offices, thus essential to design the ductwork so the flow is
higher velocities can be used for ducts in fan rooms disturbed as little as possible.
and shafts.
7.3.1 Pressure losses
• T-method. This method represents here a class of
ductwork cost minimizing methods taking into Duct air flow is associated with pressure decrease in
account the actual costs, which apply to the the flow direction.
specific building being designed. It is a method
intended for use with computers. As cost for The pressure losses are due to flow friction and local
different types of ducts and for electrical energy flow disturbances in components. Both types of losses
can vary rather much, such methods have a are caused by local velocity changes:
potential to save energy, especially in uncommon • Flow friction corresponds to the force needed to
applications, where standard methods, developed accelerate air leaving the low-speed region along
with experiences from normal systems, are not the duct perimeter and entering the high-speed
applicable. region in the central part of the duct;
• Component losses correspond to the force used for
When making the cost minimization, or developing local increase of mean air speed in the ductwork.
simplified rules as those mentioned above, it is very
difficult to take all relevant factors into consideration. To minimize pressure losses the flow shall be as
A fourth alternative is the "constant diameter method" smooth and even as possible:
which typically gives high costs as estimated • Avoid abrupt area changes, sharp bends with no
traditionally. But a constant diameter duct system has vanes, and similar;
many advantages, which are appreciated today, as • Avoid duct components closer than 5 duct
simple installation logistics and high flexibility (it is diameters from each other.
difficult to reverse the flow distribution in a system
with small diameters in one end and big in the other!). The largest local mean air velocity in a ductwork often
Thus the use of “constant diameter” seems to increase, is in a fan outlet connection to the duct. This is the
especially in the part of the systems that are visible. most important place to have smooth flow conditions,
as pressure losses can be large.
7.3 DUCT AIR FLOW As the pressure losses depend on velocity, they are
The airflow in ventilation air ducts is stationary, or can normalized with the dynamic pressure. For a part of a
be treated as stationary because flow variations are straight circular duct of constant diameter D and length
slow. The driving force is a pressure difference caused L, the pressure loss due to friction between section 1
by temperature differences, wind pressure, or a fan. As and section 2 is (λf : is the friction factor):
31
L ρ v2 According to Miller (1972) the Moody chart can be
∆p12 = λ f ⋅ approximated with the formula
D 23
12
dynamic pressure
0.25
v (m/s) is the mean velocity defined as the ratio of λf = 2
volumetric fluid flow rate qV (m3/s) and duct flow area   k 5.74 
log 3.7 D + 0.9 
A (m2).   Re 
For a circular duct:
4 qV In order to make pressure drop calculations in
v=
π D2 rectangular ducts easier, an "equivalent diameter De"
has been defined. This is the diameter of a round duct
which has the same pressure loss for friction as the
D = duct diameter (m) rectangular duct at the same air flow rate:
The corresponding force acting on a volume of air in a
duct with square area A (m²) is ∆p12⋅A (N). For the 1.30( ab )0.625
De =
passage from section 1 to section 2 (distance L m) the ( a + b )0.25
air needs t seconds. Thus L = v ⋅t.
where a and b are the side lengths of the rectangular
The displacement work is:
duct. Friction data for circular ducts can then be used
also for rectangular ducts with aspect ratios a/b <8.
∆p12⋅A⋅L = ∆p12⋅A⋅ v ⋅t = ∆p12⋅ qV ⋅t
Beside friction, pressure losses due to flow disturbance
The friction factor λf is a function of Reynolds number also occur in bends, T-junctions and other components.
Re (the product of mean duct air velocity v (m/s), duct This is illustrated by Figure 43 below.
inner diameter D (m), and the inverse value of the
kinetic viscosity ν (m2/s) of the air) and the duct
relative roughness k/D (where k is the mean roughness
(m)). If these values are known, the friction factor can
be found in a Moody chart, see Figure 42.
Figure 42 : Moody chart
32
Total pressure (Pa)
Length (m) Developed friction gradient
Static Pressure (Pa)
∆p
Pressure near
wall of duct Length (m) Re-developed
Pressure in friction gradient
center of duct
Component
a) b)
Figure 43: Pressure gradients a) Static pressure measured with a Prandtl static probe in the centre of a duct,
downstream of an exhaust terminal device. b) Definition of component pressure drop. After Miller (1978). The graph
illustrates the case that airflow rate and duct diameter is constant as the slopes of the friction lines are the same in
front of and behind the obstacle. .
As is shown in Figure 43b, the loss coefficient

definition is based on the extrapolated pressure
2 1
difference in the plane of the component. This is to
allow for the customary calculation of duct friction
losses, based on the total duct length. In Figure 43b the
pressure difference ∆p could be interpreted as a
difference in static pressure. However, please note that
the dynamic pressures before and after the components
are equal (the friction gradient is the same as are duct
diameter and flow rate). The loss coefficient ζ 12 is b) 3
always based on the difference in total pressure, i.e. the
sum of static and dynamic pressure:
2 2
v1 v
∆p = ( p1 + ρ ) − ( p2 + ρ 2 ) Figure 44 : Flow in dividing and combining T-
2 2 junctions.
2
v Of special interest is the case with a sudden area
∆p12 = ζ 12 ⋅ ρ 1
2 increase of the duct resulting in a velocity decrease and
increase in static pressure. The net effect is a ”total
Pressure loss coefficients for T-junctions need special pressure” loss (the loss of dynamic pressure is bigger
attention as the flow rate changes. The loss coefficient than the increase of static pressure). A corresponding
is always based on the mean velocity in the leg of the effect can be achieved in the main duct after a T-
T-junction with the total flow, leg 1 in Figure 44a and junction, where air has been extracted. If the diameter
Figure 44b. of the main duct is not reduced, the velocity will
decrease and dynamic pressure will transform to static
pressure. In this way static pressure can be kept more
constant along the duct, which makes flow balancing
1 2 much easier. The corresponding duct sizing method
(“static regain”) has the disadvantage of high air
velocities in part of the duct system.
For pressure loss coefficients see handbooks as

ASHRAE Handbook, Eurovent, national handbooks
and catalogues.
a) 3
33
7.3.2 Driving forces
The forces sustaining the airflow in the ducts are : duct system
• Thermal forces; Ptot
• Wind forces; terminal
• Fan forces. device
air intake
Thermal and wind forces are natural forces and fan Atm pressure
force is a mechanical one. Using the natural forces can
save energy, normally electrical energy.
The thermal force depends on the density difference D istance fro m the air intake
between surrounding air (normally outdoor air) and

fan
transported air. The gravitational force acting on a
column of air of 1 m2 square area and with a height of AHU
H m, that is a volume of 1⋅H m3 and a mass of 1⋅H⋅ρ
(kg) (where ρ is the density in kg/m3), is 1⋅H⋅ρ⋅g (N). Figure 45 : The pressure distribution in a supply duct
This corresponds to a pressure difference of H⋅ρ⋅g system
(N/m² or Pa). This pressure difference acts between the
ventilation air intake and exhaust. If it is colder outside The fan increases the pressure. This is defined in
than inside the density of outdoor air is bigger and the analogy with the component pressure loss (but in this
pressure difference acts upward on the lighter air. case it is an increase):
∆pT = H⋅g⋅(ρo-ρi) v1
2
v
2
∆ p fan = ( p1 + ρ ) − ( p2 + ρ 2 )
ρo : density of outdoor air (kg/m3) 2 2
ρi : density of indoor air (kg/m3)
∆pfan is the sum of all the losses. The energy to sustain
Note that ρi shall be the mean density of indoor air, in the flow between locations 1 and 2 in a duct has been
proportion to the corresponding vertical distance. This shown above to be ∆p12 ⋅ qV ⋅ t (Nm). The work the
is of importance as air heaters may be located at a fan adds to an air flow of qV (m3/s) during a time t
different level than the intake, and there may be heat seconds is in consequence:
recovery of exhaust air.
W = ∆p fan ⋅ qV ⋅t
The wind force creates an overpressure on the wind
side and underpressure on the leeward side (see Figure If the total efficiency of the fan is η the corresponding
21), and often also on the sides parallel with the wind electrical energy is E (Ws):
direction. These pressure differences can be estimated
as a function of the wind speed (vw):
∆p fan qV t
E=
v w2 η
∆pw = C w ⋅ ρ
2 7.3.3 The fan curve
Many solutions exist that actively use the wind speed, The fan curve is a graph of the increase of total
especially on the exhaust side. Examples are hoods, pressure the fan is able to create at different air flow
which rotates so the opening always is on the leeward rates. Different fans have different characteristics.
side, nozzle shaped and disc formed covers above the
exhaust opening creating an under pressure Figure 46 shows typical fan curves for (from top)
independent of wind direction, and more (Figure 45). centrifugal fan with forward curved impeller,
centrifugal fan with straight impeller, centrifugal fan
with backward curved impeller, and axial fan.
Normally, the highest efficiency of the centrifugal fans
has the one with backward curved impeller and lowest
the one with forward curved impeller.
34
The system curve is constructed from the sum of
pressure losses at different flow rates. However, due to
interactive behaviour of the flow in different
components the real pressure loss for the system may
differ from this sum. This is called the "system effect"
and usually means that the actual pressure need is
somewhat bigger than the calculated. A big such
influence often occurs at the fan connection. Therefore,
be sure that the fan data are measured with the same
type of connection as is used in the system being
designed.
∆ ptot
Pa
Figure 46: Examples of fan curves for different types

of fans
The fan imposes both dynamic and static pressure to

the airflow. The total pressure is the sum:
∆pt ot = ∆p s + ∆p d m3/s
It is common to express the relation between the

dynamic and total pressure as
Power
∆p d
L = 10 demand
∆pt
W
n is the fan rotation speed
L is a dimensionless number.
L = 10 means that the fan only creates dynamic
pressure, i.e. movement; in that case, the fan is not Figure 47: Fan graph with curves for different
connected to a duct. L < 2 and L > 7 should be rotation speeds n, working lines 1-10, and power
avoided. Often the highest efficiency occurs for L = 2 demand.
to 3 for a centrifugal fan and L = 5 for a radial fan
(Figure 47).
7.3.5 The working point for a fan
7.3.4 System Curves The working point is at the intersection between the
The system curve is a graph of the total pressure loss of fan and system curve, see Figure 48.
a duct system (or a supply duct, room and exhaust duct
combination if there is only one driving force) as a The figure shows two fan curves, one (whole line) at a
function of the volumetric flow rate. Duct friction rotation speed n and another for a lower rotation speed
typically varies as qV1.8. (Compare the Moody chart, n1. There are also two system curves, one lower (whole
Figure 42.) line) and one higher where additional pressure losses
have been imposed. The point 1 is the original working
Systems often have components where pressure loss point, 1’ the working point after reduction of rotating
varies almost proportional to the flow as some filters speed to n1, and 1’’ the working point with the original
and rotating heat exchangers. This indicates that the rotation speed n but with additional pressure loss in the
flow partly is laminar due to narrow flow passages. It duct system.
is thus necessary to add all the pressure losses at
various flow rates in order to make a system curve (and Thermal or wind induced forces create a pressure
not just assume that the pressure loss varies as a power independent of the airflow. Their equivalent to the fan
law function of the flow rate) if a particular system curve is a straight line, parallel to the x-axis. The lines
shall be studied. move up or down depending on temperature or wind
35
speed. This pressure difference typically is small
compared to those created by fans. “Natural”
∆ptot
ventilation systems thus must be equipped with larger System
ducts than mechanical systems. curves
Example of fan calculations:
What effect will the following conditions have on the
fan’s operating point ? (Figure 49)
1. A hole in the ductwork; Fan curves

2. Clogged filters;
3. Exhaust opening is on the windward side;
4. A device that needs a pressure ∆pm to open.
qV
Answers : Figure 48: Illustration of the fan working point

1. The air will always follow the path of least
resistance. The hole in the ductwork will decrease 1200
the resulting resistance of the duct system. In this Original
case, the system characteristic curve will shift 1000 system curve
down and the airflow rate through the fan will
Total pressure (Pa)

B
800
increase (point A in Figure 49). Note however that
the flow rate through the terminal devices will 600
decrease.
A
2. Insufficient filter cleaning will lead to higher filter 400
resistance. The airflow rate will decrease and the
system characteristic curve will shift up (point B 200
in Figure 49). 0
3. The exhaust opening on the windward side of the 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
building (where a local over pressure is created) Air volume (m³/s)
increases the flow resistance in the duct system.
The system curve will shift upward in the graph. Figure 49 : Illustration of working points for fans
As the pressure increase is independent of the duct
airflow, the upward move will be as illustrated in ∆ptot
Figure 50. The fan curve will not change and the
flow will decrease somewhat as the working point
will shift to the left in the graph.
4. Devices like some VAV boxes do not open until
the pressure has raised a certain value like ∆pm in
Figure 50. This case thus is similar to case 3.
∆p m
∆p m
qv
Figure 50: System curve when there is an initial

resistance, which has to be created before flow can
begin.
36
7.4 HYGIENE avoid the highest concentration of particles from cars,
Supply air ducts distribute ventilation air to the the intake should be located more than 3 m above the
building. It is thus essential that they do not pollute the road.
air. Such pollution can be caused by materials in the
duct like oil residues from the manufacturing, rubber Important for duct hygiene is that water (rain or snow)
seals, or lining. Care must be taken when not is brought in with the intake air. The grille
manufacturing the ducts so production methods and protecting the intake must be big enough to result in a
materials that do not cause such pollution should be low air velocity (front air velocity <3 m/s) to achieve
used. Deposits of particles or dirt in the duct can also this. An important function of the grille is to protect the
cause pollution. If water is added to such deposits intake from birds and other animals. To achieve this
microbial growth will probably occur. the grille is often supplemented by a net. The net grid
size should not be too small in order to avoid blocking
Also return air ductwork should be clean, to prevent by leaves etc. In Norway a grid size of 5-12 mm is
flow decrease caused by fouling.7 If return air is used, recommended. It is most important that the grille and
it is of course still more important to keep the return net are well maintained. If the intake is located so it is
ducts clean. (see § 7.4.6) difficult to inspect and clean it, and if there is risk for
blocking it with leaves, ice or similar, the grille should
be easy to open. When the risk of ice on the grille is
high, a heated grille may be considered.
Interior lining should be avoided in the intake duct

because of the risk of water penetrating through the
intake. When there is risk for condensation, insulation
and vapour barriers as appropriate should be installed
on the outside of the duct. The duct between intake and
air handling unit shall be as short as possible. There
should also be possibilities for inspection, draining and
cleaning. The drain must not be directly connected to
the sewage system (because of the danger of ejecting
polluted air).
Figure 51 : Large ducts protected with end covers
It is most important that the ducts are protected from 7.4.2 Air Handling Unit
dirt during transport to the building site, during The air-handling unit (AHU) could consist of the
installation, and before the system is used. If such following parts:
protection is not possible or feasible, the ducts have to • Outdoor air damper
be cleaned before they are used. Checking of duct • Filter
cleanness should always be a part of the • Exhaust air heat exchanger or if return air is used,
commissioning process. a mixing box
• Heater
When in use the air is cleaned by a filter that also • Cooler
protects the duct. It is important that the filter does not • Humidifier
break, or that dirty air cannot pass beside the filter or • Fan
leak into the duct downstream of the filter.
The duct has to be equipped with inspection and OA

cleaning openings. As this probably increases duct _ +
leakage, unnecessary openings should be avoided.
a
7.4.1 Air intake RA

EA
As pointed out in § 7.1.3, the air intake has to be
located where the air is as clean as possible. It should
not be close to air exhaust openings, if possible the
distance should be at least 10 m. Of course locations
close to other sources of pollution (like chimneys, Figure 52 : To reduce the energy used for
cooling towers, roads with traffic, garages, parking heating/cooling the AHU should either be equipped
lots, and similar) also cause pollution of the air. To with a heat exchanger or – if the extract air has an
acceptable quality – use return air. The shown unit
7 has both possibilities!
and to prevent pollution of air that flows backwards
into the building by mistake. This risk should be
eliminated when designing the system.
37
7.4.2.1 Outdoor air damper When to use what ?
The outdoor air damper can easily be fouled which • G1 and G2 are efficient for fibrous and coarse
deteriorates the function, it could e.g. cause air leakage industrial dust
because of incomplete closing of the damper. Fouling • G3 and G4 also take coarser atmospheric particles
decreases if high air velocities in the damper are • F5 and F6 also protects against finer atmospheric
avoided. It should be designed and installed so it is dusts and somewhat reduces “blackening” of the
easy to inspect and clean. It is important from an protected equipment
energy point of view that it is tight when closed. When • F7 and the best filters of class F6 (dust spot
the system is not in use the closed damper should also efficiency >75%) keep ductwork and ventilation
prevent tendencies of backward flow in the supply equipment clean
duct, which could cause fouling of the parts of the duct • F8 reduces tobacco smoke and bacteria
then not being protected by a filter. • F9 are mainly used for very high demands like
optical industries, operation theatres in hospitals,
The outdoor air damper is often located close to the etc.
filter in the AHU. It is then important that the damper
has the same area as the filter, otherwise the full filter Filtering in two steps or more can be used either to
area will not be used as the air approaches the filter in a prevent moisture problems or to prolong the lifetime of
jet flow, hitting only a part of the filter area. the better filter. The latter should be regarded as an
economic problem. To reduce the energy use, the
7.4.2.2 Filter pressure drop over the filters should be kept as low as
The filter should have a large area resulting in low air possible. Use of higher quality and/or dirty filters
velocity. It should have a pressure-drop measuring increases the energy use. It is therefore advisable to
device to check the degree of fouling of the filter. A replace filters earlier than at their nominal end pressure
large pressure drop indicates that it is time for filter drop (250 Pa for filters class G and 450 Pa for filters
change. class F according to EN 779 [Ref 29]). These pressure
drops are high compared to other pressure drops in the
Fouled filters steal fan energy, emit dust during start- system.
up of the system, and increase the risk for filter
damage. They can also cause smell penetrating into the Tightness
building. It is important that the air filters are properly installed
and that the tightness and condition of the filters must
The space around the AHU should allow easy filter be checked regularly by visual inspections of the
changing. installation. No visual leakage or traces of leakage
should be accepted.
It is important that the filter does not allow any
unfiltered air to bypass it. This could happen if the Eurovent 4/10:1996 - In Situ Fractional Efficiency
filter is damaged or if air leaks around the filter frame Determination of General Ventilation Filters [Ref 33]
or between the filter frame and the AHU casing. describes a method of measuring the performance of
Control and, if necessary, sealing is vital for function general ventilation air-cleaning devices in an
and hygiene, see Table 6. installation. This method makes it possible to compare
laboratory tests and check the air filter properties in
It is most important to prevent water from penetrating real life. Eurovent 4/10 is a recommendation or
the filter. The filter should also if possible be protected guideline when testing an installation in situ and covers
from high relative air humidity (RH >80-90%). If this the measurement of air flow, pressure loss and
is not possible (for instance if it is installed too close to fractional efficiency.
the air intake), the filtration should take place in two
steps. The second filter should then be installed where Acceptable filter bypass leakage is defined in the
it will not be exposed to high RH thus effectively EN 1886:1998 [Ref 28] according to Table 5. The
preventing the growth of micro-organisms and norm defines different leakage rates in percentage
particles. depending on the filter class.
Filters are classified in classes G (G1-G4) and F (F5- Filter class G1-4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9
F9). The higher the number the better the arrestance Total leakage in % - 6 4 2 1 0.5
(G) and dust spot efficiency (F-filters). of nominal air flow
Table 5: Acceptable total leakage, 400 Pa test
pressure. EN 1886:1998.
38
Outdoor Air Quality Indoor Air Quality
IDA 1 (High) IDA 2 (Medium) IDA 3 (Acceptable) IDA 4 (Low)
ODA 1 (pure air) F8 F7 F6 F6
ODA 2 (dust) F6/F8 G4/F7 G4/F6 G4/F6
ODA 3 (gases) F6/F8 F7 F6 F6
ODA 4 (dust + gases) F6/F8 G4/F7 G4/F6 G4/F6
ODA 5 (very high conc.) F6/GF*/F9 F6/GF*/F8 G4/F6 G4/F6
* GF = Gas filter (carbon filter) and/or chemical filter
Table 6: Recommended filter classes according to prEN 13779
Material like plastic or stainless steel, not promoting
7.4.2.3 Exhaust air heat exchanger microbial growth should be preferred for hygienic
Heat exchangers (see Figure 25) for heat recovery reasons (risks of Legionella, see § 7.1.3). Steam or
between exhaust and supply air are rotary direct water humidifiers are safer than humidifiers
(regenerative), or cross flow (direct plate exchangers - circulating water. Scheduled cleaning of the humidifier
recuperative). If the supply and exhaust ducts cannot is also necessary for the same reason.
be located beside each other, water-loop heat
exchangers connected with piping are often used. The humidifier shall be controlled so the relative air
humidity, RH, in the system, especially at the filter,
Besides fouling, leaking of return air into the supply does not exceed 90%.
side is a frequent problem. This is particularly the case
with rotary wheel exchangers, but happens also with To avoid humidity downstream of the humidifier, this
plate heat exchangers, especially if they have been should be shut off before the other parts of the AHU
exposed to frost. To avoid such leakage, pressure when the system is closed down.
should be somewhat higher on the supply side than on
the exhaust side. Recovery systems should be easy to 7.4.2.6 Fans
inspect and clean and also possible to disinfect. Filters The fan should be possible to inspect and clean.
should protect the equipment also on the exhaust side, Especially free-sucking belt driven fans can emit
for plate heat exchangers to protect from fouling, for particles to the supply air. Big belts are better than
rotating heat exchangers also because particles small in this aspect. The fan should have a smooth start
otherwise can be transported over to the supply air. to avoid emission of particles from the belts to the
supply air.
It is important that condensed water can be taken care
of in the warmer section of the airflow. Need for When a high quality filter is used as the second stage it
defrosting must also be analyzed. should be located downstream of the fan to avoid risk
of leakage of polluted air into the system.
7.4.2.4 Air heaters and air coolers
As already discussed for heat recovery systems, 7.4.3 Sound absorbers
heating and cooling coils should be protected from dirt. Like all other parts of the system, silencers shall be
Air coolers often operate below the dew point of the accessible to inspection and cleaning. Porous sound
air. Cooling coils must thus be provided with drainage absorbing materials should be possible to clean without
designed in such a way that there is no risk for ejection this causing any deterioration of the absorption
of polluted air from the sewage system. Cooling coils properties. Duct-mounted sound attenuators should be
should be provided with a drip-plate below the coil, dismountable for cleaning or exchange. Mineral wool
and a droplet separator downstream. Coolers should and glass fibre should be covered with perforated steel
not have filters or silencers directly downstream. The plate to reduce the risk of erosion by the passing air.
equipment should be easy to inspect and clean.
7.4.4 Supply air ducts
To avoid too high relative air humidity downstream of The ductwork should be possible to clean, but too
the cooling coil, this must be shut off before the other many inspection openings should be avoided to
parts of the AHU (except the humidifier) when closing minimize cost and leakage. The ducts should be
down the system. inspected at regular intervals.
7.4.2.5 Humidifiers If there is a risk of condensation at the ducts outside or

The humidifier should be designed so it is easy to inside, they should be insulated and provided with a
inspect, clean, and disinfect. It should be provided with moisture barrier. Inside insulation should be avoided,
a drip-plate, drainage, and a droplet separator. especially if there is any risk of water, through
penetration or condensation.
39
7.4.5 Extract air ducts This is true for extract registers in bathrooms in
If return air is used, it is important for the air quality particular, as the extract air is humid and also often
that the extract air ducts are clean. Heat recovery contaminated with textile fibres from towels and
equipment in AHUs should also be protected from drying laundry. When the vapour condenses on the
fouling, often by a filter located directly upstream of inside of the duct wall the surface becomes moist and
the unit. Severe fouling can also result in decreased the fibres then will stick to it. But this is something that
airflow and unbalance in the duct system. Exhaust air primarily happens near the duct inlet, on the first half
ductwork should therefore be easy to inspect and clean. metre, and can easily be taken care of from the room if
Although it is not normal practice today, filters, located the register is taken down.
close to, or combined with, the air terminal devices
could also protect the ductwork. The increased fan In other cases the contaminants may enter the duct
energy use due to the filter pressure drop must of system in a more unplanned way. They could e.g. be
course be considered before such decisions are made. the result of broken supply air filters, or created by air
that is bypassing the filters through leaks or, after the
7.4.6 Duct cleaning plant has been in operation for a long time, been built
up by the contaminants that are not caught in the filters
but passing through. Cleaning of ducts should here
7.4.6.1 Why? form a part of the preventive maintenance.
There are three main reasons for cleaning ducts:
• the ducts are blocked by pollutants to such a degree 7.4.6.3 Duct cleaning to prevent fire and
that the function is deteriorated, the pressure drop explosion
has increased and the airflow has dropped, or, Ducts transporting inflammable or explosive pollutants
• the inside of the ducts has been covered by are to be cleaned regularly as part of the national fire
inflammable pollutants that can be ignited and codes.
cause a fire or explosion, or
• the ducts contain annoying contaminants or There are several examples when this is applicable for
contaminants creating a health hazard if they are ducts. Extraction from spray-paint booths, from stoves,
released to the room where they might hurt roasting-ovens and deep-fry pans in restaurant kitchens
occupants. and from bakery ovens are some examples of systems
where the prime solution is to prevent the contaminants
to enter the duct, e.g. by using a grease filter above the
stove.
When designing and installing these types of ducts,

special care should be taken. Location of clean-out
openings and other devices that will facilitate the
cleaning e.g. wires inside the ducts, should be designed
according to the national bylaws. Duct and insulation
material and safety space between a combustible part
of the building and the fire insulation on the duct has to
chosen correctly (Fire insulation is discussed in
§ 7.5.2).
Figure 53 : Clean-out and inspection openings on
vertical duct (left) and horizontal ducts. 7.4.6.4 Duct cleaning for health and comfort
reasons
This is the newest of the three reasons and has been
7.4.6.2 Cleaning necessary for keeping the discussed during the last two decades as one way of
function of the duct system preventing buildings to be stricken by the sick building
A risk for deteriorated function as consequence of syndrome.
blocked ducts has been found in extract air ducts, e.g.
from bathrooms in dwelling houses. Shall the ducts be cleaned due to health and comfort
reasons? The problems would then normally be limited
These extract registers are normally connected to ducts to the supply ducts as return air for hygienic reasons is
with small dimensions. Ducts with a diameter of 80- not used as much today as it used to be. If return air is
mm do not stand for any considerable additional build- used in spite of this, then e.g. tobacco smoke and
up with contaminants on the inside before the area is smells must not be brought back with the supply air
choked to such a degree that the airflow becomes and the return air must also be part of the inspection
insufficient. and duct cleaning scheme.
40
It is self-evident that the air-handling system should Sometimes two of these reasons, e.g. requirements for
not be allowed to release contaminants to the supply air both thermal and fire insulation, might coincide. Then
from dirty ducts. Should that be a risk, cleaning the the most cost-effective solution might be to combine
ducts must prevent it. the two demands by choosing insulation that fulfils
both requirements in the same solution. Which of the
This risk could apply if the supply air filters are of poor two requirements is the strongest differs from case to
quality (as discussed in § 7.4.2.2) permitting case. Normally the demand to conserve energy requires
contaminants to enter the system. If the ducts are thicker insulation than that of fire protection.
exposed to microbial growth, e.g. mould in internal
duct insulation (discussed above) or if the supply air is Duct insulation for all three purposes is typically fire
mixed with return air this could also result in an resistant and made of mineral wool or glass fibre.
increased risk.
7.5.1 Thermal insulation with and without
The needs and reasons for duct cleaning presented vapour barrier
above are all due to contaminants entering the ducts Used as thermal insulation, for energy conservation,
during operation. Table 8 summarises common and the insulating material can be applied either to the
important reasons for cleaning ductwork. outside or inside of the duct. Application on the outside
of the duct wall is the normal installation mode when
Contamination during manufacture, transport and the purpose is to prevent heated supply air from being
installation is another problem. Keeping the ducts clean cooled down.
by covering the duct openings with lids is one
alternative that is more and more frequently used. If the purpose is the opposite – the air in the duct is
Should this be required it is necessary to state it clearly chilled and should not be heated – it gets a little more
in the building specification e.g. as one of the complicated. If the temperature of the duct wall, due to
following alternatives: the air in the duct, is lower than the dew point of the
surrounding air condensation could occur on the
Level of During During During During outside of the duct wall. To prevent this, insulation
protection manufacture transport storing installation fixed to the outside of the wall, which might be
at site preferable from a hygienic point of view (see § 7.4.4),
0 No No No Yes, but will have to be protected by a vapour barrier.
only
vertical When there is risk for condensation, insulation and
ducts vapour barriers as appropriate should be installed on
1 No No Yes Yes the outside of the duct, i.e. on the moist side of the wall
2 Yes Yes Yes Yes where the partial water vapour pressure in the air has
Table 7 : Level of protection by covering duct ends the highest value.
It is extremely important that the vapour barrier, e.g.

7.4.6.5 Duct cleaning methods plastic foil or galvanised steel sheet, be completely
Methods used for cleaning include dry cleaning, wet tight. Otherwise the water vapour will enter the
cleaning, disinfecting, encapsulation and duct lining insulation material through leak openings, condense
removal as discussed in chapter 11.3.2. inside the material and wet the insulating material (and
probably also corrode the duct wall). An insulation
The long term effectiveness of duct cleaning is not well material looses most of its insulating capability when
documented. Methods to evaluate duct cleanliness are wet.
not well developed and range from simple hand wiping
of a small surface area to the use of contact microbial If acceptable from a hygienic point, the insulation can
growth plates. instead be located on the inside of the duct wall. The
metal duct wall then serves as the necessary external
vapour barrier.
7.5 INSULATION
When insulation material is applied on the inside of the
Ducts are insulated for three different main reasons:
duct, it is important to choose a material that can be
• thermal insulation to create a thermal barrier cleaned with normal duct cleaning methods (duct
between the inside and the outside of the duct cleaning is described in § 7.4.6). It is also vital that the
• fire insulation to prevent the spreading of fire material does not release any fibres to the air – erodes
through the duct wall – at the actual air velocity in the duct. This may be
• acoustical cladding or lining to absorb noise inside achieved by using long fibre insulation material or by
the duct. covering it with plastic foil and/or perforated steel
sheet.
41
What ducts should be cleaned? Why should they be cleaned?
Function Fire hazard Health
Extract air ducts in dwellings, offices and schools x - -
Return air ducts in dwellings, offices and schools x - x
Supply air ducts in dwellings, offices and schools* - - -
Supply air ducts in offices and schools with return air x - x
Extract ducts in industries x - -
Cleaning due to fire hazard as required by law - x -
* valid when outside air is well filtered, without leakage which by-passes the filter, fouling should be checked regularly.
Table 8 : Reasons for cleaning air ducts
The risk of getting the material wet might also apply if for a rectangular duct, 100-mm is considered sufficient
the material is installed on the inside of the duct. The for a circular duct.
intake duct bringing outside air to the air-handling unit As stated in chapter 1.6, the ductwork could present a
is often thermally insulated on the inside to prevent air fire hazard in a building when the ducts are run through
in the fan room to condense on the duct wall. (Its fire classed walls. Even though there are different
temperature is quite low in wintertime, the air passing building code requirements in different countries they
through the duct having not yet been heated in the air all have one thing in common – the duct penetrating
handling unit). Nor has it been cleaned by the filters. the wall must not lead to a reduction of fire safety. The
This has sometimes led to an unwanted phenomenon, technical solution chosen should thus be compared to
raindrops and snowflakes wet the insulation material the case of the wall without the duct. Likewise should
and dust, earth and seeds brought in by the air create the duct hangers be able to withstand the strain from
excellent conditions for microbial growth in the duct. If the fire without falling down.
the intake duct is not externally insulated and provided
with a vapour barrier, one has the choice between two 7.5.3 Acoustical absorption in ducts
bad alternatives; the most acceptable one is to accept Absorbent material inside ducts is a very efficient
the condensation on the outside but not the health sound attenuator on the assumption that the material is
hazard with microbial growth. Whenever there is risk located in the sound path. Located in duct bends the
of water being brought in with the air into the duct, material will be hit by the direct sound wave and also
internal insulation should thus be avoided. be able to absorb sound energy from the reflections
both upstream and downstream of the bend.
To minimize the risk of having raindrops or snowflakes
entering the plant with the supply air the intake grille Another efficient location is inside the duct that is
should be large enough to keep the air velocity through connected to the fan outlet. Here the sound is very
it below 3 m/s (see § 7.4.1). turbulent before it has been straightened up by
reflections against the duct walls. Absorption cladding
The duct between intake and air handling units should of the inside of this part of the ductwork is therefore
be as short as possible (VDI 6022 [Ref 39]). There also very efficient.
should be possibilities for draining and cleaning (see §
7.4.1). The drain should not be directly connected to Using inside insulation for this purpose, the same
the sewage system (because of the danger of ejecting considerations as described for internal thermal
polluted air). The duct should be provided with an insulation above apply (see § 7.5.1). The material
inspection opening. should not deteriorate due to erosion and particle
release due to high air velocities and it should be
7.5.2 Fire insulation possible to clean the material with normal cleaning
Fire insulation should always be installed on the procedures.
outside of the duct to protect the duct and its gaskets
etc., from melting. When ducts are passing through Perforated steel sheet may be used to protect the
firewalls or other fire partitions, insulation is especially absorption surface from eroding. This does not
important to prevent fire from breaking through the decrease the absorption capability of the surface when
duct wall. using a perforation with a free area down to 20% (i.e.
80% of the material is covered by the steel sheet). This
The fire requirements on ducts and the classes used for is due to the fact that the sound deflects towards the
defining these requirements were discussed in § 1.6. open holes in the surface.
The requirements are not yet common in different
countries in Europe and there is not yet any EN
covering this. Circular ducts are in some countries
approved with a thinner layer of outside fire insulation
than the equivalent rectangular ducts. Where for
example 140-mm mineral wool net matting is required
42
7.6 FIRE The fire damper system is normally controlled by
smoke detectors in the ducts and in the building. The
7.6.1 General location of the sensors is important and should be
studied carefully. If a sensor is located in a main duct,
There are many boundary conditions regarding air
the smoke from the room with the fire will be diluted
ducts. One of the most important is also related to fire:
by extract air from the other rooms connected to the
the duct system should not spread fire or smoke in the same duct. The sensor will then have to have a
building. This gives restraints regarding duct system sensibility that can cope with this low concentration
lay out, duct material, and fire insulation of the ducts.
level. To evacuate the people out of the building has of
Another primary function of ductwork can be to
course highest priority, especially in high rise
transport smoke out of the building in case of fire, or buildings. Smoke-free escape routes can e.g. be
assist in pressurization of escape routes.
achieved by extracting smoke out of the top of stair
shafts. A more advanced method is to pressurize the
The ductwork is thus important for fire safety from the escape route so air only can leak out and no smoke-
following points of view:
polluted air can leak in. This can be achieved with
• Fire spread; special fan and duct systems or with redirecting airflow
• Smoke spread; in the normal duct system. In both cases it is a problem
• Smoke exhaust; that the equipment is not in normal use and thus may
• Pressurization of escape routes. not be reliable when needed. Systems of this kind
therefore have to be tested regularly; a requirement that
The building is normally divided into several “fire should be included in the operation manuals and
cells”, designed not to allow a fire in one cell to spread documented.
to other cells. A good solution then is to have separate
duct systems, one system for each cell. When this is All countries have their own fire codes covering these
not possible the passage through cell dividing firewalls and other fire resistance measures. Even though there
has to be designed to prevent the fire from spreading. is an ongoing European standardization of these
This is achieved by using fireproof materials in the matters there are still many requirements that are
ducts and by tightening with extra fire resistant regulated in national codes. Check these carefully
insulation round the ducts at and close to the passage before finalizing the design.
through the wall, to prevent leakage of hot gases and
heat conduction along the duct. 7.6.2 Escape routes
Escape routes have to be protected from smoke. This
Ducts shall not burn or be so hot that building material,
can be achieved by pressurization, i.e. by keeping the
equipment or furniture outside their fire cell ignites.
fire room at a lower and escape routes at a higher
When there is a risk, a safety distance from such
pressure than the surrounding building8. )
materials should be kept and/or sufficient insulation
should cover the duct. Note that radiation tends to
Pressurization can be achieved by:
dominate the heat transfer. A hot gas inside the duct is
• Using the normal ventilation system with changed
the most dangerous case. To stop such flow, dampers
flows and flow directions;
controlled by fire sensors are installed in the duct
system. • Using special fire pressurization systems.
Fire insulation is discussed in § 7.5.2. A limiting factor for vertical escape routes like
stairwell shafts is the pressure gradient imposed by the
Besides sealing and refinishing the duct hole in the fire temperature difference between indoors and outdoors.
wall as described above, the most important precaution If the temperature indoors is 23°C higher than
is achieved by blocking the duct with fire dampers (see outdoors, the inside pressure will increase with 1 Pa/m.
§ 7.6.3) to control and prevent smoke spreading. These Especially when the shaft is pressurized, this can result
dampers can be used in different ways to enhance fire in high overpressures in the upper parts, which can
safety: make it difficult to open the doors (especially as the
• To close the ducts supplying the building with air doors for safety reasons should open towards the
when the air is polluted by smoke; escape stairwell).
• To bring the smoke more directly out of the
building and prevent smoke polluted exhaust air
from passing e.g. heat recovery units;
• To open special duct systems for extracting smoke,
a technical solution that is sometimes used;
• To close overflow openings or ducts between two
fire cells.
8
See e.g. BS 5588:Part 4:1978 [Ref 20].
43
7.6.3 Fire dampers 7.7.2 Mechanical strength
There are several different types of fire dampers (see Ducts are exposed to either internal positive pressure
also § 1.6): (supply air ducts) or negative pressure (extract air
• for protection against fire (I-class tested); ducts).
• for protection against the spread of smoke (E-class
tested); 7.7.2.1 Rectangular ducts
• for protection against the spread of both fire and Rectangular ducts and components shall have
smoke (EI-class tested). dimensions according to EN 1505 [Ref 26] and fulfil
strength and tightness requirements according to prEN
They should tighten also at high temperatures which 1507 [Ref 32]. This would result in the following
put requirements on the design and materials. A test minimum thickness for welted steel sheet ducts:
code is NT FIRE 010 [Ref ]. See also BS 476:Part
20:1987 [Ref 21] and EN 13053 [Ref 24]. Side length L < 250 250 ≤ L<500 L ≥ 500
Thickness 0.5 0.6 0.9
They shall be tested regularly (see § 1.6) and need thus
to be provided with a damper motor to open the Table 9 : The larger the duct, the thicker the steel
damper after it has been released. These damper If the duct is corrugated or has a similar rigidity the
motors should be factory installed as an integrated and thickness can be reduced to 0.7 mm if satisfactory
factory-tested component of the fire damper. documentation can be submitted.
Older fire dampers installed before the 1960’s – and Ducts shall not generate noise or vibrations. The inner
still found in buildings from that time - are of a rather radii on bends and branch ducts should be 100-mm or
primitive type compared to those used today. The be equipped with guide vanes.
damper blade comprised of a double steel sheet cover
insulated with mineral wool of a thickness intended for The distance between the hangers on rectangular ducts
the fire class (see § 1.6). The blade was hinged at its should be (NS 3420 [Ref 38]):
upper side and kept open by a lock combination
comprising of a fusible alloy (melting at ca. 70o C) and Duct None R 15 R 30
a nitrated string (ignited by flames). Had it been perimeter tisol = tisol = tisol =
released and closed, the damper had to be reopened (m) 0 mm 40 mm 70 mm
manually and provided with a new lock. These
3.6 2.4 2.4 2.4
dampers are difficult to check and it happened that they
4.0 2.4 2.4 2.2
did not function because they were stuck in open
position due to corrosion. 4.2 2.4 2.4 2.1
4.4 2.4 2.4 2.0
4.8 2.4 2.4 1.8
7.7 STRENGTH 5.0 2.4 2.4 1.7
5.2 2.4 2.4 1.7
5.6 2.4 2.4 1.5
7.7.1 General
6.0 2.4 2.3 1.4
Ductwork has to fulfil the following strength 6.4 2.2 2.1 1.3
requirements: Measures are in meter unless otherwise stated in the
• on mechanical strength; table. “R”-values stand for fire strength class at given
• on corrosion sustainability; insulation thickness (see § 1.6).
• on rigidity to vibrations.
Table 10 : Distance between duct hangers.
Ductwork has also to be installed with hangers
withstanding the load of the ductwork under different 7.7.2.2 Circular ducts
conditions.
Circular ducts and components should meet the
requirements in EN 1506 [Ref 27] and circular duct
Many of these requirements will be covered by
should fulfil strength and tightness requirements
European norms at present being discussed before
according to prEN 12237 [Ref 31].
ratification. In the meanwhile most of it is covered by
national or trade standards.
The distance between the hangers on circular ducts
should be (NS 3420 [Ref 38]):
44
Duct None R 15 R 30 around the perimeter; fan room doors have to be
diameter tisol = tisol = tisol = provided with tightening rubber seals. If the fans are
mm 0 mm 30 mm 50 mm located further away from these sensitive areas the
400 3.0 3.0 3.0 problem is easier to solve.
500 3.0 3.0 2.8
630 3.0 3.0 2.1 Select a fan that has a high efficiency, which normally
800 3.0 2.8 1.6 means that the fan is less noisy than less efficient fans
1000 3.0 2.1 1.2 (see § 7.3.5). Check that the fan is well balanced and
1250 2.8 1.7 1.0 prevent the vibrations from the fan to transfer to the
Measures are in meters unless otherwise stated in the building structure where it otherwise might result in
table. “R”-values stand for fire strength class at given noise being released elsewhere in the building –
insulation thickness (see § 1.6). structure borne noise must be stopped already at the
source. Figure 54 shows different noise paths from a
Table 11 : Single hanger in one point fan.
Duct None R 15 R 30
Structure borne noise is a common cause for problems
diameter tisol = tisol = tisol =
and can only be prevented at the source of the
mm 0 mm 30 mm 50 mm
vibration, i.e. at the fan. It has thus to be installed on
400 3.0 3.0 3.0
accurately dimensioned vibration isolators. Vibration
500 3.0 3.0 3.0 bridges between the fan and the building structure have
630 3.0 3.0 3.0 to be cut off. The duct connections on in- and outlet
800 3.0 3.0 3.0 sides of the fan have to be soft, as also the cable to the
1000 3.0 3.0 2.5 fan motor and, if applicable, the drain pipe from the fan
1250 3.0 3.0 2.0 casing to the gutter – neither of these must prevent the
Measures are in meters unless otherwise stated in the fan from moving freely.
table. “R”-values stand for fire strength class at given
insulation thickness (see § 1.6). Figure 55 describes schematically how a noise
Table 12 : Double hangers, i.e. one on each side of calculation for a ventilation system is normally made.
the duct Before starting this task, acceptable noise levels in the
different rooms in the building will have be to decided
upon. The chosen noise level values for the different
7.7.2.3 Flexible ducts rooms should be set according to the intended use of
Flexible ducts are ducts that can be formed by hand the rooms. This decision should be taken together with
without changing their cross-section form. the architect early during the design process as it could
influence also other acoustic factors than the
Flexible ducts shall fulfil the requirements in EN dampening of ventilation noise e.g. the design of walls,
13180 [Ref 25]. doors, slabs and suitable reverberation time values.
7.8 ACOUSTICS
An important boundary condition is acoustics. Noise,
or private conversations in rooms, should not be
transmitted through the ductwork. Nor should noise be
generated in the ducts and transmitted to the rooms.
Noise generation is often governing the choice of air
velocity in the ducts, resulting in velocities lower than
economically optimal (see § 7.2).
The noise abatement program starts already during the

first design phase. A combination of common sense
and basic knowledge will be a good start to prevent
future problems, e.g. do not locate fan rooms for larger
fans and air handling units above or next to noise
sensitive areas (like hotel rooms or offices). Figure 54 : The noise from the fan can spread in
different ways and directions: Vibrations can result in
To prevent the fan noise from disturbing neighboring structure borne noise (a) - Air borne noise carried
rooms, well sound-insulated walls, doors and slabs are through the ductwork (b) - Airborne noise in the fan
required. The airborne noise easily passes through tiny room spreading to adjacent rooms (c), and noise
cracks and narrow openings. Pipes, cables and ducts emitted from other ductwork components such as
running through the walls have to carefully tighten dampers, registers etc (d).
45
Each side, supply and extract, has to be calculated
separately as they are built up in different ways. Thus
the division goes on. There are three main noise
sources in each system:
• Fan;
• Ductwork;
• Registers.
Noise can be created as well as dampened in the duct

system. It is important to keep the air velocities low
near ventilated rooms. As the fan noise has been
dampened passing through the ductwork secondary
Figure 55 : The ventilation noise calculation has to
noise sources like duct bends or dampers might disturb
be split up in several steps as described in the text
more. The third main noise source in the ventilation
below
system is the air terminal device. Check data from the
The noise calculation is normally limited to one or a manufacturers and chose the best alternative. Several
few rooms in the building. The rooms chosen are those registers in the same room add together
with the highest requirements, i.e. those hardest to logarithmically:
satisfy and/or those located nearest to the fans, i.e.
where the fan noise is the highest and thus where the Total noise level = Noise from one device + 10 log n
most fan noise attenuation is needed. where n = the number of devices
When these rooms have been chosen for the calculation Number of devices 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 20
the next step will be to specify the acceptable noise Add dB 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 13
level from the ventilation system to the room. This
ventilation noise level is normally lower than the one Table 13 : Number of dB’s to be added to the level of
previously specified for the room as such as there are one source to get the total sound level value.
other sources of noise also adding to the room noise Example:
level. The ventilation system is one of several sources, The noise level from one supply outlet is: 30 dB
other are e.g. traffic noise from the outside and noise With 4 similar outlets the level will be: 30 + 6 = 36 dB
from activities in the building. ( 30 + 10·log 4 = 36 dB)
This next step in the calculation is thus to decide what The location of the registers is also important. Walls
level can be accepted in addition from the ventilation and ceiling will reflect the noise from the register (like
system – “Requirement Room” in the figure. It should a megaphone). If the terminal device is located in a
normally lie at least 3 dB lower than the room level corner of the room it is surrounded by three reflecting
thus allowing for other sources to add the same amount surfaces. Near the register this will result in a higher
of noise to the room (see Table 13). noise level in the room than if it is located on the wall
at the ceiling (2 reflecting surfaces) or in the middle of
The following step is a further split up – the ventilation the ceiling (one reflecting surface). Each additional
system normally comprises both a supply side and an surface increases the direct noise with 3 dB at the same
extract side and they both have fans, ductwork and distance from the register.
registers that create noise. The sum of the two sides
must thus not exceed the previously set target. If both The noise emanating from the fan will be reduced as it
sides are allowed to supply the same amount of noise passes through the duct system. This dampening of the
to the room this would mean that they should have noise is achieved in many ways. First the sound energy
target values that are another 3 dB lower as the sum of transmitted into the duct at the fan will probably be
two equal noise sources is 3 dB higher than the value split up into several branch ducts in the same way the
for one of them (Table 13). Or, as the supply side air is split up. The table above can be used as a rough
probably generates more noise due to its higher total tool to calculate this. If the air – and thus the noise – is
pressure drop, it could be allowed to be a bit noisier at split up into two equal parts (each will thus get ½, i.e.
the room. 50%) the noise reduction into each of the two branch
ducts will be 3 dB (see the first column “2” = 3 dB). A
Examples: split up into three equal ducts reduces the noise with 5
Allowed noise level from ventilation: 40 dB dB. Ten equal parts = 10 dB reduction and 1/20 (i.e. 5
%) of the total airflow into each = 13 dB noise
1. Supply side: 37 dB; Extract side: 37 dB reduction. The rules of calculating noise are often
10·log (1037/10 + 1037/10) = 40 dB fairly simple but they are mostly based on logarithms.
2. Supply side: 38 dB; Extract side: 36 dB
10·log (1038/10 + 1036/10) = 40 dB
46
down resulting in efficient noise attenuation at a
frequency that can be calculated as a function of the
geometric properties of the absorber.
Silencers are typically made as soft walls in the duct.

In rectangular duct systems extra walls are often
introduced in the damper (baffles), in circular ducts the
most common is to use the perimeter wall only. The
sound absorbing material often is mineral wool or a
corresponding material. The geometric design of the
silencer and the type of damping material chosen affect
the damping ability of absorption silencers. The
straight variants may consist of an outer sheath made
from ventilation duct, and an inner sheath made of
perforated sheet steel. The space between them is filled
with mineral wool of varying density, depending on
application. A fiber cloth is inserted between the
perforated sheet metal and the mineral wool. Its
purpose is to prevent fibers from entering the duct air
flow and to make cleaning possible.
Silencers with baffles have parts that block the duct

system to a greater or lesser extent, and thus obstruct or
prevent cleaning of the duct system.
A bibliography “Ventilation and Acoustics” was

published by AIVC (1997). [Ref 4]
7.9 ENERGY USE

The energy impact of ventilation is usually itemized as
ventilation losses, distribution losses, and fan energy
Figure 56 : The noise from a source will be use:
influenced by the surrounding surfaces. The • Ventilation losses are due to the difference of
directivity factor Q equals 1 for full sphere and 8 for enthalpy between the incoming and outgoing
1/8 sphere. Near the source each doubling of Q will airstreams (outside air getting into the building has
result in a 3 dB noise level increase: ∆L = 10·log Q. to be brought to the temperature and humidity set-
point);
Sound (noise is defined as unwanted sound, like fan • Distribution losses are energy losses that may
noise) is defined as pressure propagation (or occur as the air is transported—e.g., air that leaks
transmission) through an elastic medium (normally out of a duct;
air). When this pressure wave reaches an obstacle, e.g.
• The fan uses energy.
a wall in a room, part of the sound energy will be
absorbed as the sound is reflected back into the room.
7.9.1 Ventilation losses
If the wall material is soft and porous the air molecules
will partly enter the material where part of the kinetic The specific enthalpy of air is:
energy is transformed into heat due to friction losses in h = c pa θ + x c pw θ + x L0
the material (similar to the pressure drop when air is 1442443 {
sensible heat latent heat
passing through a filter). But also a smooth but slightly
where the symbols used in this equation are defined in
elastic wall (a windowpane, a duct wall) will be
the nomenclature. (See § 14.3)
brought into movement by the sound kinetic energy.
The movement of this membrane transforms part of the
kinetic energy into heat in the material itself and at its 7.9.2 Distribution losses
edges. The third noise absorbing principle is the cavity Distribution losses include:
or Helmholtz absorber that could be described as a • pressure drops (See § 4.4 and § 7.3.1);
bottle set into a wall with the bottleneck facing the • leakage losses (See § 4.2 and § 7.10);
room. The sound wave will move the air in the • conduction losses (See § 4.3 and § 7.5.1);
bottleneck in accordance with the oscillating pressure. • and heat recovery losses (See § 4.8).
The air in the bottle volume being compressed and
decompressed respectively will slow this movement
47
The steady-state temperature distribution of the air
flowing through a duct located in an environment
maintained at a constant temperature is given by:
 U A  T2 T3
T f − Tcont = (Ti − Tcont ) exp − = B (Ti − Tcont )
 ρ c q  Qm,s Qm,e
 a pa V 
where:
Energy
Tf is the air temperature at the duct end (K); recovery
Ti is the air temperature at the duct entrance (K) ; device
Tcont is the air temperature of the duct surroundings
(K) ;
A is the duct surface area (m2) ; T4 T1
U is the U-value (thermal transmittance) of the Qm,e Qm,s
duct (W m-2 K-1) ;
B is the transmission losses fraction (-);
and the other symbols are defined in the nomenclature
(See § 14.3).
Figure 57. Schematic diagram of energy recovery
principle. Subscript s and e denote the supply and
The heat flux (Φ) lost through the duct shell is:
Φ =U A
(T f − Tcont ) − (Ti − Tcont )
= U A ∆Tlm
extract sides, respectively.
Type of heat exchanger Class A (%) Class B (%)
 T f − Tcont  Rotary air-to-air heat 70 80
ln 
−
 i cont 
T T exchanger
Fixed-plate cross flow heat 50 60
where the quantity ∆Tlm is called logarithmic
exchanger
temperature difference.
Fixed-pipe heat exchanger 50 60
(*)
More details regarding conduction losses through a
Heat exchanger with two- 45 55
cylindrical duct are available on the CD-ROM. ! phase medium (**)
(*)
Heat exchanger where one of the airstreams passes
Heat recovery units allow some energy to be recovered
through the inside of the pipes and the other on the
from outgoing air streams. The effectiveness is defined
outside of the pipes.
as: (**)
i.e., heat pipe heat exchanger.
Actual transfer of energy
ε= Table 14. Minimum temperature effectiveness
Maximum possible energy transfer
(sensible energy recovery efficiency) as defined in
AMA (1998) [Ref 41]
For sensible heat energy transfer, referring to the figure
below, this equation becomes:
7.9.3 Fan energy use
q m , s c p (T2 − T1 ) The fan power demand can be calculated as follows:
ε=
q m ,min c p (T3 − T1 ) P fan =
qV ∆p fan
η
where: where:
Pfan is the fan power demand (W)
qm,s is the mass flow rate of supply (kg/s) qV is the airflow created by the fan (m3/s)
qm,e is the mass flow rate of exhaust (kg/s) ∆pfan is the total pressure difference across the fan
qm,min is the smaller of qm,s and qm,e (kg/s) (Pa)
and the other symbols are defined in the nomenclature η is the global fan efficiency (-)
(See § 14.3).
The French building code (RT 2000) [Ref 22] proposes
Typical sensible energy recovery effectiveness of air- reference values between 0.2 and 0.6 for the global fan
to-air heat recovery units range from about 50% up to efficiency (Table 15-Table 16).
about 80% (Table 14). Water-loop heat exchangers Typically, the fan power demand lies between 0.5 to 3
(see Figure 25) have relatively low efficiencies (40 to W to provide each l/s of air to a space9. A commonly
60%). Heat recovery can be successfully implemented, used fan law is that the power increases with the cube
however, one should pay attention to hidden losses that of the airflow rate (see § 7.2).
can seriously impact the energy benefits of such
systems (see § 4.8). 9
The value of 0.9 W per L/s (0.25 W per m3/h) is
sometimes adopted as a reference value.
48
P fan ∝ qV3 Note that the flow exponent arbitrarily set to 0.65
actually varies considerably (Carrié et al., 1999) [Ref
2].
This law is true only when the flow conditions stay
similar as the fan speed changes. In particular, caution
Eurovent 2/2 Leakage Leakage ASHRAE
should be exercised when regulating devices are used.
leakage classes at 100 Pa at 400 Pa Leakage Class
(*) (in SI units)
Total pressure drop (Pa) l/(s m2 Pa0.65 ) l/s per m2 l/s per m2 ml/(s m2 Pa0.65 )
Building type Supply Extract
Class A:
Residential 200 150 0.54 1.33 27.0
K < KA = 0.027
Non-residential 500 450
Class B:
0.18 0.44 9.0
K < KB = 0.009
Table 15 Reference pressure drop across the fan Class C:
defined in the French building code (RT 2000). 0.06 0.15 3.0
K < KC = 0.003
Case 1. > 10000 Between < 2000 Class D:
0.02 0.05 1.0
Non-residential m3/h 2000 and m3/h K < KD = 0.001
supply 10000 m3/h (*) Note that leakage Class D is not defined in
Case 2. > 15000 Between < 3000 Eurovent 2/2 but is used in some European countries.
Residential m3/h 3000 and m3/h Table 17. Eurovent 2/2 leakage classes.
supply, all 15000 m3/h
buildings extract
Global fan 0.6 Linear 0.2 7.10.2 ASHRAE Leakage Class
efficiency (-) This classification is based on the leakage flow in cfm
per 100 ft2 of duct surface area at one inch of water,
Table 16 Reference global fan efficiencies defined in generally termed CL. Its definition differs in SI units
the French building code (RT 2000). since 2001. It is simply 1000 times the leakage
coefficient K defined above.
7.10 AIRTIGHTNESS
7.10.3 Effective Leakage Area
Duct leakage is detrimental to energy efficiency,
comfort effectiveness, indoor air quality, and The Effective Leakage Area (ELA) concept is
sometimes even to health. A ductwork airtightness commonly employed to characterise the leakiness of a
limit should be required: building envelope. The equation linking the pressure
• to minimize the cost and the energy penalty due to differential to the leakage flow rate is arranged as
an over-sized or inefficient plant; follows:
• to ease the flow balancing process; 2 ∆pref  ∆p 
n
• to have control over the leakage noise; and qV = Cd ELAref  

• to limit the in/ex filtration to unconditioned spaces ρa  ∆p 
 ref 
(with potentially large effects on energy use, where:
power demand, indoor air quality, and comfort- Cd is the discharge coefficient (-)
effectiveness). perfect nozzle : Cd=1
perfect sharp-edged orifice : Cd ≈ 0.6
A duct system will never be “completely tight”. Its ELAref is the effective leakage area (m2)
leakage is generally classified based on the leakage ∆pref is a reference pressure difference across the
flow rate at some reference pressure normalised by the leaks (Pa)
duct surface area. and the other symbols are defined in the nomenclature
(See § 14.3).
7.10.1 EUROVENT Leakage Class
This classification is based on maximum values of the The physical meaning of the Effective Leakage Area is
leakage coefficient per m2 of duct surface area (l/(s m2 that, at the reference pressure difference, the flow rate
Pa0.65)). passing through the leaks would be the same as that
qV leaking through an orifice of this same area under the
K= 0.65 same pressure difference. The reference pressure
A ∆p ref difference is set according to the typical duct pressures.
where:
qV is the leakage volume flow rate (m3/s) For duct leakage applications, the discharge coefficient
A is the duct surface area (m²) is usually set to 1 and the reference pressure should be
∆pref is the reference pressure at which the tightness close to the ductwork operating pressure.
test is performed (Pa)
49
7.10.4 Leakage flow rate are more expensive to buy than conventional solutions;
The true leakage flow rate is very difficult to measure. however, these components are much easier to install.
However, it can be approximated with the previous Therefore, the significant savings that are achieved on
equations if one knows the leakage class and the labour cost can result in a lower ductwork system cost
operating pressure. The percentage of the airflow when the installation cost is included. Besides, these
generated by the system that passes through the leaks is solutions provide better guarantee towards good
an interesting performance indicator. It is often airtightness which may reduce operating costs as well.
recommended that the leakage flow rate does not Clip systems are an interesting option if the ducts need
exceed 6%, but higher demands are encouraged. to be dismantled during the ductwork system’s life
(Figure 60).
Example: Take a tightness class C ductwork with a
duct surface area of 200 m2. The operating pressure is 7.10.6 Status in existing buildings
90 Pa. Therefore, an estimate of the leakage flow rate 43 leakage tests in France and 21 in Belgium are
is: reported in the SAVE-DUCT handbook [Ref 2]. The
0.65
Q vl = K A ∆pop = 0.003 × 200 × (90)0.65 = 112 l/s. results show that the airtightness is on average more
than 3 times worse than the class A upper limit (Figure
61). Conversely, leakage tests performed in Swedish
7.10.5 Technical solutions buildings at commissioning show that class B or class
Conventional sealing techniques include the use of tape C compliant ductwork can be obtained on a regular
and/or sealing compound (Figure 58). Pre-fitted basis (Figure 62).
gaskets, commonly used in Scandinavia, are rarely
used in other European countries (Figure 59).
Components equipped with pre-fitted sealing devices
Figure 58. Self-vulcanising sealing tape applied around the duct with overlap.
Figure 59. Pre-fitted sealing gaskets for circular ducts. Airtight rivets or plate-screws may be necessary to ensure the
mechanical stability of the joint.
50
Figure 60. The clips ensure good airtightness and the mechanical stability of the joint. These systems are mainly
used for non permanent ductwork or ductwork which has to be cleaned regularly.
10,0
Rectangular
Leakage factor at 100 Pa (L/s per m²)
9,0
Circular
8,0
Circular + flexible + plenum at registers
7,0 Concrete
6,0
5,0
4,0
3,0
2,0
1,0
Class A
0,0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Duct system
Figure 61. Leakage flow at 100 Pa divided by duct surface area (leakage factor) for systems investigated in Belgium
during the SAVE-DUCT project (Carrié et al., 1999).
100%
90% France
80% Belgium
70% Sweden
Occurrence
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
27*Class A
Class D
Class C
Class B
Class A
3*Class A
9*Class A
More
Figure 62. Occurrence of the different tightness classes. Based on 21 systems in Belgium, 21 in France, and 69 in
Sweden. Each stack represents the relative number of systems that comply with the specified tightness class.
51
8 CIRCULAR VERSUS RECTANGULAR DUCTS
The space that is required for installing a circular duct

8.1 SPACE DEMAND FOR DUCTWORK is thus often less than for a rectangular duct with
As described under chapter 8.2, circular ducts are similar pressure drop. The slip joints on rectangular
normally most cost-effective when compared to ducts protrude normally between 20 and 40 mm on all
rectangular ducts. ASHRAE Fundamentals [Ref 9] also sides of the duct. As these slip joints cover the duct
recommends that circular ducts should be used width, they require an available space of the same
whenever feasible. Rectangular ducts were most order on either side of the duct. Often when the duct is
frequently used earlier and still are in many countries. installed above the false ceiling in a corridor or in a
Normally the best solution is to use the two types in duct shaft and the ducts are only accessible from one
combination, e.g. rectangular ducts as plenum ducts side; severe problems arise due to the inwards facing
nearest the air handling units where the airflow is high joint sections.
and the duct dimensions consequently large. Further
downstream the distribution ducts, being circular, are One reason for using rectangular ducts is that they can
connected to the plenum duct. use the available space in a more efficient way than
circular ducts, especially if the side ratio of the space is
big. For such cases an alternative could however be to
use several circular ducts in parallel.
Figure 63 : Slip joints on rectangular ducts add to the

space requirement. At installation free space has to be Figure 65 : Same space and same free duct area
available for the joint connection. A rectangular duct, 250 x 150 mm can, without any
When considering the space demand for the ductwork, increase in pressure drop, be replaced by a duct of 200
it is important not just to check the cross-section of the mm diameter within the same space. The cost is
ducts but also on how they are connected. The slip normally less for the circular alternative.
joints normally used on a rectangular duct are space
consuming compared to joints used on circular ducts.
The slip joints on a rectangular duct also require a

space on either side of the duct for pushing on the slip
joints. This sometimes fools the inexperienced designer
who finds the logical solution for a rectangular duct
shaft to be a rectangular duct.
Figure 66 : A flat rectangular duct can often be

replaced by several parallel round ducts
Several circular ducts, without any need for extra
space, can often replace a flat rectangular duct (Figure
67). Also here the installed cost is normally less than
for the rectangular duct. The use of two or more ducts
Figure 64 : Slip joints make it difficult to install these instead of one rectangular will probably also give
ducts in the shaft. advantages of better airflow control, simplified air
balancing and more flexible zone sectioning.
52
Even though it is possible to make rectangular ducts as
tight as circular ducts, the cost for doing so is higher.
Thus the total energy use for rectangular ducts is larger
than for circular, as both friction and leakage normally
increases. As the investment cost is about the same for
one rectangular duct and several circular ducts, the
latter can be a good alternative when the space is
cramped (Jagemar 1991) [Ref 15].
Circular ducts are easier to manufacture, make tight,

and handle than rectangular ducts, and are thus
normally less expensive. Also, for transporting the
same airflow at the same pressure loss (that is, with the
same equivalent diameter), the sheet metal perimeter
area of a square duct is 13% larger than that of a
circular duct. For a rectangular duct with side ratio 1:2,
the perimeter is 20% longer. It is 41% longer for a side
ratio 1:4 and 51% for a side ration 1:5.
For the same cross sectional area the circular duct is

not only less material consuming due to its shorter
perimeter and simpler connections. The steel gauge can
also be reduced for the smaller and most frequently
used duct dimensions due to the more rigid
construction of a spiral wound circular duct. The
strength of ducts of different dimensions is discussed in
§ 7.7. The complete weight of a typical system
comprising a normal combination of straight ducts,
bends and diffusers, is normally between 30 and 40%
higher for a rectangular system than for a circular duct
system (Figure 68).
All these costs tend to increase with duct size or

diameter. As circular ducts and their components are
manufactured in standardized sizes – in diameters
following a mathematical series of 1:21/3 – this is often
more cost effective than using rectangular ducts that
are “tailor-made” in a high number possible
combinations of height and width (see Table 18). Also
the length of a piece of rectangular ductwork has to be
Figure 67 : Space demand for rectangular or circular measured and manufactured to fit the requirement and
duct(s) cannot be changed on site.
“Time is money” is an often-used expression that is

8.2 COSTS applicable also to the building process. As circular
Traditionally, ventilation and air-conditioning ducts ducts and fittings normally are stock items and can be
have been manufactured with rectangular cross delivered quickly it facilitates fast track building
sections. The rectangular ducts can easily be adapted to programs. The alternative dimensions for rectangular
restricted ceiling voids and plant rooms, however often ducts and components are, as said, practically infinite
at the cost of efficient airflow design and possible cost and thus too many to permit any batch production.
savings.
This leads to another cost aspect; circular ducts can be
The use of circular ducts seems to be increasing, and used anywhere in the building where the diameter fits.
Evans and Tsal (1996) [Ref 12] give the They are delivered in longer lengths than the
recommendation that circular ducts normally are most rectangular ducts reducing the number of necessary
cost-effective. Also ASHRAE Fundamentals (2001) joints. If planned accordingly circular ducts of up to 6-
[Ref 9] recommend that circular ducts should be used m length can be used while rectangular ducts normally
whenever feasible. are limited to 2.4-m length due to the size of steel sheet
used.
53
The weight and bulk of a circular duct system is less The cost for installing the ducts is thus also normally
than that of a rectangular, this influences the cost level different with an advantage for the circular ducts.
and makes it easier to install. While two people are normally required for the
rectangular ducts, one worker can in most cases install
circular duct systems up to 200 mm diameter single
handed.
The duct hangers are often of a simpler design than for

the rectangular duct. The needed space between the
hangers is often larger for a circular duct resulting in a
reduced number and a cost and installation time that
normally is some 20% less (Figure 69).
Figure 68 : Weight of ducts comparison
Figure 69: Hangers and joints for rectangular and

circular ducts
54
9 MANUFACTURE AND INSTALLATION
The normal way to join the different duct parts is by

9.1 MANUFACTURE OF DUCTS using transverse standing drive slips where the two
duct pieces are pressed together compressing an
9.1.1 From manual to industrial intermediate rubber seal. The larger the size of the duct
manufacturing the larger the standing slip joint needed is (see § 8.1).
To align the ducts the four corners of the ducts are
There is a large difference in the manufacture of ducts often provided with holes for bolts simplifying the
– from very manual and time-consuming methods drive slips mounting.
requiring high skill from the workers to large-scale
industrial manufacturing. One great step from the first
to the second phase came with the introduction of
machines for the manufacture of spiral-wound circular
ducts in the middle of the 1960’s. Before that circular
ducts were practically not used at all.
Figure 71 : Slip joints on a rectangular bend

Large widths or heights need to be stiffened to
counteract any pulsation due to varying internal air
pressure in the duct. This could otherwise result in
annoying noises from the moving duct wall. This
Figure 70 : Manually made duct (1910). Today stiffening is done during the manufacture either by
neither the skill, the money nor the time is there. cross-bending the duct sides diagonally or by using
sheet metal with crosswise indented grooves.
Another important change came with the introduction
and large-scale application of standardised dimensions
for ducts as described in § 9.1.3.
An increased awareness of the importance of tight

ducts in many countries starting in the middle of the
early 1970’s resulted in improved and tighter joints on
rectangular ducts. Many manufacturers introduced their
own systems often based on the use of slip joints with
compressed rubber seals increasing the tightness and
reducing the need of mastics and tape. Higher duct
tightness requirements were followed by demands on
tightness control. In step with improved construction
solutions, the demands were raised until today in many
countries where the standard requirements described in Figure 72 : Cross-bent duct sides to increase stability.
chapter 7.10, vary from Class A to D depending on
where the ducts are installed.
9.1.3 Manufacturing of circular ducts
9.1.2 Manufacturing of rectangular ducts All circular metal ducts used today are manufactured
from steel or aluminium bands on rolls. The machines
Despite standard dimensions of heights and widths
used are basically of the same type. The band is rolled
(Table 18) there is such a large number of possible
together to a standard diameter circular duct with
combinations for straight ducts – and even more for
stringent and standardised measurement deviations.
bends – that there is no possibility to stock
manufactured ducts. They are always manufactured on
order. The length of straight ducts is restricted to a
maximum of 2.4 m by the standard size of the
galvanised sheet metal plates.
55
Side
lengths 100 150 200 250 300 400 500 600 800 1000 1200
mm
200 0.020 0.030 0.040
149 186 218
250 0.025 0.038 0.050 0.063
165 206 241 273
300 0.030 0.045 0.060 0.075 0.090
180 224 262 296 327
400 0.040 0.060 0.080 0.10 0.12 0.16
205 255 299 337 373 456
500 0.075 0.10 0.13 0.15 0.20 0.25
283 331 374 413 483 545
600 0.090 0.12 0.15 0.18 0.24 0.30 0.36
307 359 406 448 524 592 654
800 0.16 0.20 0.24 0.32 0.40 0.48 0.64
410 463 511 598 675 745 872
1000 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.80 1.00
512 566 662 747 825 965 1090
1200 0.36 0.48 0.60 0.72 0.96 1.20 1.44
614 719 812 896 1049 1184 1308
1400 0.56 0.70 0.84 1.12 1.40 1.68
771 871 962 1125 1270 1403
1600 0.64 0.80 0.96 1.28 1.60 1.92
819 925 1022 1195 1350 1491
1800 0.90 1.08 1.44 1.80 2.16
976 1078 1261 1424 1573
2000 1.00 1.20 1.60 2.00 2.40
1024 1131 1323 1494 1650
Table 18 : Cross-sectional area (m²) and equivalent diameter (m) of standard rectangular ducts according to EN
1505 [Ref 26]
Circular ducts are manufactured in a limited number of loosening the joints are fixed with either tight rivets or
sizes. The standardised diameters follow a special screws.
mathematical series with a constant diameter increase
of 1:21/3 (i.e. approximately of 27%). The following A normal ductwork system comprises a large number
diameters are standardised in Europe (Table 19 - of duct components, described in chapter 2.2, along
diameters not following the series are sometimes used with the straight ducts. These duct components are for
in some countries, these diameters are shown within example bends, T-branches, X-branches, dampers and
brackets). reducers to name but a few. As these follow the
standard dimensions described above, they are
63 80 100 125 160 200 normally manufactured on stock with short delivery
250 315 (355) 400 (450) 500 times.
(560) 630 (710) 800 (900) 1000
(1120) 1250 (1400) 1600
Table 19 : Standardised diameters for circular ducts
in Europe (mm)
The length of a straight duct is virtually limited only by
transport restrictions. A standard length is thus 3.0-m
but in some cases also 6.0-m lengths have been
manufactured, transported and installed. Using large
duct lengths speeds up the installation and reduces the
number of required joints. Figure 73 : Double sealing gasket. Due to larger
tolerance range between duct and fitting with
Using intermediate fittings provided with none, one or increasing duct diameters, the gasket size increases in
two rubber sealing gaskets normally joins the straight steps with the duct diameter.
ducts. The duct components are also provided with the
same type of sealing joints. To prevent the ducts from
56
9.2 INSTALLATION OF DUCTS
9.2.1 Common duct installation problems

Ducts, whether rectangular or circular, are large in
comparison to other building installation systems such
as cables and pipes. They have large turning radii and
are thus difficult to move around if should come in
collision course with other installations. To prevent the
very common problem of colliding installations, e.g. in
corridor false ceiling space, these space critical parts of
the building, coveted by all designers and contractors,
Figure 74 : When the duct is pushed onto the fitting should be studied in advance and in detail. Sections
(or vice versa) the gasket is compressed and tightens showing the permissible installation area for each
the space between the two. installation and contractor should be clearly stated.
Anyone that is leaving a designated area and is moving
into a neighbour’s should be obliged to redo the job by
moving back.
Figure 75 : Truck arriving at site with duct

components.
9.1.4 Manufacturing of flat oval ducts

One disadvantage of using circular ducts is that they
cannot be flattened when the space is scarce. This is
one strong reason for using rectangular ducts even
though there might be a possibility to use several
circular ducts in parallel as described in chapter 8.1
A compromise used in some countries is the flat oval

duct. It is manufactured as a circular duct as described
above but is then pressed or stretched in a special tool
to become “flat oval”. This is to be primarily used
instead of flat rectangular ducts in narrow spaces.
The requirements for a flat oval duct – being

manufactured as a circular one – follows generally
those for a circular duct. Flat oval ducts should only be
used for positive pressure applications unless special
designs are used to prevent the duct from being too
flat.
One disadvantage with flat oval, as opposed to circular,

ducts is however the more complex joint systems and
duct components. The latter are also required in a large
number of width and height combinations making
prefabrication of ducts and components unfeasible.
Figure 76 : Four possible alternatives starting with

rectangular ducts followed by circular ducts.
57
Ducts serving rooms on both sides of a corridor often When designing critical areas in this detail it is
lead to a tricky space-planning problem. The space is necessary to take the installation methods used and the
often also required to serve other purposes than space requirements that follow into consideration. A
ventilation: cable trays, lighting, sprinkler tubes, and typical illustration is the way an externally insulated
often hangers for the false ceiling. Figure 76 shows duct is installed. After the duct is installed – requiring
four possible solutions for typical duct installations e.g. proper space for slip joints if the duct is of
where orange represents the supply duct(s) and blue the rectangular shape and space for duct hangers – the
extract one(s). insulation contractor will arrive to start work. Ample
space to put on and fasten the insulation material has to
As seen, the height needed for the ducts differs and be found. If the ducts are installed too close to the
could be a crucial factor if the free room height in the ceiling, walls or other installations, high standard duct
corridor is limited. insulation will be difficult to ensure.
S1 SHI
H
H
SWI W SWI
S1 W SR
S12
S1
D
D
SI1 D SI
S1 D SD
Duct size (mm) Circular Rectangular

ducts ducts
Duct size (mm)
Circular Rectangular SI1 SI2 SWI SHI
Circular Rectangular Minimum Recommended D 10
W or H mm mm mm mm
D W or H
≤160 ≥100 ≥50
≤160 ≤150 S1 ≥50 ≥100
>160≤300 ≥200 ≥100
>160 >150 S1 ≥100
>300≤500 ≥300 ≥100
≤800 SD ≥400
>500≤800 ≥400 ≥100
>800 SD ≥400 D/2
>800 ≥500 ≥150
W≤800 SR ≥400
W,H≤700 ≥400 ≥400
W>800 SR ≥400 W/2
700< ≥600 ≥400
Figure 77 : Installation space for uninsulated ducts W,H≤1200
W,H>1200 ≥600 ≥600
This detailed planning is troublesome but is well
worthwhile. It prevents the first installer from using the Figure 78 : Installation space for ducts insulated with
main part of the available space and leaving only an 100 mm
inadequate remaining space for colleagues. It speeds up
the installation process and prevents heated arguments
on site.
10
NB: D is here the gross measure including the 100
thick insulation
58
9.2.2 Installation of rectangular ducts using a fork lift truck for lifting and holding the duct
Even though the ductwork is shown to scale on the while being connected and fixed to the hangers.
drawings, the manufacture has to be based on site
measured dimensions, at least for the last part of the Duct hangers for a circular duct are often less material
duct that has to fit in into the remaining space. Should consuming. They can either consist of straps on both
a piece of rectangular duct be incorrectly measured that sides of the duct diameter or a single hanger similar to
part often goes to scrap as it is normally impossible to the ones used for pipes.
use it somewhere else in the building due to the large
variety of rectangular duct dimensions.
The ducts should, on site delivery, be protected from

rain, dust and snow especially if the are internally
insulated. As described in chapter 7.4 there is an
increased awareness of dirty ducts being one important
reason for creating SBS conditions. By protecting the
ducts and components from pollutant during transport,
storing and installation the risk is at least diminished.
Larger sized ducts are heavy and normally require two

fitters (and sometimes a fork lift truck) for the
installation work. The work starts with installing the Figure 79 : Installation of ductwork from a movable
duct hangers, one on each side of the duct width, that platform.
are fixed to the ceiling. In industrial buildings, ware
houses and stores the ducts are often fixed to a wall
using brackets.
These brackets should be heavy-duty and securely

fixed to the wall. It has happened that these rectangular
ducts have been used as a platform when replacing
faulty lamps high up on the wall. It was easier to do it
this way than to get a ladder or a wheeled scaffold –
but much more dangerous! In Sweden several serious,
even fatal, accidents due to this misbehaviour has lead
to a special requirement: Ducts (or pipe bridges or
cable ladders) that are installed so that they might be
mistakenly used as platforms should be dimensioned Figure 80 : Bracket-hanger for circular duct.
for an extra force of 1 kN” (corresponding to weight of
ca 100 kg).
When the ducts are installed there has to be enough

space for connecting the ducts with the drive slips that
are hammered on to the upstanding joint flanges from
the side of the duct. As these slips have to have the
same width or height as the duct itself there has to be
an accordingly free space available during the
installation. This is sometimes forgotten, it seems to be
a good idea to fill a rectangular shaft with a rectangular
duct of the same size. It looks good on the drawing but
is unfortunately not possible to achieve in reality (see §
8.1).
Figure 81 : A rectangular duct has to be supported on
both sides with hangers – compare with the pipe.
9.2.3 Installation of circular ducts
Compared to rectangular ducts for the same air velocity A circular bend – contrary to a rectangular one – can be
circular ducts are less heavy. This follows from the fact turned in any direction, to each side, up or down or in
that less material is used for the duct itself (the any arbitrary direction. This is an example of how a
perimeter is shorter for a circle than for a quadrangle or small number of components can be used in a large
rectangle with the same cross-area) and for the joints. number of ways and how a component not fitted in one
The less weight enables a single fitter to install larger place can be used somewhere else. It simplifies the
ducts than is the case for rectangular ones. Even quite work on site as the ducts and components are
large diameter ducts can be installed single-handed by prefabricated and not tailor-made.
59
Externally insulating a circular duct is relatively easy
as the insulation material is formed around the circular
shape of the duct without being stretched at any
corners, as is the case with a rectangular duct. On the
other hand insulating ducts internally is not possible on
circular ducts but is easily done on rectangular ducts
(even if it is not that common today as it used to be
earlier due to an increased concern about cleaning
ducts on the inside – see § 7.4.6).
The normally less space requirement of a circular duct

is often especially valuable when installing ducts in
shafts of high rise buildings. One of the case studies
(see § 12.2) shows an interesting solution. In a very
cramped space in a vertical concrete shaft it has been
possible to install twenty parallel circular ducts, one for
each floor of the building. The space saving duct
installation enables a larger part of the area on each
floor to be let and thus increases the income for the
building owner in the years to come.
60
10 TESTING, ADJUSTING AND BALANCING (TAB)
10.1 QUALITY CONTROL Very often the outcome of the building process does
There are different commissioning procedures. not however exactly corresponds to the design shown
Different customs and practices and different standard on the original drawings. The reasons can be
contracts will influence the process. numerous, e.g. unforeseen collisions between different
installations and/or building components. It is
The important common item is that a commissioning important that these changes are shown clearly on a set
procedure takes place before the building is put into of drawings and that these are filed for future use.
operation and the liabilities of the parts being involved Often these divergences are hard to detect once the
in the building process expire. The building will constructions are hidden behind walls or above false
probably stand for at least half a century and its ceilings.
building installations, though having a shorter life
span, are also expected to last for some twenty years. It Changes being made during the building process might
is at this time, before the building is ready for negatively influence the performance of the ductwork
occupation, vital to control that it has a probable installations. The noise generated by the duct
chance to fulfil the expectations of the building owner, components might be higher and the noise attenuation
and of the future tenants on a healthy building with lower than originally anticipated. The pressure drop in
good thermal comfort. branches can be higher influencing the future operation
costs and making the flow balancing more difficult.
When it comes to the commissioning of ventilation The possibility to install correct insulation might have
duct systems there are, regardless of different national diminished thus jeopardising the fire safety of the
customs, however some common quality matters that building.
should always be included among the necessary quality
control checks: The contractor (who ought to know where he has made
• As-built drawings; alterations) should show these changes on a set of the
• Cleanliness control; design drawings kept on site during the construction
and handed over to the building proprietor prior to the
• Airflow and Flow balancing;
flow balancing start up. These changes should be
• Tightness control;
transferred to the design drawings being filed as “As-
• Thermal and acoustic insulation; built drawings”.
• Fulfilling of fire safety requirements;
• Duct hangers vs. duct requirements;
• Marking of ducts. 10.3 CLEANLINESS CONTROL
In chapter 7.4.6 the motives for requiring clean ducts,
Another common requirement should be that applied
the cleanliness maintenance methods during the
measurement methods should be well documented and
installation and the cleaning methods have been
have as small a method error as possible and that the
described. A spot-check control of the internal
instruments being used have adequate precision, are
cleanliness of the ductwork should be made prior to the
calibrated regularly and that the use of both methods
other ductwork checks.
and instruments are well known by the personnel
involved.
This spot-check should also determine the future
possibility to clean the ductwork. Are the ducts
The results of the different controls should be
provided with necessary and correctly located
accounted for in written form using standard protocols
inspection openings? Are they accounted for in the
signed by the person in charge. These documents
drawings? Is the location clearly marked in case they
should be filed, as they will prove valuable in the
are otherwise hard to find?
future for function controls and before reconstruction.
10.4 AIRFLOW BALANCING

10.2 AS-BUILT DRAWINGS
It should be a common rule that the airflow to the
Normally the contractor and the building proprietor
different rooms in the building is carefully adjusted and
should have agreed on larger changes of the original
controlled as part of the commissioning of the building
design beforehand. The designer should be involved in
and its installations. In some countries this seems to be
this decision process, as the change might be contrary
more the regular case than in other countries.
to the intended function. In this case the decided
alteration will normally be added as a revision to the
original drawing.
61
10.4.1.2 Prerequisites
The total pressure drop in a duct comprises friction
resistance and pressure drop over obstacles (see §
7.3.1). The pressure drop across obstacles will
normally vary with the square of the air velocity in the
duct.
Certain duct components, such as T-junctions, will not

always follow this rule completely, which could be
disadvantageous if the flow is largely changed. The
friction pressure drop will normally vary with the
square of the air speed (see § 7.3.1). At large changes
of the airflow deviations from this quadratic relation
can be obtained. This means that at big (>50%)
changes of the airflow the prerequisites of the
Figure 82 : Airflow measuring in a duct proportionality method will not be fulfilled. To cover
In order to achieve this it is important that the duct oneself against unfavourable flow conditions it is
system is planned and installed in such a way that the therefore recommended that the flow deviation in the
balancing and the measuring of airflow is possible and subsystem to be adjusted is not higher than ± 30%. At
that this work can be done accurately at minimum cost. higher deviations the branch ducts should first be
roughly adjusted.
Two major methods are used for the balancing of
airflow: 10.4.1.3 Advantages with the method
• the Proportionality method; Most supply and extract air installations, regardless of
• the Pre-set method. type and size, can be adjusted wholly or partly with the
proportionality method. The method can be combined
10.4.1 The proportionality method with the pre-set method (see § 10.4.2). This pre-setting
could e.g. be done for groups of registers while the
dampers in the branch ducts leading to the groups are
10.4.1.1 General
adjusted according to the proportionality method.
Air balancing according to the proportionality method
is done by adjusting dampers and registers in the 10.4.1.4 Description of the method
system so that every register delivers the same
The adjusting of the airflow of the registers always
proportion of its designed airflow. The work is done as
starts with having all dampers and registers fully open.
a systematic step-by-step method where every step is
The register that is located at the largest distance
depending on the previous one. It is not necessary to
downstream is denominated as the reference register R.
measure the absolute value of the airflow. The method
is instead based on relative data such as air velocity
The starting point of the adjustment is the register that
and pressure. When finally the fan speed has been
has the lowest relation between measured and designed
adjusted all registers in the system should deliver the
airflow, i.e. Qmeasured/Qdesigned. Should any other register
designed airflow.
than “R” in the group have a lower quota, this register
will be designated the Index register, I. The reference
The proportionality method uses the principle that the
register is adjusted so that its quota becomes equal to
relation between the different airflow in branch ducts
the quota of the index register. The damper of the
will remain the same even if the airflow in the main
index register shall be fully open after the adjustment.
duct is changed. This means that the airflow in the
branch ducts will be reduced by 20% if the airflow in
The procedure continues with adjusting the registers
the main duct is lowered by 20% using an adjustment
against the reference register by adjusting the dampers
damper in the main duct.
in the registers so that the airflow relations, or quota,
will be the same for the registers.
The same relation is valid for all registers in the
system. This principle is used a systematic adjustment
The same procedure will be used at adjustment of duct
of the airflow. It means that the relation or the quotient
branches and main ducts.
between measured airflow and designed airflow for the
different air registers and branch ducts gradually will
10.4.2 The pre-set method.
be adjusted to the correct values. During the
adjustment work there is no need to make any The pre-set method requires that:
measurement of the absolute airflow; instead it is an • A careful pressure drop calculation for the
advantage to make relative measurements. ductwork installation is available. The calculation
is based on reliable data from the manufacturers;
62
• The set values for all dampers and registers have
been calculated and noted on the drawings;
• All ductwork components have been installed
according to the building specification;
• The actual installation corresponds to the design
drawing and to the one calculated (otherwise a
new calculation based on the as-built drawings has
to be made).
Once this has been checked the pre-set adjustment

method is fast and accurate. All dampers and registers Figure 83 : Symmetrical ductwork where the supply
are set according to the values shown on the drawings air (entering at 1) passes through identical duct
and in the building specification. components on its way to the registers.
The measurement of the airflow at the registers will

now correspond to the design values and verify that the
calculation has been correct and that the adjustment of
dampers and registers has been made correctly. Should
this not be the case the work has to be restarted
checking the items listed above.
Even though this method is theoretically perfect and -

in the best of worlds - fast, reliable and cost effective it
is in practice rather seldom used except for small and
easily controllable systems. In reality there are too
many alterations between the designed installation and
the one actually installed to make it possible to base the -.- = design airflow
adjustment only on software. --- = pre measurement before adjustment
__ = calculated air distribution
10.4.3 Comparison between the methods flow in liters/second
Comparison shows that the proportionality method Figure 84 : Example on calculated and actual airflow
really is based on the actual installation and not on the distribution on a branch duct with 26 connected
contemplated design forming basis for the pre-set extract air registers. Each register comprises an
method. Even though the proportionality method is adjustment damper. This example is showing a real
time consuming, costly and requires skilled personnel, installation before reconstruction!
it is the most used method today.
Figure 85 and Figure 86, where the symmetrical
10.4.4 Ways to simplify the adjustment work principle has been used, show the same branch duct as
in Figure 84. The split up of registers in groups makes
It is an advantage both for the adjusting and for the
the airflow adjustment possible.
energy use of the plant if the ductwork design is made
with parallel distribution paths rather than distributing
the air to registers in series. The shorter the transport
distance is between the fan and the registers, the lower
the transport energy normally needed and the easier the
adjustment.
Installing dampers in a symmetrical ductwork – as

shown in one of the case studies, see § 12.3 - is an
extremely simplified method. The distance between the
main duct and each register is built up in the same Figure 85 Now it is possible to adjust the airflow. The
manner, with the same amount of elbows and the same registers are combined in smaller groups, each with
duct lengths (see § 7.1.6). its adjusting damper.
The distance between the first and the last register

installed in the same duct should be as short as possible
to prevent too high throttling in the register dampers
which could lead to adjustment and noise problems.
The duct should instead be split up in branch ducts and
connection ducts, see Figure 83.
63
B – Measurement at exhaust registers and air inlets
• point measurement with hot-thread anemometer at
rectangular air intakes
• pressure drop measurement with probe
• pressure drop measurement with probe
• pressure drop measurement with fixed installed
measurement unit
• measurement with anemometer
• measurement of center velocity in circular extract
air openings
• measurement with impeller anemometer on air
intakes
Figure 86 The same system once more solved with an
alternative location of the adjusting dampers. C – Measurement at supply air registers
• measurement of reference pressure at plenum box
inlet
10.4.5 Airflow measurements • measurement of reference pressure inside plenum
When you can measure what you are talking about and box with one pressure outlet
express in numbers, then you know something about it. • measurement of reference pressure inside plenum
[Lord Kelvin, 1824-1907] box with two pressure outlets
• direct measurement method with connection
10.4.5.1 Vital for the function sleeve
Probably the most important quality criterion for an air • indirect measurement method with connection
handling system is its ability to supply and extract the sleeve
correct airflow. The airflow will change during the life • measurement with zero pressure difference (help
span of the installation due to wear and tear in the long fan)
run and due to clogging filters in the short run. It is • the bag method
thus vital that the installation is built in such a way that
the airflow can be measured accurately and be cost- 10.4.5.3 Measurement accuracy
effective at the commissioning and also at regular Every measurement always has an error, an accuracy
intervals in the future. that can vary and that should be expressed as
calculated or an estimated deviation from the value
10.4.5.2 Measurement methods shown on the measurement instrument. This
The airflow measurement should be based on measure measurement error comprises of three different types
methods and instruments with known accuracy. In the of errors:
Nordic countries such methods have been described in
detail in a handbook recommended by the Nordic m1 = instrument error, due to hysteresis that is
Ventilation Group [Ref 16]. The work started already not possible to compensate for. The manufacturer
thirty years ago and has been regularly updated; the should give information about this type of instrument
latest edition is from 1998. The methods described inaccuracy. The accuracy of a measurement instrument
have one factor in common, they have been tested and is often related to the price of the instrument.
they have a known and recognised low method error
(less than 10%) if applied in the correct manner m2 = method error, due e.g. to the chosen
described in the book. direction of the measurement probe and the distance
between the probe and e.g. the surface of the air
The following methods in different applications are register. It is important that this type of method error is
described and recommended in the latest edition: known and that the measurement is carried out under
the same conditions. Different methods have different
A – Measurement in duct method errors and the method chosen should take this
• Prandtl pipe traverse in circular duct into account. Common for the different methods listed
• Prandtl pipe traverse in rectangular duct in chapter 10.4.5.2 is that the method error, when the
• fixed installed measurement units without dampers method is applied as described in the manual, is less
• fixed installed measurement units with dampers than 10% with the best ones being the bag method
• hot-thread anemometer in circular duct (normally 3%) and the Prandl pipe used in rectangular
• hot-thread anemometer in rectangular duct ducts (normally 4%).
• tracer gas measurement
m3 = reading error, due e.g. to the difficulty to
• measuring of total airflow at fan inlet
optimally read the value of the instrument. Scale and
type of instrument, analog or digital, is of importance.
64
For instruments with analog scale the error can be 10.5 TIGHTNESS CONTROL
estimated to 1/3 of the steps of the scale. If the The importance of having tight ducts in the installation
deflection is pulsating an additional error, estimated to is described in chapter 4.2.
1/8 of the amplitude, has to be added.
Spot-check control of the ductwork tightness is a vital
These three parts form the probable error of the part of the commissioning procedure. It is by stating
measured value: quality requirements in the building specification and
by controlling the actual quality at the commissioning
mm = (m12 + m22 + m32 )1/2 % stage that the quality can be improved.
The result of the measurements should be accounted
for in a signed protocol. This document has a value
during the commissioning to show that the ventilation
system is fulfilling the requirements stated. But it has
also a value in the future; it provides a valuable tool for
control of the function of the system. A very common
cause for the sick building syndrome is that the airflow
is not correct or not in balance with the emissions
emitted into the room air.
The protocol should include many details:

• All data describing the plant, project, reference
number, date for the measuring;
• System measured and location of the probe or
instrument;
• Instruments used, their number or other
designation that will enable an identification in
case of a dispute;
• The measured data; Figure 87 : Typical equipment used for tightness
• Notes of factors that may have had an influence on testing of ductwork.
the measured result (e.g. stack effects due to
outside/indoor temperatures, wind effect – these An interesting example of this is described in chapter
factors are described in § 3.3 and § 7.3.2); 7.10 where the tightness in a previous European project
• Calculated probable measurement error, i.e. what showed that ducts in Sweden were 25-50 times tighter
is the ± deviation of the stated value; than those installed in Belgium and France. One
• Signature by the one responsible for the given important difference between the countries is that tight
values. ducts have been required in the Swedish contract
conditions for ventilation systems (VVS AMA [Ref
To facilitate the checking of the airflow in the future in 41]) since 1968 with the demands regularly raised
a simple manner – otherwise it will probably not be concurrently with technology advances.
done – it is a good rule to have the location of the
measurement probes in the ducts marked in a easily Also note that the installed quality has been spot-
readable way. checked under the supervision of the consultant as part
of the contractor’s commitment. In case the installation
is found to be leaking more than required the
10.4.6 Conclusion
installation has to be tightened and re-measured before
The methods may vary from building to building but accepted (see § 5.3.4).
the important conclusion is: make the systems possible
to adjust and measure; Check that the set airflow
requirements are achieved. Correct airflow is the most
vital prerequisite for a well functioning ventilation
system.
65
11 MAINTENANCE
Function
11.1 MAINTENANCE – WHY?
11.1.1 Plan for a long installation life span …

The life span of a technical installation is often
compared with the shape of a bath tube (Figure 88):
Cost
Time
Figure 89 : Function raise up of a technical
A B C installation thanks to maintenance
Time 11.1.2 … but it will not last forever

When the installation becomes older wear and tear
Figure 88 : Life span of a technical installation takes its toll and age begins to tell. The costs for
There are high costs at both ends. By following the necessary maintenance measures now increases and
annual costs for maintaining an installation, repairs become more frequent – part C of the curve. By
replacement can be planned well in advance. keeping a good control of the maintenance and repair
costs the exchange of a worn out piece of equipment
When the installation is new, and the operation has just can be made as a planned part of the preventive
started, there is a need for checking that it is working maintenance and not as an unplanned calamity. The
as expected. Minor alterations and repairs have to be work can then also be made at a specific time, e.g.
made during the first period. These costs are normally during vacation periods, when the disturbance to the
carried by the contractor as part of a guarantee. These use of the building is as low as possible.
actions normally lead to a better and more trouble-free
operation of the installation and the adjustment costs 11.1.3 Corrosion protection is vital
decrease – part A of the curve. Then follows a Choosing the right duct material is most vital when it
hopefully long period – some decades – part B of the comes to extending the life span of the ductwork. This
curve during which the plant has to be maintained item is discussed in chapter 11.1.4. If the ductwork is
according to plans but few repairs are needed. installed in corrosive environments standard material –
zinc-coated steel – is often not good enough.
During this period the amount and cost of maintenance
work can be planned and cost-estimated based on The following table shows the speed with which the
experience from similar installations. The aim of the zinc coat is corroded in different environments. A
maintenance work during this period is to regularly common problem for building installations occurs
raise the function up to the original level whenever when condensation water is dripping down from a cold
needed (Figure 89). How this is done should be surface on to a galvanized duct or other zinc-coated
described in maintenance manuals tailor-made for the surface. This should be prevented e.g. with adequate
actual installation. thermal insulation and vapour barrier on the cold
surface or by relocating one of the two. The reason for
In house or hired personnel will carry out maintenance the aggressiveness is that the condensation water, like
depending on complexity. Often the choice is a distilled water, is salt-free.
combination of in-house responsibility for ordinary and
simple jobs and hired personnel from a contractor to do
work requiring special equipment and more expertise.
Examples of regularly needed maintenance actions

could be duct cleaning or filter exchange. The first is
based on inspections the latter on pressure drop
measurements for example.
66
Environment Approximate corrosion Sometimes it might be necessary either to choose a
speed (µm/year) more corrosion-proof material than the ordinary
Indoors <0.5 galvanized steel or to protect the surface of the ducts
Alpland <1 with one or several additional layers of high-quality
Countryside, inland 0.5 – 1.5 paint as listed in the table. Should this be the case it is
Sea-coastal regions important to regularly check the paint for damages and
Towns 1–3 to improve the paint layer whenever needed.
Countryside 0.5 - 2
Industrial areas 2 – 10 One good way to simplify the control for paint
Sea water damages has been used e.g. in the nuclear industry
North Sea 12 – 46 where required layers of paint have been applied with
Baltic Sea ca. 10 different colours. A scratch on the paint will then be
Fresh water easily detected by the colour of the lower layer
Hard 2–4 showing up. Several colours shown will show that the
Soft <20 damage goes deep down through several layers of the
Tap water + 15oC <15 paint. Another advantage will of course also be that the
quality of the contractor’s workmanship is easy to
Distilled water11 50 – 200
control.
Soil 500
Table 20 : Approximate corrosion speed of zinc Choosing a right combination of material and corrosion
coating protection paint can prolong the life span of the
ductwork even in corrosive environments to some
Example : twenty years (after which it will probably anyhow be
Standard quality ductwork is manufactured of replaced for other reasons).
galvanized steel sheet, class Z275, with a zinc coat
layer thickness of 20 µm (Z275 is coated with 275 g 11.1.5 Plan for the exchange of worn-out
zinc distributed equally on both sides of a 1 m2 large equipment
steel sheet).
As described earlier (§ 8.1) is important to provide
With an approximate corrosion speed of 50 – 200 ample space for the installations. A correct space
planning of the installations should achieve that they
µm/year a layer with 20 µm thickness would only last
can be:
for a few months if exposed to condensation water!
A comparison between mean values in gram per m2 and • transported into the building (Figure 90);
year and µm per year shows that they are 7 to 1. • installed (Figure 91);
• tested;
11.1.4 Is standard quality good enough? • maintained (Figure 92);
• repaired (Figure 93);
A recommendation on what to choose as ductwork
• and exchanged when worn out (Figure 94).
material in different corrosive environments is given in
Table 21. As shown in the table most of the duct
materials (with the exception of unprotected steel 11.1.6 Plan for a good work environment
sheet) are suitable for use in environments with low or The need for access should take care of industrial
moderate corrosivity (class M0 – M2). Should the welfare and safety. Often the maintenance personnel
expected corrosivity however be higher either a better have to carry heavy tools and equipment, e.g.
material (e.g. stainless steel) or one or several replacement filters, to the plant rooms. They should be
additional layers of corrosion protection (plastic or able to do this job in a safe and comfortable way.
paint) have to be applied to the duct surface. Ladders are e.g. difficult to use when carrying burdens
and both hands are needed for climbing.
Example:
Should a standard type of duct (Z275 – see §11.1.3) be The same considerations for the work environment
used indoors at constantly high air humidity (i.e. should be made for the plant rooms – they represent
Environment class M4A with very large corrosivity) it working places and should be equipped with ample
has to be protected by “AG100+AM100+AT100” space for the jobs to be done, with adequate lighting
which means by three equally thick (100 µm) layers of and painted surfaces. Major repairs and the exchange
tar- or resin-modified epoxy paint. As described before of equipment necessary in the future should be
(see §11.1.4) these paint layers should be chosen with prepared already when the equipment is installed the
different colours. first time. Heavy equipment, like fans and water
chillers can neither be carried nor lifted manually.
Necessary lifting tools, floors that will be able to carry
the loads, transport openings and doors have to be
11
The same corrosion speed will occur when a zinc provided. Vertical transports might need cranes and
layer is exposed to condensation water derricks, horizontal wide enough doors.
67
Environment classes Material
Steel sheet Hot dip Steel sheet Aluminium Stainless
hot rolled galvanized metallized sheet steel
and cold- steel sheet with
rolled aluminium−
zinc (AlZn)
Environment Corrosivity Examples Surface coating
class
M0 None Indoors in dry air, e.g. in Prescribed Z275 AZ150 None 1.4301
heated rooms surface according to
coating EN 10 088-2
M1 Insignificant Indoors in air with Prescribed Z275 AZ150 None 1.4301
changing temperature and surface according to
humidity and insignificant coating EN 10 088-2
level of air pollutants, e.g.
in unheated rooms
M2 Moderate Indoors at moderate BG40 + Z275 AZ150 None 1.4301
influence of humidity and AT80 according to
moderate levels of air EN 10 088-2
pollutants. - Outdoors in
inland parts in air with
low levels of air
pollutants, e.g. in a larger
area not densely built-up.
M3 Large In air with raised levels of BG40 + Z275 + AZ150 + None 1.4436
aggressive air pollutants – AM80 + minimum 25 minimum 25 according to
e.g. in larger population AT80 µm plastic µm plastic EN 10 088-2
centres or in industrial coating coating
areas. – At sea or near
coast however not in zone Z275 + AZ150 +
with salt-water splash. AG80 + AG80 + AT80
AT80
AZ185
M4A Very large Indoors and outdoors at BG40+ Z275 + AZ150 + CG25 + 1.4436
constantly high air AM100 + AG100 + AG100 + AM100 + according to
humidity or constant AM100 + AM100 + AM100 + AT100 EN 10 088-2
condensation. In salt- or AT100 AT100 AT100
fresh water or in earth.
M4B Very large Indoors and outdoors in As M4A As M4A As M4A CG25 + 1.4436
industrial areas with high AM100 + according to
levels of aggressive air AM100 + EN 10 088-2
pollutants, e.g. certain AT100
chemical industries as
wood-pulp, refineries or
fertilizer industries.
Table 21 : Choose of ductwork material in different corrosive environments
Explanation to abbreviations in Table 21:
• A = Tar - alternatively resin-modified epoxy acc to SIS 18 52 05

• B = Zinc-rich epoxy according to SIS 18 52 04
• C = Epoxy-isocyanate-based priming paint
• G = Priming paint
• M = Intermediate paint
• T = Top (finishing) coat
The figures after respective paint code indicate dry layer thickness in µm.
68
11.2 MAINTENANCE – HOW?
11.2.1 The need for maintenance manuals

The dependability and durability of the building
installations depends on the applied care and
maintenance. The maintenance staff should have
appropriate maintenance manuals adapted to the size,
the operation conditions, the maintenance organization
etc. The maintenance manual should include data about
Figure 90 : transported into the building… dated overhauls, and regular maintenance work.
Normally the designer having an overview writes the
maintenance manual based on data supplied by the
contractors on specific equipment.
It is important that the installation is clearly marked

with designations of equipment that need to be
controlled or maintained. The descriptions in the
manual are of little value unless it refers to components
using the same designations. This is even more vital
when it comes to safety – good and easily
Figure 91 : installed… understandable instructions, marked installations and
trained personnel – are well-suited precautions.
Systems and equipment necessary for the protection of

the users – fire dampers, ducts and fans used for
extraction of fire gases, sprinkler systems etc. have to
be checked regularly. How this control is done and
how often it should be done should be stated either in
the maintenance manual or in a special safety manual.
It is important that the one who has executed this work
notes this in the manual with date and comments.
How and why e.g. fire dampers are checked is

Figure 92 : serviced and maintained… described in chapters 1.6, 7.1.7, 7.6.3 and 13.
The safety precautions necessary should be studied in a

risk analysis and be exercised by the responsible
personnel under supervision of an expert.
11.2.2 Well-trained personnel gives results

The maintenance people have an important role to
play. It is to a large extent the result of their work that
decides whether the building will function as intended
creating a good and healthy environment for the users.
Many studies have shown the importance a good
thermal climate and a good air quality has on comfort
and well being and how a good environment can lead
Figure 93 : repaired… to higher productivity in e.g. offices and better study
results in schools.
To obtain this – and prevent that the building in the

worst of cases from becoming a “sick building” – well
designed and well built installations is a prime
requirement. But – without well-adapted maintenance
– even the best installation can prove to be a bad
investment. To employ well-trained and ambitious
personnel is on the other hand a good investment.
Figure 94 : …and exchanged when worn out.
69
installations and knows how they are supposed to work
Amount of
together and also is familiar with the need of the users
negative factors should be chosen for the job. For specific equipment he
will base the work on data provided by his colleagues
A sick in the design team and on information supplied by the
contractors.
building
A healthy 11.2.4 Marking and labelling
building Likewise stated for the maintenance work it is
important that the installations are clearly marked with
designations of equipment that is vital for the operation
Degree of complexity and/or need to be measured or controlled. The
operation manual is of little value unless it refers to
Figure 95 : Relationship between complexity of components using the same designations.
building installations and the result obtained
For ductwork it makes future work easier if the ducts
The figure above intends to show the relationship
are marked in a permanent way with arrows showing
between complexity of building installations and the
the normal flow direction and accompanying text
result obtained. The horizontal axis shows an
stating type of air (supply, exhaust, extract, return etc)
increasing degree of complexity with simple
and the system designation number. This marking or
installations to the left. The vertical axis shows upward
labelling should be repeated at regular intervals and
an increasing amount of negative factors:
when passing in or out of shafts.
• lack of interest in maintenance;
• lack of skill to maintain; This is even more vital when it comes to equipment
• lack of maintenance means; providing safety, e.g. fire dampers and extinguishers.
• and other lacks of the same kind. Good and easily understandable instructions, marked
installations and trained personnel are well-suited
This shows that the more complex installation that is precautions that could save lives.
chosen for the building, the greater is the risk that the
building could suffer from SBS, the sick building
syndrome, in the future unless it is maintained 11.3 DUCTWORK CLEANING
properly. The more simple installation to the left is
The reason why ductwork has to be clean has been
more “forgiving” to human carelessness and
discussed in chapter 7.4.6.
negligence. To summarize – when taking an
investment decision one should also be aware of the
11.3.1 When to clean?
simultaneous decision that is taken of the future
requirements on maintenance of the same. Unless the Normally the time for cleaning is decided after a visual
proper means are reserved in the future for appropriate inspection of the ductwork (see also § 7.4.6). This can
maintenance a simpler installation would probably be done either with television inspection or manually
have been a better choice at the expense of missed through inspection openings using flashlights and
possibilities. mirrors.
11.2.3 The need for operation manuals The television inspection is done with a small TV-
camera mounted on a robot that is capable of moving
Many of the chapters in this book have pointed at
inside the ducts. The camera relays its signal back to a
important questions to be solved during design and
monitor and a video recorder. The length movement of
installation in order to result in a well functioning
the camera-robot is indicated on a scale to provide
installation. The way to operate the installations at
evidence on where special attention should be paid. As
different conditions in the most safe and cost-effective
the equipment is fairly expensive and needs skilled
manner should be written down in the operation
personnel special contractors normally provide the job.
manual.
11.3.2 Cleaning methods
The operation manual should correspond with the
actual installation as shown on the as-built drawings (§ Methods used for cleaning ductwork include dry
10.2) and be written in an easy understandable way. cleaning, wet cleaning, disinfecting, encapsulation and
Wherever suitable the text should be accompanied by duct lining removal. Dry cleaning is performed when
illustrations. the contaminants can be removed by simple
mechanical means or when the use of water is not
As for the maintenance manuals it is normally one of practical.
the designers who will write the maintenance manual.
The designer who has the best overview of all the
70
The usual cleaning procedure is to isolate a section of Encapsulation is used to prevent erosion and to contain
ductwork and provide a negative pressure using a loose fibrous insulation and the incorporated nutrient
vacuum cleaner at one end. Cleaning proceeds from the and organic materials. Removal of duct lining material
other end of the section towards the end with the is usually the preferred method of cleaning when it is
vacuum. Various optical devices are used to observe possible to do so.
the progress of the cleaning inside the ductwork.
People in the building are usually well protected during
Manual cleaning by hand washing is performed when the cleaning procedure if the section being cleaned is
access is easy or when the duct is large enough to isolated from the general air handling system and a
allow personnel to move around inside the duct. HEPA filtered vacuum cleaner is utilized. The use of
Should this be the case one should be aware of the risk decontaminants and encapsulating agents is more
of insufficiently dimensioned duct hangers (see § problematic. The chemicals used should be approved
9.2.2). They would then have to withstand not only the for such application. Workers should have personal
weight of the duct itself but also that of the person and respiratory protection and should wear clothing
necessary equipment. In both cases – manual cleaning suitable for the work. Most workers wear disposable
from the outside or from the inside – spacious clean- facemask filters, gloves and washable clothing.
out openings or manholes are required.
The long term effectiveness of duct cleaning is not well
Smaller ducts can be cleaned with tools using rotating documented. Methods to evaluate duct cleanliness are
brushes and spray wands. Using a variety of chemicals not well developed and range from simple hand wiping
that kill or control the growth rate of microorganisms of a small surface area to the use of contact microbial
performs decontamination. growth plates
71
12 SOME PRACTICAL EXAMPLES (CASE STUDIES)
Most of the examples presented in previous chapters architectural competition, was given a round form
have shown details from ductwork installations without shaped like half of a musical G clef to link up with the
stating where or in what type of building the photo has use of the building. The other half of the G clef will be
been taken. added if and when the building is extended in the
future.
In some cases however it might add interest if the
examples are accompanied with some background
information about the building and the reason for the
chosen installation alternative.
Figure 97 : Exterior from the street.
Figure 98: Exterior towards the courtyard

Floor
Before the renovation in 1995 the exercise rooms on
both sides of the corridor were connected to a common
supply duct in the corridor false ceiling space. The
exhaust air from the rooms was overflowing into the
corridor and collected at one common exhaust air grille
before being lead back to the fan room located in the
basement of the building.
Figure 96 : Typical flow chart for a ventilation
The students have to train playing their instruments and
system. The designations used are probably self-
therefore need exercise rooms where they and their
explanatory.
teachers neither disturb other students nor vice versa.
The intermediate walls between the rooms and the
12.1 THE ROYAL SWEDISH MUSIC doors toward the corridor thus were provided with high
ACADEMY, STOCKHOLM noise reduction values. The required privacy was
Background however not achieved completely due to noise
The Royal Swedish Academy of Music graduating e.g. transmission through the original ventilation system.
music teachers forms a part of the Stockholm
University. A very important issue during the renovation – when
the ventilation system was to be upgraded with higher
The building was inaugurated in 1975 and renovated in airflow – was therefore to prevent noise being
1995. The architecture of the building, the result of an transmitted from the plant room to the exercise rooms
and between these through the ductwork.
72
The new ductwork
The round form of the corridors required a special
solution. A new fan room was built in one of the
exercise rooms at the centre point of the corridor and
each of the exercise rooms was provided with its own
supply and exhaust air duct system (Figure 102).
The air-handling unit is provided with plenum

chambers on both the supply and exhaust side. These
rectangular plenum ducts are clad on the inside with
thick absorbents to reduce the fan noise towards the
connecting ducts. On top of each of these two plenum
chambers, the branch ducts to the exercise rooms are
connected. With this solution having parallel ducts run
to and from the each room there is neither any Figure 100 : From the fan room the ducts are passing
transmission of sound between the rooms when they through the ceiling space to the rooms.
are used for practise nor any disturbing fan or The supply ducts run alongside each other in the false
ventilation noise. ceiling space in the corridor and the exhaust ducts from
the exercise rooms are running up in the attic entering
the fan room underneath the high placed windows.
The result
Sound level measurement showed that the set noise
goals were met with the new installations.
Figure 99: Rectangular ducts and plenums for supply

(insulated) and extract air are connected to separate
round ducts, one set for each exercise room. These
ducts have manual airflow dampers.
Figure 101: Photo from plant room showing ducts

emerging from the corridor and the attic
Figure 102 : The new supply and extract ducts are installed in the ceiling space and connected to the fan room and
the different exercise rooms.
73
12.2 ’THE FIRST HIGH RISE BUILDING’,
SERGEL, STOCKHOLM
Background
This case study building was the first of five rather
identical high rise office buildings in the City Centre of
Stockholm. The architecture of the building was the
result of an architectural competition (all five
buildings, similar in height and dimensions, had its
own architect). They were the result of a drastic
reconstruction of a large part of the downtown area of
the city when most of the old 18th and 19th century
buildings were torn down and replaced with new ones.
The building was inaugurated in 1959, which was an

extremely hot summer in Sweden. As typical for the
time, the window/wall ratio was high, 76%. Following
the normal design in Sweden at that period, the
building was not equipped with any comfort cooling.
The supply and exhaust air was distributed through Figure 104 : Cross section ”C-C” (see Figure 105)
concrete shafts connected on each floor to branch duct through part of the top floor fan room. The (extract)
systems. As there was no shadowing from other ducts to the left are the ones shown on the
buildings – the indoor temperature during the hot photograph (see Figure 103)
summer 1959 rose to above 35oC and the top floors of
the building had to be abandoned for a few weeks.
The 1997 renovation

After nearly thirty years of operation the building was
thoroughly renovated in 1997. All installations were
exchanged and the old ventilation system was scrapped
and exchanged for a modern air-conditioning system.
New plant rooms were built on the roof of the building
connecting to the old concrete shafts.
The new ductwork

Instead of using the shafts as plenums for supply and
exhaust air respectively, the shafts were literally filled
with circular ducts as each floor plan was provided
with its own separate supply and extract ducts.
As each floor represents its own fire cell, the supply

and exhaust ducts are provided with fire dampers (and Figure 105 : Part of the fan room drawing with the
regulating dampers) in the plant room as shown in extract air ducts to the right and the supply air ducts
Figure 103. to the left. All these ducts are 400-mm diameter.
This technical solution required that fifteen ducts be
installed in each of the shafts. This was possible by
using circular ducts. The ducts were also delivered in
6-m lengths thus reducing the number of joints
considerably. The very compact installation reduced
the necessary space for the vertical shafts and increased
thus the floor area that could be let.
The design of the duct systems had to be studied in

detail on how the supply and extract ducts were
entering or emerging from the shafts to prevent
unnecessary collisions and facilitate the installation
work. The ducts were tightness tested in turn as they
Figure 103: Ducts for the different floors pass down were installed to prove that they were fulfilling the
through common shafts, one for supply and one for tightness requirements of class C.
extract air.
74
12.3 LARGE OFFICE BUILDING IN
STOCKHOLM
This office building, “Garnisonen” (the Garrison) from
1970, has a total length of 350-m and was built to
accommodate several public authorities.
Before the design phase started this very large building

was the subject of thorough analysis and detailed
official reports covering architectural design and
building installations. The latter have been shown as a
result of the former. The ventilation ductwork is hidden
above false ceilings only when needed for acoustical
reasons. The ductwork itself, mostly using round ducts Figure 108 : One of the courtyards in the building
and being painted in different colours, has been used as
an interior architectural element as shown in some of
the following photographs.
Figure 106 : Close-up view of supply air register with

sound silencer Figure 109 : The building has an open design and is
provided with sprinklers. Daylight enters through the
glass roof of the interior courtyards.
Figure 107 : Symmetrical design of the ducts results

in the same pressure drop at each register
12.4 OFFICE BUILDING IN GOTENBURG

The Scandiaconsult office building in Gothenburg
inaugurated in 1988 has also applied the same principle Figure 110 : The ducts are visible and used by the
as the previous example: “Do not hide the ventilation architect as part of the interior design.
ducts unnecessarily”. Use the full room volume for
ventilation and install false ceilings only where
required for acoustical reasons.
75
12.5.2 Let’s change the duct shape!
Figure 111 : Supply air register
12.5 A SELECTION OF THE WORST Figure 114 : Rectangular to circular reducer

While the previous case studies are interesting state-of- This unnecessary transition between rectangular and
the-art examples of duct systems, experience shows circular ducts generates an unnecessary pressure drop.
that many field systems suffer from major flaws that
can arise from all six phases defined in chapter 13.1.
Here is our top-ten selection:
12.5.3 Did you say pressure drop?
12.5.1 Lack of hygiene
Figure 115 : Flexible duct

This flexible extract duct has an unnecessary tortuous
path as well as wrinkles, both of which contribute to an
Figure 112 : Ducts exposed outside on construction increased pressure drop.
site.
Figure 113 : Bends exposed inside on construction

site.
These ducts have been exposed to rain and pollutants
emitted near the construction site (e.g., dust), and Figure 116 : Inappropriate use of flexible ducts
possibly fouled by animals and dead insects. These
conditions are ideal for microbial growth.
76
12.5.4 Now, how am I going to put fibre glass 12.5.6 Talking about leaks and energy
around that duct? losses?
This flexible aluminium duct is part of an air heating
system in France. The duct has an enormous hole
leading to a false ceiling. The building insulation (10
cm mineral wool) was installed at the false ceiling,
which means that a significant amount of hot air was
simply lost to the outside. Note also that this duct
should have been insulated !
Figure 117 : Rectangular duct to be wrapped with

insulation.
The insulation and vapour barrier will be poorly
installed on the rectangular part of that system unless it
is dismantled. Air and vapour passage through the
leaks of the vapour barrier on the top part of the duct
will cause condensation on the outer duct wall. Figure 119 : Leak found at a supply air terminal
device.
12.5.5 Not meant to be seen!
12.5.7 Don’t put your hand inside!
Figure 118 : Branching between a flexible and a rigid

duct.
Not only is this damaged extract duct ugly, it also uses Figure 120 : Sharp screws increase the risk of
excessive fan energy because of leaks and increased injuries during maintenance operations
pressure drops.
77
13 CHECK LISTS FOR DUCT DESIGN
sure that he receives specifications from the

13.1 WHY DO WE NEED CHECKLISTS ? designer with sufficient details to perform the
The ductwork system’s life can be divided into six work.
major phases:
• The Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing (TAB):
• The Programme: Before a building or part of a building is put to
This phase aims at defining the owner’s needs - use, the duct system must be tested, adjusted, and
e.g., the foreseen occupation scenarios of the balanced. That is, an inspection of the duct system
building. Requirements on general issues - e.g., and fire protection installations must be performed
energy use, accessibility, and noise transmission - to demonstrate that it is clean, tight, balanced,
are also stated to avoid any negligence on items, ready for operation, and correctly documented.
especially those that are not covered by The specifications and as-built drawings of the
regulations. This phase mostly involves the installation must be available to the commissioner
building owner or a representative, and a to complete that phase.
programmer for large projects. A main contractor
that will be responsible for the whole building • The Maintenance:
construction process may be appointed by the This phase starts as soon as the system is put in
owner at the end of that phase. use. It consists in regular checks (e.g., of airflow
rates), replacements (e.g. of filters), and work
• The System choice: (e.g., cleaning) that has to be performed to ensure
The objective of this phase is to analyse the that the system operates correctly. Specifications,
programme constraints together with the local as-built drawings, and instruction manuals must be
environment of the building to choose the type of available to the plant manager.
system that will be used. Therefore, the system
designer must make sure that he receives the Because ductwork systems involve many professionals
adequate information from the previous during the life of the building (Table 22), it is vital that
prescribers. The outcome of this phase lies in the these people understand their duties and
definition of the ventilation principle that is responsibilities to avoid misunderstandings or
retained. The system description could comprise of omissions that can affect the system’s performance. To
the main characteristics of the air treatment plant, this end, checklists are useful tools to make sure no
a sketch of the system’s layout, a description of the important aspects have been forgotten, and to help
intended control strategy, as well as a first estimate organise the work in a rational order. This organisation
of the energy use of the proposed solution(s). The is key because making decisions at some point that put
system and building designers are the actors into question earlier decisions becomes more difficult
mostly involved during that phase, but the owner and more expensive as the building construction
or a delegate should check that the system choice process advances (Figure 121).
retained is compatible with known needs. Cost for making changes
Freedom to make a decision
• The Design:
The system’s characteristics are detailed during
this phase. This includes detailed drawings of the
installation, pressure drop, cost, and energy
calculations, specifications of insulation thickness,
etc. The system designer is the participant who is Programme Testing, adjusting, and balancing
mostly involved during that phase as a follow-up
System choice
of work carried out in the previous phase. The
design phase normally results in a system Design Installation
specification and drawings that are used as tender
invitation documents. Time for system construction process
Figure 121 : Freedom to make a decision and cost

• The Installation: involved versus time of building construction process.
One of the tenderers has been awarded the contract
for the ventilation system. This installer puts the
ductwork system together during that phase
according to the specifications laid out in the
design phase. Therefore, the installer must make
78
13.2 HOW TO USE THE CHECKLISTS ? Under the “Check pre-requisites” heading, one will
The following checklists are practical quality assurance find checks to make sure that the tasks required at an
tools. There are six main entries corresponding to the earlier stage, and are necessary to proceed with the
first five phases of the life of a system: programme, system construction, have been performed.
system choice, design, installation, testing-adjusting-
balancing, and maintenance. A phase may involve Under the “Require that” heading, one will find
several people, e.g., the design phase involves the requirements on items.
architect and the different building services engineers.
The main entries contain a list of requirements, checks, Under the “Check” heading, one will find checks that
and warnings for each phase of the building life have to be performed on general items. These checks
(Figure 122). are generally addressed in more detail in the section
“Specific requirements”.
Building life phase
Under the “Be careful” heading, one will find a list of
Check pre-requisites warnings on common issues related to that phase.
1. A check on an item addressed in an earlier !
Detailed checklists that address technical issues in
phase.
more details can be found under “Specific
requirements”. Their generic structure is shown in
Require that
Figure 123.
1. A requirement on an item generally addressed in !
more details under “Specific requirements”.
Important note:
Marks “!” indicate that the items have to be tacked
Check!
off. Blank checklists can be printed using the CD-
1. A check on an item generally addressed in more !
ROM. Items that must be tacked off are shown as a
details under “Specific requirements”.
blank box: “"”.
Be careful!
1. A warning regarding common issues related to !
that phase.
Figure 122 : Generic structure of “building phases”
checklists.
Actor / Phase Programme System choice Design Installation TAB Maintenance

P S D I T M
Owner or
representative
! ! ! !
*
Programmer !
Main contractor* ! ! ! !
Architect ! ! ! !
System designer ! ! ! !** !**
Fire safety
coordinator*
! ! ! !
Installer !*** ! !***
Commissioner !*** ! !
Building manager* !
Plant manager* !
Occupants !* !
* ** ***
where applicable by providing correct conditions could improve the quality
Table 22 : Those involved during the ductwork system’s life
79
Programme System choice Design Installation TAB Maintenance
“Check” “Require that” “Pre-Requisite”

Applies during the phase Applies downstream Applies upstream
Specific requirement
Check pre-requisites P S D I T M
1. A requirement on the specific item addressed in that checklist. !
Require that P S D I T M
1. A requirement on the specific item addressed in that checklist. !
Check! P S D I T M
1. A check on the specific item addressed in that checklist !
Be careful! P S D I T M
1. A warning regarding common issues to that specific item. ! !
Figure 123: Flow chart showing the relation between the headings of the checklists and the phases.
80
13.3 BUILDING PHASES
13.3.1 Programme
Require that
1. In each phase, the ductwork characteristics (principles, layout, sizing, materials, etc.) must be !
shown to be compatible with the proper use of the installation and the building.
2. In each phase, the ductwork must be shown to comply with all applicable regulations. !
3. Ductwork layout constraints are taken into account at early stages of the building design. ! § 8.1
4. Initial costs, operating costs, and Life Cycle Cost calculations of the solutions envisioned are made. ! § 7.2
5. The ventilation principle retained must be compatible with the building’s operation and its ! § 2.1
surroundings.
6. Energy losses in the duct system must be limited. An estimate of those losses must be made. ! §4
7. Electric and heating energy use predictions are made and presented separately. !
8. The ductwork leakage must limited to be compatible with the proper use of the installation. ! § 7.10
9. Where necessary, the use of thermal insulation should be envisioned to comply with the ! § 7.5
requirements on energy losses, fire safety, and noise transmission.
10. Pressure drop calculations are made. Pressures drops must be shown to be compatible with the ! § 7.3
proper adjustment of the airflow rates, and must account for energy losses and space demand.
11. Provisions must be made so that the air supplied to the occupied spaces is clean and healthy. ! § 7.4
12. The structural integrity of the ductwork must be checked. ! § 7.7
13. The noise generated in or transmitted through the ductwork must be limited. (Specify an upper limit ! § 7.8
for the background noise if necessary.)
14. The ductwork must be checked by the fire safety coordinator. ! § 7.6
15. The duct materials must not corrode prematurely. ! § 11.1
16. The air terminal devices chosen are to ensure a good air distribution within the room and to be !
compatible with the rest of the design of the ductwork system.
17. The construction of the ductwork is planned and co-ordinated with the other networks of the ! § 9.2
building.
18. The ductwork shall be tested, adjusted, and balanced. The points addressed in the TAB checklist ! § 10
must be checked by the commissioner. The test results are sent to the building owner, along with all
the documentation that is necessary to properly operate and maintain the system..
19. The ductwork must be easy to clean and maintain. ! § 11.3
20. The ductwork must be safe for use and maintenance. ! § 11
21. Someone (e.g., the architect) must be designated to be responsible for handing over the checklists to ! § 13
the owner or its representative.
22. The checklists are filled out during the system choice, design, installation, and TAB phases. ! § 13
Be careful
1. The prescriber should clearly define his needs! For this, a programmer may help him. §5
2. Investment and operating budgets not only be evaluated sequentially, but also globally! § 7.2
13.3.2 System choice
Check pre-requisites
2. The building designer has made space provisions for the ductwork installation (e.g., fan rooms, ! § 7.1
service shafts, false ceilings, location of fresh air intakes and exhaust).
Require that
2. Space is assigned to the ductwork system. ! § 8.1
3. The fire safety coordinator is informed of the system choice. ! § 7.6
4. Where applicable, networks for water, electricity, EMCS, etc., account for the ductwork lay-out ! § 9.2
constraints.
81
Check!
2. The ventilation principle is defined. It is compatible with the programme requirements. ! § 2.1
3. The major characteristics of the air treatment plant are defined. !
4. The sketch of the system’s layout takes into account the building design and building environment ! § 7.1
constraints.
5. The intended control strategy is described. ! § 4.6
6. A first estimate of the energy use is made. ! § 7.9
7. First estimates of the initial costs, operating costs, and Life Cycle Costs of the solutions envisioned ! § 7.2
are made.
8. The system choice is shown to be compatible with the programme. ! § 7.1
9. The checklists relevant to that phase are filled out. ! § 13
Be careful!
2. The system choice phase is key. The space assigned to the ductwork is almost definitively set by the ! § 7.1
end of that phase.
13.3.3 Design
1. Check the system choice checklist items. ! § 13
Require that
1. The technical information provided by the designer to the ductwork contractor includes: !
- detailed lay-out drawings;
- specifications for the ductwork components (characteristics of rigid and flexible ducts, fire dampers,
access openings, regulating dampers, hangers and supports, etc.);
- particular requirements on items such as ductwork airtightness, cleaning access, etc.;
- any special requirements;
- references of the applicable standards.
2. Ducts must be clean when installed. ! § 7.4
3. Where applicable, networks for water, electricity, EMCS, etc., account for the ductwork lay-out ! § 9.2
constraints.
4. All ATD airflows must be measured and adjusted to their correct value. ! § 10.4
5. The ductwork has to be leak tested. ! § 10.5
Check!
1. The ductwork system is compatible with the programme definition and requirements. ! § 7.1
2. Initial costs, operating costs, and Life Cycle Cost calculations have been performed. ! § 7.2
3. The energy use has been assessed. Electricity and heating energy use are presented separately. ! § 7.9
4. A ductwork airtightness class is specified. ! § 7.10
5. Is thermal insulation necessary? If yes, specify insulation material and insulation thickness according ! § 7.5
to acceptable U-values to limit conduction losses.
6. Pressure drop calculations have been made. The pressure drop in the ductwork is shown to be ! § 7.3
acceptable.
7. Cleaning access is good. Filter locations and classes have been specified where necessary. ! § 7.4
8. The ducts, hangers, and supports are strong enough for the specific use. ! § 7.7
9. Predicted noise levels comply with the programme requirements. ! § 7.8
10. Dampers or fireproof insulation are such that duct penetrations through walls do not diminish the fire ! § 7.6
safety of the walls, i.e., they are compatible with the EI class. R-requirements are specified for
hangers and supports.
11. An environmental class is specified to avoid corrosion damages. For specific applications, a duct ! § 11.1
material is specified.
12. The registers are compatible with the control of the airflows and provide an adequate air distribution ! § 10
in the room.
13. The design includes fixed sockets for measuring instruments for measuring the total airflow of the ! § 10
plant both for commissioning and for future monitoring of plant performance.
14. The control strategy is compatible with the programme (building use) and the duct design (dampers, ! § 4.6
registers, sensors, etc.).
15. The checklists relevant to that phase are checked. ! § 13
82
Be careful!
1. Good design is the pre-requisite to good ventilation system performance!
2. The layout should be such that the ductwork is easy to install, clean, maintain, and replace. § 11.1
3. The duct design must be compatible with the programme requirements! § 7.1
13.3.4 Installation
1. The technical information provided by the designer is complete (see design checklist) !
Require that
1. The ductwork documentation is updated. It includes as-built drawings. ! § 10.2
Check !
1. The products and workers’ skills are in line with the design requirements as specified. !
2. The workers are aware of the procedures to properly deal with the ductwork on site - e.g., sheltered !
storage to avoid fouling, mounting and sealing procedures, manufacturer’s instructions.
3. The fan is properly installed according to the manufacturer’s instructions. !
Be careful!
1. Installation plays a major role in the ventilation system performance. Its operation can be greatly
affected by installation defects.
2. Installation represents a significant fraction of the cost of an air distribution system. § 8.2
3. There must be some co-ordination with the installation of the other networks of the buildings, § 9.2
namely with water pipe networks and cable ladders to avoid collisions.
13.3.5 Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing (TAB)
1. The documentation (detailed drawings of the ductwork installations, specifications for the materials ! § 10
and devices as well as for the maintenance schedule) are available.
Require that
1. The documentation (detailed drawings of the ductwork installations, specifications for the materials ! § 10
and devices as well as for the maintenance schedule) shall be available to the building manager to
ease maintenance and retrofit.
Check!
1. The system has been properly balanced and documented. ! § 10.4
2. The system has been leak tested and complies with the requirements. ! § 10.5
3. Fire protection installations are operational. ! § 7.6
4. The ductwork is clean and ready for operation. ! § 11.3
5. Test details should be included in the manuals for operation and maintenance. ! § 11.2
6. A visual inspection the ductwork is carried out to make sure that the drawings are accurate and to !
check for major flaws or missing components such as cleaning openings, sensors.
8. Someone (e.g., the HVAC contractor) must be designated to be responsible for handing over the ! § 13
checklists to the owner or its representative.
Be careful!
1. Ductwork systems should be commissioned and properly documented!
83
13.3.6 Maintenance
1. The documentation (detailed drawings of the ductwork installations, specifications for the materials ! § 11.2
and devices, test protocols from the TAB procedures as well as manuals for the maintenance
schedule) are available.
2. The plant managers are properly trained. ! § 11.2
Check!
1. Record test, changes, repairs, or problems and keep this information with the documentation of the !
system.
2. For major repairs or renovation, revisit the checklists from the programme phase. ! § 13
3. The maintenance schedule is followed and updated. ! § 11.2
Be careful!
1. A ductwork system is subjected to mechanical stress and air pollution.
2. Equipment failures will occur and may affect directly or indirectly the system’s operation and
performance.
3. Design and installation flaws unnoticed at commissioning may reveal themselves only after a few
years of operation.
4. The system needs a regular maintenance to function properly! § 11
13.4 SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS

The list of checklists for specific requirements is given in Table 23. The references of the chapters where these
requirements are addressed are also given in this table.
General issues
1. Lay-out § 7.1
2. Cost-effectiveness § 7.2
3. Ventilation principles § 2.1
Energy related issues
4. Energy Use § 7.9
5. Airtightness § 7.10
6. Thermal insulation § 4.3 § 7.5
7. Pressure drop § 7.3
IAQ concerns
8. Clean air supply § 7.4
Important boundary conditions
9. Strength § 7.7
10. Noise § 7.8
11. Fire protection § 7.6
12. Corrosion § 11.1.3
13. Duct material § 11.1.4
Component related aspects
14. Air terminal devices § 2.2.13
15. Access § 2.2.10 § 7.1.5
Air flow related issues
16. Balancing a ventilation system § 10.4
17. Control strategy § 4.6
Table 23 : List of checklists for specific requirements
84
13.4.1 Layout
1. Provision must be made at the early stages of the building design to !
have enough space for the ductwork installation. Therefore, fan
rooms, service shafts, false ceilings, location of fresh air intake and
exhaust must be studied early in the design process.
1. The ductwork layout must be compatible with the proper use of the !
installation and the building. It accounts for space demand, pressure
drop, installation, or cleaning and servicing access issues.
Check! P S D I T M
1. The ductwork layout accounts for space demand, pressure drop, ! !
installation, or cleaning and servicing access issues.
1. The layout should be such that the ductwork is easy to install. !
13.4.2 Cost-effectiveness
1. Initial costs, operating costs, and Life Cycle Cost calculations of the !
solution are made.
2. The choice between different options takes into account initial costs, !
operating costs, and Life Cycle Cost.
Check! P S D I T M
1. The choice between different options takes into account initial costs, ! !
operating costs, and Life Cycle Cost.
1. The labour cost represents a significant fraction of the cost of a ! !
ductwork system.
13.4.3 Ventilation principles
1. The needs and constraints—e.g., occupancy, climate, indoor and !
outdoor pollution sources—are clearly identified.
1. The ventilation principle retained must be compatible with the !
building’s operation and its surroundings.
Check! P S D I T M
1. The ventilation principle must be adapted to the needs and ! !
constraints—e.g., occupancy, climate, and indoor and outdoor
pollution sources.
2. Identify the advantages and drawbacks of various options (e.g., cost, ! !
space, indoor air quality, control of air distribution, and potential
moisture damage).
1. All ventilation principles have advantages and drawbacks. ! ! !
85
13.4.4 Energy use
1. Airtightness and thermal insulation requirements are clearly stated. !
Refer to airtightness and thermal insulation checklists.
1. Split-up in separate zones could if shown to give better adaptation to !
user’s needs and shorter air transport through ductwork. Energy losses
in the duct system must be limited. An estimate of those losses must
be made.
2. Electric and heating energy use predictions are made and presented !
separately.
3. Air infiltration through the building shell is such that it does not affect !
the ductwork system’s operation. It is taken into account in ventilation
energy use.
Check! P S D I T M
1. The energy impact of ventilation takes into account ventilation losses, ! !
distribution losses, fan energy use. Energy losses in the duct system
are limited.
2. Avoid unnecessary pressure drops. ! !
3. Specify an adequate leakage class and thermal insulation requirements !
to limit distribution losses.
4. Use energy-efficient fans. !
1. A heat recovery unit allows one to recover energy in the outgoing air ! !
stream, but it also increases the fan energy use. Therefore, depending
on the climate and the building characteristics, it may result in an
energy penalty!
13.4.5 Airtightness
1. Airtightness requirements are expressed according to Eurovent 2/2 or ! !
a similar guideline/standard.
1. The ductwork leakage must be limited to be compatible with the !
proper use of the installation. A duct leakage limit must be specified.
Check! P S D I T M
1. Each seam and joint is carefully sealed. !
2. Identify adequate airtightness requirements.
3. Identify proper duct system components or sealing materials. (Choose ! !
between quality acrylic-based adhesives, EPDM rubber, or silicon for
your specific application. It shall not emit toxic gases.)
4. The sealing material shall be able to withstand the pressure, !
temperature, and humidity stress in normal operation of the system.
5. The sealant shall not be used as a mechanical support. !
6. Avoid tailor-made parts. !
7. Test the ductwork for leakage. !
86
Be careful P S D I T M
1. Installation is key, especially when conventional sealing techniques - ! !
e.g., mastic, tape - are used.
2. Quality factory-fitted sealing devices are very effective to limit duct ! !
leakage provided that simple rules be respected - e.g., avoid tailor-
made parts.
13.4.6 Thermal insulation
1. Places where insulation and vapour barriers are necessary are !
specified (along with the type and thickness of insulation material and
type of vapour barrier and, when applicable, external cladding).
1. Where necessary, the use of thermal insulation and vapour barriers !
should be envisioned to comply with the requirements on energy
losses, fire safety, and noise transmission.
Check! P S D I T M
1. The use of thermal insulation, in combination with a vapour barrier, !
should be considered when water condensation on duct surfaces is
expected. Depending on the location, the thermal insulation and the
vapour barrier might have to be protected by an external cladding, e.g.
aluminium sheet.
2. Estimate the necessary U-values to limit conduction losses. Identify !
insulation material and insulation thickness.
3. If thermal insulation is used for fire protection, make sure that it !
complies with applicable regulations and standards.
4. Do not leave insulation material exposed during construction. !
5. Check that the insulation material and the vapour barriers have not !
been damaged (torn, wet, etc.)
Be careful ! P S D I T M
1. Insulation should not release fibres or toxic materials. ! !
13.4.7 Pressure drop
1. The preliminary layout accounts for pressure drop issues. !
1. Pressure drop calculations are made. Pressure drops must be shown to !
be compatible with the proper adjustment of the airflow rates, and
must account for energy losses and space demand.
Check! P S D I T M
1. Duct connections on both sides of the fan must be properly chosen ! !
and installed.
2. Air velocities in the ductwork are not too high. ! !
3. The pressure drops are large enough to ensure the stability of the !
airflows.
1. A higher pressure drop will cost fan power and thus more energy and !
money during operation!
87
13.4.8 Clean air supply
1. The number and location of cleaning/servicing access openings is !
specified.
2. The number and location of filters is specified, along with the filter !
classes.
1. Provisions must be made so that the air supplied to the occupied !
spaces is clean and healthy.
2. The ducts are clean when installed. !
Check ! P S D I T M
1. Take into account potential pollutant sources and the quality of the ! !
exterior air.
2. Air filters are used if necessary. In that case, a filter class is specified. ! !
3. The ductwork materials are able to withstand standard cleaning !
procedures—e.g., brushing, vacuum cleaning, chemical disinfection—
that are expected to be necessary during the course of operation.
4. There are cleaning access panels (see access checklist). !
5. The ducts are clean when installed and when the installation is handed ! !
over.
6. Inspect ducts, fan blades, or coils regularly. If needed, have them !
cleaned.
7. Watch for stagnant water. !
8. In small diameter ducts, watch for declining airflows as a result of !
fouling.
9. Air filters are clean and regularly changed. !
10. In case of persistent complaints from the occupants, have an air !
quality diagnostic done.
1. Watch for stagnant water, which is ideal for microbial growth. !
2. Microbial growth often occurs in air intake ducts with internal ! !
insulation.
13.4.9 Strength
1. The number, type, and location of hangers/supports are specified. !
1. The structural integrity of the ductwork must be checked. !
2. The ductwork must be able to withstand the positive or negative !
operating pressures.
3. The distance between and size of the hangers shall be such that the !
installation can withstand, if applicable, a spot load of one person in
addition to the dead weight of the duct.
Check! P S D I T M
1. Risk analysis 1. Exposure to temperature extremes, earthquakes, !
sudden stoppage of airflow or any other conditions specific to the
installation should be considered where necessary.
2. Risk analysis 2. The occurrence of fatal accidents to people who have !
been wrongly using rectangular ducts as working platforms instead of
scaffolds or ladders suggests making sure that the installed ductwork
can withstand a spot load of 1 kN (corresponds approximately to the
88
weight of a person).
3. Hangers and support systems are of correct type and correctly ! !
installed. Fire-classed duct should have R-classed hangers.
4. Do not use damaged ducts. !
5. The ductwork should be handled with care and must not be damaged !
during maintenance work.
1. Ducts should not be used as working platforms instead of scaffolds or ! !
ladders.
13.4.10 Noise
1. The number, location, and characteristics of devices such as sound !
attenuators or anti-vibration isolators are specified.
1. The noise generated in or transmitted through the ductwork must be ! !
limited.
2. No toxic material can be released from internal liners. !
Check! P S D I T M
1. Design measures are taken to limit aerodynamic noise. ! !
2. Evaluate sound levels and compare with acceptable sound levels. !
3. Use silencers if necessary. !
4. Specify the location of devices such as sound attenuators or anti- !
vibration isolators.
1. Ventilation systems are not bound to make noise. !
2. Occupants often complain about ventilation system noise. !
3. The fan is the primary sound source in a mechanical ventilation !
system. However, inappropriate duct components and leakage can
generate other noise; the ductwork can also allow or enhance cross-
talk between different rooms of a building.
13.4.11 Fire protection
1. The locations where fire protection methods are used—e.g., fire !
dampers, fireproof insulation—are specified. Applicable standards are
referenced.
1. The ductwork must be checked by the fire safety coordinator. !
2. Fire dampers should be certified to follow, and be installed according !
to, requirements in EN 23456.
3. The insulation material—e.g., mineral wool—has been classed as !
fulfilling the requirements according to EN 34567.
Check! P S D I T M
1. Duct hangers for fireproof classed ducts have to withstand standard !
fire during same period of time as the duct. Mark drawings with area
to have same type of fireproof hangers.
2. Identify location of fireproof walls and slabs penetrated by ducts. !
3. Identify proper fire class and technical option. !
89
4. If fire dampers are chosen, they are classed and certified according to !
applicable standards and regulations.
5. Fire dampers and fireproof insulation are correctly installed where ! !
specified by the designer with certified products.
6. The fire dampers are regularly checked as part of the maintenance !
procedures.
1. Ducts passing through fire classed walls and slabs must not diminish !
the fire safety.
13.4.12 Corrosion
1. The environmental (corrosivity) classes are specified. !
1. The duct materials must not corrode prematurely. !
Check! P S D I T M
1. Choose the ductwork quality according to the aggressiveness of the !
environment.
1. Corrosion damage on ductwork installed in aggressive environments ! !
often leads to leaking and unsafe installations with drastically reduced
lifetime.
2. Corrosion damage is a very common reason for equipment failures - ! !
choose materials and corrosion protection suitable for the local
environment.
13.4.13 Duct material
1. Duct material and duct thickness are specified. !
1. The ductwork materials must be compatible with the proper use of the !
installation and the building.
Check! P S D I T M
1. Choose between galvanised, stainless steel, aluminium, and plastic !
coated products for your specific application.
2. The material has to be compatible with the potential corrosion !
damages.
3. Specify duct material and duct thickness. !
1. Choose, if possible, standard ducts of galvanised steel Z 275 which !
means lowest cost and a freedom to choose among a large variety of
standard components - check however the local corrosion
environment!
90
13.4.14 Air terminal devices (ATD)
1. The number, type, characteristics, and location of the air terminal !
devices are specified.
1. The air terminal devices chosen ensure an adequate air distribution !
within the room and are compatible with the rest of the design of the
ductwork system.
Check! P S D I T M
1. Take into account ductwork design issues such as pressure drop, !
sound transmission, airflow control, and room air distribution when
choosing air terminal devices.
2. The ATDs are tightly sealed to the duct or plenum box. !
3. Limit envelope leakage by tightly sealing the ATDs to the wall. !
4. Regularly inspect and, when necessary, clean supply and extract !
ATDs. (Significant deposition is usually found on extract ATDs.)
1. The location of the ATDs can greatly influence the comfort perceived !
by the occupants. Air distribution in rooms is not covered in this book.
13.4.15 Access
1. The preliminary layout accounts for access issues. !
2. The number and location of inspection/servicing/cleaning access !
openings is specified.
1. The ductwork must be easy to clean and maintain. !
Check! P S D I T M
1. Transport ways. There has to be enough space to transport the !
equipment into the building—heavy equipment needs cranes, forklifts,
etc. The doors are wide enough, slabs designed to carry the loads.
2. Space for ductwork. There has to be sufficient space to properly !
install the components, and maintain, repair, or replace them when
necessary.
3. Access to the major components of the ductwork (fan, filters, AHU, !
coils, dampers, etc.) is good.
4. Cleaning access is good. There are cleaning access panels or !
openings.
1. Maintenance work can be considerably impeded if access issues have ! !
not been taken into account at the design stage.
91
13.4.16 Balancing a ventilation system
1. The documentation of the ductwork includes the location of regulating !
devices as well as the airflow rates that have to be met at the air
terminal devices.
2. The design includes fixed sockets for measuring instruments for !
measuring the total airflow of the plant both for TAB and for future
monitoring of plant performance.
1. All ATD airflows are measured and adjusted to correct values. !
Check! P S D I T M
1. Use preferably the proportionality method to balance the system. ! !
2. Adjust the airflow rates to the design values. !
1. It is necessary to emphasise the importance of adjusting the ! !
ventilation systems before they are taken into operation. The system
will most often be a failure if this duty is neglected.
2. Self-balancing devices are practical, however, they usually induce !
larger pressure drops than simple dampers.
13.4.17 Control strategy
1. The control systems—i.e., detailed flow charts and specifications of !
devices such as sensors or actuators—are detailed (not covered in this
book).
2. The number, type, and location of regulating devices—e.g., regulating !
dampers—are specified.
3. The control systems are well documented. ! !
1. The control strategy is compatible with the programme (building use) ! !
and the duct design (e.g., pressure drop).
Check! P S D I T M
1. Can energy savings be achieved with variable airflow rates? !
2. Is a variable airflow rate solution cost-effective or should the building ! !
be split-up in different ventilation zones?
3. Specify the type of control strategy. (Control systems are not covered !
in this book.)
4. Is the maintenance personnel properly trained for these systems? !
1. Significant energy savings can be achieved with adequate control !
strategies.
2. The control strategy chosen has a large influence on the system’s ! !
design.
3. Air quality demands often make it necessary to operate the ventilation !
system during unoccupied time periods.
92
14 ANNEX
This handbook is based on expert knowledge derived 18. Miller, D. S. 1971. Internal Flow: a guide to losses
from field experience, industry, and research. Here is a in pipe and duct systems, Cranfield, Bedford,
selection of other handbooks and bibliographies that BHRA.
may be useful to the reader. The reader may refer to the 19. Miller, D. S. 1978. Internal Flow Systems. BHRA
literature survey for more detailed information on Fluid Engineering.
specific subjects.
14.1 HANDBOOKS, BIBLIOGRAPHIES 14.2 STANDARDS, RECOMMENDATIONS,

1. Airways project. Andersson, J. 2002. Traditions in GUIDELINES
the design, installation and maintenance of duct 20. BS 4588, Code of practice for Fire precautions in
systems. Results of an enquiry on duct procedures the design of building – Smoke control in
in Europe. Brussels, Belgium. ! protected escape routes using pressurization
2. AIVC. Carrié, F. R., Andersson, J., Wouters, P. 21. BS 476:Part 20:1987 Fire tests on building
1999. Improving ductwork - A time for tighter air materials and structures. Method for determination
distribution systems. Coventry, UK. of the fire resistance of elements of construction
3. AIVC. Liddament, M. 1996. A Guide to Energy- (general principles)
Efficient Ventilation. Coventry, UK. 22. Décret N°2000-1153 du 29 novembre 2000 relatif
4. AIVC. Limb, M. 1997. Ventilation and acoustics - aux caractéristiques thermiques des constructions.
An annotated bibliography. Coventry, UK. Journal Officiel de la République Française n°
5. AIVC. Limb, M. 2000. Ventilation air duct 277. 30 novembre 2000. - Arrêté du 29 novembre
cleaning – An annotated bibliography. Coventry, 2000 relatif aux caractéristiques thermiques des
UK. bâtiments nouveaux et des parties nouvelles de
6. AIVC. Malmström, T.- G. 2002. A Review of bâtiment. Journal Officiel de la République
International Literature Related to Ductwork for Française n° 277. 30 novembre 2000. - Annexe
Ventilation Systems. Brussels, Belgium. ! n°1 à l'arrêté portant approbation des méthodes de
7. ASHRAE Handbook. 1999. HVAC Applications. calcul Th-C et Th-E. Méthode de calcul Th-C
ASHRAE, Atlanta, GA. 23. European Committee for Standardization. EN
8. ASHRAE Handbook. 2000. HVAC Systems and 12599. Ventilation for buildings – Test procedures
Equipment. ASHRAE, Atlanta, GA. and measuring methods for handing over installed
9. ASHRAE Handbook. 2001. Fundamentals. ventilation and air conditioning systems. 2000
ASHRAE, Atlanta, GA. 24. European Committee for Standardization. EN
10. ASHRAE Handbook. 2002. Refrigeration. 13053. Ventilation for buildings – Air handling
ASHRAE, Atlanta, GA. units - Ratings and performance for units,
11. CIBSE Concise Handbook. 2001. CIBSE. London, components and sections. 2001
UK. 25. European Committee for Standardization. EN
12. Evans R. A. and Tsal R. J. 1996. Basic Tips for 13180. Ventilation for buildings – Ductwork -
Duct Design. Ashrae Journal, July 1996, pp 37-42 Dimensions and mechanical requirements for
13. Idel’Chik, I., 1960. Handbook of hydraulic flexible ducts. 2001
resistance. Coefficients of local resistance and of 26. European Committee for Standardization. EN
friction. Jerusalem: Israel Program for Scientific 1505. Ventilation for buildings – Sheet metal air
Translation. ducts and fittings with rectangular cross-section –
14. IEA Annex 35. 2000. State-of-the-art of Hybrid Dimensions. 1997
Ventilation. CD ver. 2.0. International Energy 27. European Committee for Standardization. EN
Agency 1506. Ventilation for buildings – Sheet metal air
15. Jagemar L. 1991. Energi ekonomi – Val av fläktar ducts and fittings with circular cross-section –
och kanalutformning. Document D10:1991, Dimensions. 1997
Department of building services engineering, 28. European Committee for Standardization. EN
Chalmers university of technology, Göteborg, 1886. Ventilation for buildings. Air handling units.
Sweden. Mechanical performance. 1998
16. Johansson P. and Svensson A. 1998. Metoder för 29. European Committee for Standardization. EN 779.
mätning av luftflöden i ventilationsinstallationer. Particulate air filters for general ventilation -
Handbook from Nordic Ventilation Group, Requirements, testing, marking. 1993
Byggforskningsrådet, Stockholm 30. European Committee for Standardization. ENV
17. Loyd S. 1996 Ventilation system hygiene - a 12097. Ventilation for buildings – Ductwork –
review [TN 18/92]. BSRIA. Bracknell, UK Requirements for ductwork components to
facilitate maintenance of ductwork systems. 1997
93
31. European Committee for Standardization. prEN 37. Nordtest Method NT FIRE 010 1980. Fire
12237. Ventilation for buildings - Ductwork - dampers: Efficiency to prevent fire spread. Espoo,
Strength and leakage of circular sheet metal ducts. Finland.
32. European Committee for Standardization. prEN 38. Norvegian Standard NS 3420. Utgave 1, 1999
1507. Ventilation for buildings – Ductwork - Beskrivelsestekster for bygg, anlegg,
Rectangular sheet metal air ducts - Requirements installasjoner. Pronorm AS, Oslo, Norway.
for testing strength and leakage 39. Richtlinie VDI 6022, 1998. Hygienebewußte
33. Eurovent 4/10 – 1996. In situ fractional Planung, Ausführung, Betrieb und Instandhaltung
efficiency determination of general ventilation Raumlufttechnischer Anlagen. Germany
filters. 40. The Swedish National Board of Housing, 1992,
34. Eurovent 2/2. 1996. Air leakage rate in sheet metal Building and Planning. General guidelines
air distribution systems. Eurovent / Cecomaf. 1992:3E. Checking the performance of ventilation
35. HVCA. DW/144. 1998. Specifications for Sheet systems. Sweden.
Metal Ductwork Heating and Ventilating 41. VVS AMA 98. 1998. Allmän material- och
Contractor’s Association. London, UK. arbetsbeskrivning för VVS-tekniska arbeten. AB
36. NKB 61E. 1991. Indoor climate – Air Quality. Svensk Byggtjänst. Stockholm. Copyright 1998.
Nordic Committee on Building Regulations. NKB
Publication N° 61E.
94
14.3 QUANTITIES AND UNITS
Symbol Quantity Units
∆p pressure difference Pa
∆pref reference pressure difference Pa
A surface area m2
C leakage coefficient (m /s)/Pan
3
Cd discharge coefficient -
cp specific heat capacity at constant pressure J/(kg K)
cpa specific heat capacity of dry air at constant pressure J/(kg K)
cpw specific heat capacity of water vapour at constant pressure J/(kg K)
E energy J
ELAref effective leakage area at ∆pref m2
fref leakage factor at ∆pref (m3/s)/m2
h specific enthalpy J/kg
K leakage coefficient normalised by duct surface area (m3/s)/(m2 Pan)
l, L length m
Lθ latent heat of vaporisation at temperature θ J/kg
m mass kg
n flow exponent -
p pressure Pa
P power W
qm mass flow rate kg/s
qV volumetric flow rate m3/s
t time s
T temperature K
U estimated U-value W/(m2 K)
x vapour ratio kg/kg
Φ heat flux W
o
θ temperature C
ρ density kg/m3
ρa air density kg/m3
Symbol Meaning
∝ is proportional to
95
Organisations which are participating in the AIRWAYS project
Belgium
Belgian Building Research Institute
Division of Building Physics and Indoor Climate
Boulevard Poincaré 79
B-1060 Brussels
Belgium
Tel : +32 2 655 77 11
Fax : +32 2 653 07 29
E-mail : [email protected] - [email protected]
Website : http://www.bbri.be
France
Ecole Nationale des Travaux Publics de l'Etat (ENTPE)
Département Génie Civil et Bâtiment - URA CNRS 1652
Rue Maurice Audin 2
F-69518 Vaulx-en-Velin
France
AIRWAYS
Tel : +33 4 72047261
Fax : +33 4 72047041
E-mail : [email protected]
Website : http://www.entpe.fr
Sweden
Royal Institute of Technology
Brinellvägen 34
S-10044 Stockholm
Sweden
Tel : +46 8 790 7836
Fax : +46 8 411 84 32
Website : http://www.kth.se/index-eng.html
Sweden
Scandiaconsult
Kapellgränd 7
P.O. Box 4205
S-10265 Stockholm
Sweden
Tel : +46 8 615 62 15
Fax : +46 8 702 19 25
Website : http://www.scc.se

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4.

Source book for efficient

• Royal Institute of Technology, KTH • Scandiaconsult

More information on AIRWAYS partners !

© Copyright 2002 AIRWAYS Partners

The AIRWAYS project was funded in part by the

The authors wish to thank the following organizations

! Link to an other document

" Link to an external website

In other countries the awareness is not as clearly

1.8 HIGHLIGHTS OF THE BOOK

• Chapter 2 gives an overview of different

An air distribution system generally consists of a

2.1 VENTILATION PRINCIPLES Figure 2. Schematic representation of E system. The

called “Fan assisted balanced ventilation”)

Among those types, it is customary to distinguish

Hybrid ventilation systems are another type of

minimise pressure flow rates

• Pollution control at • Increased infiltration considered

• No contamination • Increased exfiltration pressurised to avoid considered

(but no heat recovery walls

• Possible to combine which implies greater regions) significant

Northen Balanced mechanical ventilation with

2.2.1 Straight rigid ducts

Their cross-section is circular, rectangular, or “flat-

Figure 7: Tee junction.

Figure 4. Straight rigid spirally-wound duct.

2.2.2 Flexible ducts

Their cross-section is circular. Their interior surface is

Figure 5. Insulated flexible duct with external vapour

2.2.3 Bends and branches

2.2.6 Smoke / fire dampers

Figure 10 : Fire damper for circular ducting.

2.2.7 Turning vanes

Figure 11 : Schematic representation of turning vane

2.2.8 Regulating dampers

Figure 14: Bend with separate outlet for cleaning.

Figure 15 : Air handling unit for an SE system. The

Figure 18. Straight double-cased insulated duct.

Figure 16. Plenum box connected to an air terminal

3.1 WHY BOTHER?

Figure 19 Noise transmitted between two rooms via

There is an increasing demand in many countries to

Figure 22 : The airflow differs between winter and

In a high rise building the airflow could otherwise

Airtightness Fan energy use, convective losses, ventilation losses

Insulation Conduction losses

What to pay Low pressure Fan energy use

The right amount of air, to the right place,

Heat recovery Fan energy use, convective and conduction losses

Figure 23 : Energy saving opportunities in duct systems.

Heat flow rate (W/m)

4.5 ENERGY-EFFICIENT FANS AND

4.8 HEAT RECOVERY

Given these losses and the increased initial cost for

• In the case of airtightness, classes A, B, C and D

Part of the needs

It is important to stress that the ductwork market is

Test of 10% of ductwork